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A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
1
y
A YEAR
AMONGST THE PERSIANS
IMPRESSIONS AS TO THE LIFE, CHARACTER, AND THOUGHT OF
THE PEOPLE OF PERSIA, RECEIVED DURING TWELVE
MONTHS' RESIDENCE IN THAT COUNTRY
IN THE YEARS 1887-8
BY
EDWAED G. BEOWNE, M.A., M.B.
FELLOW OF PEMBROKE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND LECTURER IN PERSIAN TO THE
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
TRANSLATOR OF ' A TRAVELLER'S NARRATIVE WRITTEN TO ILLUSTRATE THE EPISODE OF THE bIb '
AND OF THE ' NEW HISTORY OF MfRZA Aht MUHAMMAD THE BAB.
LONDON
ADAM AND CHAELES BLACK
1893
EXOEDIUM
(Dedicated to the Persian Eeader only)
In the name of God, the Merciful, the Forgiving
Praise be to God, the Maker of Land and Sea, the Lord of " ^BE,' and it shall be" :^ Who brought me forth from the place of my birth, obedient to His saying, " Journey through the Earth " : ^ Who guarded me from the dangers of the ivaij with the shield of " No fear shall be upon them and no dismay " ; ^ Who caused me to accomplish my quest and thereafter to return and rest, after I had beheld the wonders of the East and of the West !
But Afterwards. Thus saith the humblest and umoorthiest of His servants, who least descrvcth His Bounty, and most necdeth His Clemency (may God forgive his failing and heal his ailing !) : When from Kirmdn and the confines of Bam I had returned again to the city on the Gam, and ceased for a while to tvander, and began to muse and ponder on the lands where I had been and the marvels I had therein seen, and hovj in pursuit of knowledge I had foregone the calm seclusion of college, and through days vmrm and weary, and nights dark and dreary, now hungry and now athirst I had tasted, of the best and of the ivorst, experiencing hot and cold, and holding converse with young and old, and had climbed the mountain and crossed the waste now slowly and now with haste, until I had made an end of toil, and set my foot upon my native soil ; then, ivishful to imimrt the gain which I had won with labour and harvested loith pain {for " Travel is trcovail " "^ sag the sages), I resolved to write these p)ages, and, taking ink and pen, to impart to my fcllo%v-men what I had witnessed and understood of things evil and, gnod.
Now seeing that to fail and fall is the fate of all, and to claim exemption from the lot of humanity a proof of pride and vanity, and somewhat of mercy our common need ; therefore let such as read, and errors detect, either ignore and neglect, or correct and conceal tlvem rather than revile and reveal them. For he is lenient who is wise, and from his brother'' s failings averts his eyes, being loath to hurt or harm, nay, meeting bane with halm. Wa's-SAlAm.
^ Kur'dn, ii, 111 ; iii, 42, etc. - Kur'au, yi, 11 ; xxvii, 71, etc.
^ Kur 'fin, ii, 36, 59, 106, etc.
■* So Burton has well translated the Arabic proverb: '' Es-scferu hit' at"-" mina 's-sakar." ("Travel is a portion of hell-fire.")
I
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGE
Introductory ...... 1
CHAPTEE II
From England to the Persian Frontier . . . 17
CHAPTER III
From the Persian Frontier to TabrIz ... 46
CHAPTER IV
From TABRfz to Teheran . . . . .65
CHAPTER V Teheran ....... 83
CHAPTER VI
Mysticism, Metaphysic, and Magic . . . .122
viii .-/ YF.AR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
LUArTER VII
rAfiE
From TeiiekXn to Isfahan. . . . .154
CHAPTER VIII IsfahXn ....... 199
CHAPTER IX From Isfahan to SHfRiz . . . . .220
CHAPTER X Shiraz ...... 263
CHAPTER XI
ShIraz (cojitinued) . . . . . .298
CHAPTER XII From SnfRAZ to Yezd . . . , .338
CHAPTER XIII ^^^^ •••■•.. 363
CHAPTER XIV Yezd (continued) • • . . . 304
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER XV
PAGE
From Yezd to Kirman . . . .' .418
CHAPTER XVI
Kirman Society . . . . . .434
CHAPTER XVH
Amongst the Kalandars . . . . . . 486
CHAPTER XVHI
From Kirman to England . . . . .540
CHAPTEE I
INTRODUCTORY
" El-' ilmio 'ilmdn: 'ilmu 'l-adyan, wa 'ibnu 'l-abddii." " Science is twofold : Theology, and Medicine."
I HAVE SO often been asked how I first came to occupy myself with the study of Eastern languages that I have decided to devote the opening chapter of this book to answering this question, and to describing as succinctly as possible the process by which, not without difficulty and occasional discouragement, I suc- ceeded, ere ever I set foot in Persia, in obtaining a sufficient I mastery over the Persian tongue to enable me to employ it with some facility as an instrument of conversation, and to explore with pleasure and profit the enchanted realms of its vast and varied literature. I have not arrived at this decision without some hesitation and misuivino- for I do not wish to obtrude myself unnecessarily on the attention of my readers, and one can hardly be autobiographical without running the risk of being egotistical. But then the same thing applies with equal force to all descriptions intended for publication of any part of one's personal experiences — such, for instance, as one's own travels. Believing that the observations, impressions, and experiences of my twelve months' sojourn in Persia during the years 1887-8 may be of interest to others besides myself, I have at length determined to publish them. It is too late now to turn squeamish about the use of the pronoun of the first person. I will be as sparing of its use as I can, but use it I must.
-•/ YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
\ ini;^'lit, iiuleiHl, have given to this book the form of a systematic treatise on Persia, a phan which for some time I did actually entertain ; but against this plan three reasons finally decided me. First! i/, that my publishers expressed a preference for the narrative form, which, they believed, would render the book more readable. Secondly, that for the more ambitious project of writing a systematic treatise I did not feel myself prepared and could not prepare myself without the expenditure of time only to be obtained by the sacrifice of other work which seemed to me of greater importance. Thirdly, that the recent publication of the Hon. U. N. Curzon's encyclopedic work on Persia will for some time to come prevent any similar attempt on the part of any one else who is not either remark- ably rash or exceedingly well-informed. Moreover the question " Wiiat first made you take up Persian ? " when addressed to an Englishman who is neither engaged in, nor destined for, an Eastern career deserves an answer. In France, Germany, or Kussia such a question would hardly be asked ; but in England a knowledge of Eastern languages is no stepping-stone to diplomatic employment in Eastern countries ; and though there exist in the Universities and the British Museum posts more desirable than this to the student of Oriental languages, such posts are few, and, when vacant, hotly competed for. In spite of every discouragement, there are, I rejoice to say, almost every year a few young Englishmen who, actuated solely by love of knowledge and desire to extend the frontiers of science in a domain which still contains vast tracts of unexplored country, devote themselves to this study. To them too often have I had to repeat the words of warning given to me by my honoured friend and teacher, the late Dr. William Wright, an Arabic scholar whom not Cambridge or England only, but Europe, mourns with heart-felt sorrow and remembers with legitimate pride. It was in the year 1884, so fr.r as I re- member; I was leaving Cambridge with mingled feelings of sorrow and of hope : sorrow, because I was to bid farewell (for ever, as I then expected) to the University and the College to which I owe a debt of gratitude beyond the power of words to describe ; hope, because the honours I had just gained in the Indian Languages Tripos made me sanguine of obtaining
INTRODUCTORY
some employment which would enable me to pursue with advantage and success a study to which I was devotedly attached, and which even medicine (for which I was then destined), with all its charms and far-reaching interests, could not rival in my affections. This hope, in answer to an inquiry as to what I intended to do on leaving Cambridge, I one day confided to Dr. Wright. No one, as I well knew, could better sympathise with it or gauge its chances of fulfilment, and from no one could I look for kinder, wiser, and more prudent counsel. And this was the advice he gave me — " If," said he, " you have private means which render you independent of a profession, then pursue your Oriental studies, and fear not that they will disappoint you, or fail to return you a rich reward of happiness and honour. But if you cannot afford to do this, and are obliged to consider how you may earn a livelihood, then devote yourself wholly to medicine, and abandon, save as a relaxation for your leisure moments, the pursuit of Oriental letters. The posts for which such knowledge will fit you are few, and, for the most part, poorly endowed, neither can you hope to obtain them till you have worked and waited for many years. And from the Government you must look for nothing, for it has long- shown, and still continues to show, an increasing indisposition to offer the slightest encouragement to the study of Eastern languages."
A rare piece of good fortune has in my case falsified a pre- diction of which Dr. Wright himself, though I knew it not till long afterwards, did all in his power to avert the accomplish- ment ; but in general it still holds true, and I write these words, not for myself, but for those young English Orientalists whose disappointments, struggles, and unfulfilled, though legitimate, hopes I have so often been compelled to watch with keen but impotent sorrow and sympathy. Often I reflect with bitterness that England, though more directly interested in the East than any other European country save Eussia, not only offers less encouragement to her sons to engage in the study of Oriental languages than any other great European nation, but can find no employment even for those few who, notwithstanding every discouragement, are impelled by their own inclination to this study, and who, by diligence, zeal, and natural aptitude, attain
A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
proncioncy tlu'ivin. ITow different is it in Franco ! There, not to mention the more aeademic and itiirely scicnitihc conrses of leotnres on Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Zend, I'ehlevi, Persian, Sanskrit, and on Egyptian, Assyrian, and Semitic arch;eology and phikilogy, delivered reguhirly by savants of European reputation at the College de France and the Sorbonne (all of which lectures are freely open to persons of either sex and any nationality), there is a special school of Oriental languages (now within a year or two of its centenary) where practical instruction of the best imaginable kind is given (also gratui- tously) by European professors, assisted in most cases by native rcpHitcnrs, in literary and colloquial Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Malay, Javanese, Armenian, Modern Greek, Chinese, Japanese, Annamite, Hindustani, Tamil, liussian, and Eoumanian, as well as in the geography, history, and jurisprudence of the states of the extreme East. To these lectures (the best, I repeat, with- out fear of contradiction, which can be imagined) any student, French or foreign, is admitted free of charge. And any student who has followed them diligently for three years, and passed the periodical examinations to the satisfaction of his teachers, provided that he be a French subject, may confidently reckon on receiving sooner or later from the Government such employ- ment as his tastes, training, and attainments have fitted him for. The manifold advantages of this admirable system, alike to the State and the individual, must be obvious to the most obtuse, and need no demonstration. All honour to France for the signal services which she has rendered to the cause of learning ! May she long maintain that position of eminence in science which she has so nobly won, and which she so deservedly occupies ! And to vis English, too, may she become, in this respect at least, an exemplar and a pattern !
Now, having unburdened my mind on this matter, I will recount briefly how I came to devote myself to the study of Oriental languages. I was originally destined to become an engineer ; and therefore, partly because — at any rate sixteen years ago — the teaching of the " modern side " was still in a most rudimentary state, partly because I most eagerly desired emancipation from a life entirely uncongenial to me, I left school at the age of fifteen and a half, with little knowledge and
INTRODUCTORY 5
less love of Latin and Greek. I have since then learned better to appreciate the value of these languages, and to regret the slenderness of my classical attainments. Yet the method according to which they are generally taught in English public schools is so unattractive, and, in my opinion, so inefficient, that had I been subjected to it much longer I should probably have come to loathe all foreign languages, and to shudder at the very sight of a grammar. It is a good thing for the student of a language to study its grammar when he has learned to read and understand it, just as it is a good thing for an artist to study the anatomy of the human body when he has learned to sketch a figure or catch the expression of a face ; but for one to seek to obtain mastery over a language by learning rules of accidence and syntax is as though he should regard the dissecting-room as the single and sufficient portal of entrance to the Academy. How little a knowledge of grammar has to do with facility in the use of language is shown by the fact that comparatively few have studied the grammar of that language over which they have the greatest mastery, while amongst all the Latin and Greek scholars in this country those who could make an extempore speech, dash off an impromptu note, or carry on a sustained conversation in either language, are in a small minority.
Then, amongst other evil things connected with it, is the magnificent contempt for all non-English systems of pronuncia- tion which the ordinary public-school system of teaching Latin and Greek encourages. Granted that the pronunciation of Greek is very different in the Athens of to-day from what it was in the time of Plato or Euripides, and that Cicero would not understand, or would understand with difficulty, the Latin of the Vatican, does it follow that both languages should be pronounced exactly like English, of all spoken tongues the most anomalous in pronunciation ? What should we think of a Chinaman who, because he was convinced that the pronuncia- tion of English in the fourteenth century differed widely from that of the nineteenth, deliberately elected to read Chaucer with the accent and intonation of Chinese ? If Latin and Greek alone were concerned it would not so much matter, but the influence of this doctrine of pan-Anglican pronunciation
A YEAR A.VONGST THE PERSIANS
too often extends to French and rferman as well. The s])iril engendered by it is finely di.si)layed in Miese two sayinj^s wliicli I roinenihor to have heard repeated — " Anyone can understand English if they choose, ])n)vided you talk loud enough." " Always mistrust an Englishman who talks French like a Frenchman."
Apart from the general failure to invest the books read with any human, historical, or literary interest, or to treat them as expressions of the thoughts, feelings, and aspirations of our fellow-creatures instead of as grammatical tread-mills, there is another reason why the public -school system of teaching languages commonly fails to impart much useful knowledge of them. When any intelligent being who is a free acreut wishes to obtain an efficient knowledge of a foreij^n language as quickly as possible, how does he proceed ? He begins with an easy text, and first obtains the general sense of each sentence and the meaning of each particular word from his teacher. In default of a teacher, he falls back on the best available substitute, namely, a good translation and a dictionary. Looking out words in a dictionary is, however, mere waste of time, if their meaning can be ascertained in any other way ; so that he will use this means only when compelled to do so. Having ascertained the meaning of each word, he will note it down either in the margin of the book or elsewhere, so that he may not have to ask it or look it out again. Then he will read the passage which he has thus studied over and over again, if possible aloud, so that tongue, ear, and mind may be simultaneously familiarised with the new instrument of thought and communication of which he desires to possess himself, until he perfectly understands the meaning without mentally translating it into Enuiish, and until the foreic^n words, no longer strange, evoke in his mind, not their English equivalents, but the ideas which they connote. This is the proper way to learn a language, and it is opposed at almost every point to the public-school method, which regards the use of " cribs " as a deadly sin, and substitutes parsing and construing for reading and understanding.
Notwithstanding all this, I am well aware that the advocates of this method have in their armoury another and a
INTRODUCTORY
more potent argument. " A boy does not go to scliool," say they, " to learn Latin and Greek, but to learn to confront disagreeable duties with equanimity, and to do what is distasteful to him with cheerfulness." To this I have nothing to say ; it is unanswerable and final. If boys are sent to school to learn what the word disagreeable means, and to realise that the most tedious monotony is perfectly compatible with the most acute misery, and that the most assiduous labour, if it be not wisely directed, does not necessarily secure the attainment of the object ostensibly aimed at, then, indeed, does the public school offer the surest means of attaining this end. The most wretched day of my life, except the day when I left college, was the day I went to school. During the earlier portion of my school life I believe that I nearly fathomed the possibilities of human misery and despair. I learned then (what I am thankful to say I have unlearned since) to be a pessimist, a misanthrope, and a cynic ; and I have learned since, what I did not understand then, that to know by rote a quantity of grammatical rules is in itself not much more useful than to know how often each letter of the alphabet occurs in Paradim Lost, or how many separate stones went to the building of the Great Pyramid.^
It was the Turkish war with Eussia in 1877-8 that first attracted my attention to the East, about which, till that time, I had known and cared nothing. To the young, war is always interesting, and I watched the progress of this struggle with eager attention. At first my proclivities were by no means for the Turks ; but the losing side, more especially when it continues to struggle gallantly against defeat, always has a claim on our sympathy, and moreover the cant of the anti- Turkish party in England, and the wretched attempts to confound questions of abstract justice with party politics, disgusted me beyond measure. Ere the close of the war I
■^ Many of my readers, even of those who may be inclined to agree with me as to the desirability of modifying the teaching of our public schools, will blame me for expressing myself so strongly. The value of a public-school education in the development of character cannot be denied, and in the teaching also great improvements have, I believe, been made within the last ten or fifteen years. But as far as my own experience goes, I do not feel that I have spoken at all too strongly.
8 A yi:AR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
woulil lirtve ilied to save Turkey, and I mourned the fall of riovna as tliou^h it had boon a disaster indicted on my own country. And so gradually pity turned to admiration, and admiration to enthusiasm, until tlie Turks became in my eyes veritable heroes, and the desire to identify myself with tlicir cause, make my dwelling amongst tliem, and unite with them in the defence of their land, possessed me heart and soul. At the age of sixteen such enthusiasm more easily estal dishes itself in the heart, and, while it lasts (for it often fades as quickly as it bloomed), exercises a more absolute and un- controlled sway over the mind than at a more advanced age. Even though it be transitory, its effects (as in my case) may be permanent.
So now my whole ambition came to be this : how I might become in time an officer in the Turkish army. And the plan which I proposed to myself was to enter first the English army, to remain there till I had learned my pro- fession and attained the rank of captain, then to resign my commission and enter the service of the Ottoman Government, which, as I understood, gave a promotion of two grades, vSo wild a project will doubtless move many of my readers to mirth, and some to indignation, but, such as it was, it was for a time paramount in my mind, and its influence outlived it. Its accomplishment, however, evidently needed time ; and, as my enthusiasm demanded some immediate object, I resolved at once to begin the study of the Turkish language.
Few of my readers, probably, have had occasion to embark on this study, or even to consider what steps they would take if a desire to do so suddenly came upon them. I may therefore here remark that for one not resident in the metropolis it is far from easy to discover anything about the Tui-kish language, and almost impossible to find a teacher. However, after much seeking and many enquiries, I succeeded in obtaining a copy of Barker's Turldsh Grammar. Into this I plunged with enthusiasm. I learned Turkish verbs in the old school fashion, and blundered through the " Pleasantries of Ellioja Nasru'd-Din Efendi " ; but so ignorant was I, and so involved is the Ottoman construction, that it took me some time to discover that the language is written from right to
INTRODUCTORY
left; while, true to the pan -Anglican system on which I have already animadverted, I read my Turkish as though it had been English, pronouncing, for example, the article hir and the substantive her exactly the same, and as though both, instead of neither, rhymed with the English words fir and fur. And so I bungled on for a while, making slow but steady progress, and wasting much time, but with undiminished enthusiasm ; for which I was presently rewarded by discovering a teacher. This was an Irisli clergyman, who had, I believe, served as a private in the Crimean War, picked up some Turkish, attracted attention by his proficiency in a language of which very few Englishmen have any knowledge, and so gained employment as an interpreter. After the war he was ordained a clergyman of the Church of England, and remained for some years at Constantinople as a missionary. I do not know how his work prospered ; but if he succeeded in winning from the Turks half the sympathy and love with which they inspired him, his success must have been great indeed. When I discovered him, he had a cure of souls in the Consett iron- district, having been driven from his last parish by the resentment of his flock (Whigs, almost to a man), which he had incurred by venturing publicly to defend the Turks at a time when they were at the very nadir of unpopularity, and when the outcry about the " Bulgarian atrocities " was at its height. So the very religious and humane persons who composed his congregation announced to his vicar their in- tention of withdrawing their subscriptions and support from the church so long as the " Bashi-bozouk " (such, as he informed me, not without a certain pride, was the name they had given him) occupied its pulpit. So there was nothing for it but that he should go. Isolated in the uncongenial environment to which he was transferred, he was, I think, almost as eager to teach me Turkish as I was to learn it, and many a pleasant hour did I pass in his little parlour listening with inexhaustible delight to the anecdotes of his life in Constantinople which he loved to tell. Peace be to his memory ! He died in Africa, once more engaged in mission work, not long after I went to Cambridge.
One of the incidental charms of Orientalism is the kind-
lo A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
ness and syin]>;ithy often sliowii l)y scholars of the greatest ilistinction and the higlicst attainments to the young beginner, even when he has no introcUiction save the pass -word of a connnon and niueh-loved pursuit. Of tliis I can recall many instances, but it is suilicient to mention the first in my experience. Expecting to be in, or within reach of, London for a time, I was anxious to improve the occasion by prosecuting my Turkish studies (for the " Bashi-bozouk " had recently left Consett for Hull), and to this end wished to find a proficient teacher. As I knew not how else to set al)out this, I finally, and somewhat audaciously, determined to write to the late Sir James (then Mr.) Eedhouse (whose name the study of his valuable writings on the Ottoman language had made familiar to me as that of a patron saint), asking for his advice and help. This letter I addressed to the care of his publishers ; and in a few days I received, to my intense delight, a most kind reply, in which he, the first Turkish scholar in Europe probably, not only gave me all the informa- tion I required, but invited me to pay him a visit whenever I came to London, an invitation of which, as may be readily believed, I availed myself at the earliest possible opportunity. And so gradually I came to know others who were able and willing to help me in my studies, including several Turkish gentlemen attached to the Ottoman Embassy in London, from some of whom I received no little kindness.
But if my studies prospered, it was otherwise with the somewhat chimerical project in which they had originated. My father did not wish me to enter the army, but proposed medicine as an alternative to engineering. As the former profession seemed more compatible with my aspirations than the latter, I eagerly accepted his offer. A few days after this decision had been arrived at, he consulted an eminent physician, who was one of his oldest friends, as to my future education. " If you wanted to make your son a doctor," said my father, " where would you send him ? " And the answer, given without a moment's hesitation, was, " To Cambridge."
So to Cambridge I went in October 1879, which date marks for me the beginning of a new and most happy era of life; for I suppose that a man who cannot be happy at the
INTRO D UCTOR V 1 1
University must be incapable of happiness. Here my medical studies occupied, of course, the major part of my time and attention, and that right pleasantly ; for, apart from their intrinsic interest, the teaching was masterly, and even subjects at first repellent can be made attractive when taught by a master possessed of grasp, eloquence, and enthusiasm, just as a teacher who lacks these qualities will make the most interesting subjects appear devoid of charm. Yet still I found time to devote to Eastern languages. Turkish, it is true, was not then to be had at Cambridge ; but 1 had already discovered that for further progress in this some knowledge of Arabic and Persian was requisite ; and to these I determined to turn my attention. During my first year I therefore began to study Arabic with the late Professor Palmer, whose extraordinary and varied abilities are too well known to need any celebration on my part. No man had a higher ideal of knowledge in the matter of languages, or more original (and, as I believe, sounder) views as to the method of learning them. These views I have already set forth substantially and summarily ; and I will therefore say no more about them in this place, save tliat I absorbed them greedily, and derived from them no small advantage, learning by their application more of Arabic in one term than I had learned of Latin or Greek during five and a half years, and this notwithstanding the fact that I could devote to it only a small portion of my time.
I becran Persian in the Long Vacation of 1880. Neither Professor Palmer nor Professor Cowell was resident in Cambridge at that time ; but I obtained the assistance of an undergraduate of Indian nationality, who, tliough the son of Hindoo parents converted to Christianity, had an excellent knowledge not only of Persian and Sanskrit, but of Arabic. To this knowledge, which was my admiration and envy, he for his part seemed to attach little importance ; all his pride was in playing the fiddle, on which, so far as I could judge, he was a very indifferent performer. But as it gave him pleasure to have a listener, a kind of tacit iTuderstanding grew up that when he had helped me for an hour to read the Gulistdn, I in return should sit and listen for a while to his fiddling, which I did with such appearance of pleasure as I could command.
12 .-/ YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
For two years after tliis — tliat is to say, till I took my dciirec — such work as 1 did in Persian and Arabic was done chietly by myself, though I managed to run up to London for au afternoon once a fortnight or so for a Turkish lesson, till the Lent term of 1881, when the paramount claims of that most exacting of taskmasters, the river, took from me for some weeks the right to call my afternoons my own. And when the Lent races were over, I had to think seriously about my approaching tripos ; while a promise made to me by my father, that if I succeeded in passing both it and the examination for the second M.Ij. at the end of my third year {i.e. in June 1882), I should spend two months of the succeeding Long Vacation in Constantinople, determined me to exert all my efforts to win this dazzling bribe. This resolution cost me a good deal, but I was amply rewarded for my self-denial when, in July 1882, I at length beheld the minarets of Stamboul, and heard the Muezzin call the true believers to prayer. I have heard people express themselves as disappointed with Constantinople. I suppose that, wherever one goes, one sees in great measure what one expects to see (because there is good and evil in all things, and the eye discerns but one when the mind is occupied by a pre-conceived idea) ; but I at least suffered no disenchantment, and returned to England with my enthusiasm for the East not merely undiminished, but, if possible, intensified.
The two succeeding years were years of undiluted pleasure, for I was still at Cambridge, and was now able to devote my whole time to the study of Oriental languages. As I intended to become a candidate for the Indian Languages Tripos in 1884, I was obliged to begin the study of Hindustani, a language from which I never could succeed in deriving much pleasure. During this period I became acquainted with a very learned but very eccentric old Persian, Mirza Muhammad Bakir, of Bawanat in Ears, surnamed Ibrahim Jdn Mu attar. Having wandered through half the world, learned (and learned w^ell) half-a-dozen languages, and been successively a Shi'ite Muhammadan, a dervish, a Christian, an atheist, and a Jew, he had finished by elaborating a religious system of his own, which he called " Islamo- Christianity," to the celebration (I
INTRODUCTORY
can hardly say the ehiciclation) of which iu English tracts and Persian poems, composed in the most lizarre style, he devoted the greater part of his time, talents, and money. He was in every way a most remarkable man, and one whom it was impossible not to respect and like, in S23ite of his appalling loquacity, his unreason, his disputatiousness, his utter impractica- bility. I never saw anyone who lived so entirely in a fantastic ideal world of his own creation. He was totally indifferent to his own temporal interests ; cared nothing for money, personal comfort, or the favour of the powerful ; and often alienated his acquaintances by violent attacks on their most cherished beliefs, and drove away his friends by the ceaseless torrent of his eloquence. He lived in a squalid little room in Limehouse, surrounded by piles of dusty books, mostly theological treatises in Persian and Arabic, with a sprinkling of Hebrew and English volumes, amongst which last Carlyle's Sartor Mcsartus and Heroes and Ilcro-Worshij) occupied the place of honour. Of these, however, he made but little use, for he generally wrote when alone, and talked when he could get anyone to listen to him. I tried to persuade him to read with me those portions of the Masnavi and the Divan of Hdfiz set for my examination, and offered to remunerate him for his trouble ; but this plan failed on its first trial. We had not read for twenty minutes when he suddenly pushed away the Hdfiz, dragged out from a drawer in the rickety little table a pile of manuscript, and said, " I like my own poetry better than this, and if you want me to teach you Persian you must learn it as I x^lease. I don't want your money, but I do want you to understand my thoughts about religion. You can understand Hafiz by yourself, but you cannot understand my poetry unless I explain it to you." This was certainly true : allusions to grotesque visions in which 'figured grass-eating lions, bears, yellow demons, Gog and Magog, " Crusaders," and Hebrew and Arab patriarchs, saints, and warriors, were jumbled up with current politics, personal reminiscences. Rabbinic legends, mystical rhapsodies, denunciations, prophecies, old Persian mythology, Old Testament theology, and Kur'anic exegesis in a manner truly bewildering, the whole being clothed in a Persian so quaint, so obscure, and so replete with rare, dialectical, and
14 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
foreign words, that many verses were incomprehensible even to educated IVrsians, to whom, for the most part, tlie " Little Sun of Loudon" {Sliumcysa-i-Landaniyya — so he called tlie longest of his published poems) was a source of terror. One of my Persian friends (for I made acquaintance about this time with several young Persians who were studying in London) would never consent to visit me until he had received an assurance that the poet-prophet-philosopher of Bawan;it would be out of the way. I, however, by dint of long listening and much patience, not without some weariness, learned from him much that was of value to me besides the correct Persian pronuncia- tion. For I had originally acquired from my Indian friend the erroneous and unlovely pronunciation current in India, which I now abandoned with all possible speed, believing the " French of Paris " to be preferable to the " French of Stratford atte Bowe."
Towards the end of 1884 Mirza Bakir left London for the East with his surviving children, a daughter of about eighteen and a son of about ten years of age, both of whom had been brought up away from him in the Christian religion, and neither of whom knew any language but English. The girl's failing health (for she was threatened with consumption) was the cause of his departure. I had just left Cambridge, and entered at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, where I found my time and energies fully occupied with my new work. Tired as I often was, however, when I got away from the wards, I had to make almost daily pilgrimages to Limehouse, where I often remained till nearly midnight ; for Mirza Bakir refused to leave London till I had finished reading a versified commentary on the Kur'cin on which he had been engaged for some time, and of which he wished to bestow the manuscript on me as a keepsake. " My daughter will die," said he, " as the doctors tell me, unless she leaves for Beyrout in a short time, and it is you who prevent me from taking her there ; for I will not leave London until you have understood my book." Argument was useless with such a visionary ; so, willing or no, I had to spend every available hour in the little room at Limehouse, ever on the watch to check the interminable digressions to which the reading of the poem continually gave rise. At last it was
INTRODUCTORY 15
finished, and the very next day, if I remember rightly, Mirza
Bakir started with his children for the East. I never saw him
again, though I continued to correspond with him so long as
he was at Beyrout, whence, I think, he was finally expelled by
the Ottoman Government as a firebrand menacing the peace of
the community. He then went with his son to Persia (his
daughter had died previously at Beyrout), whence news of his
death reached me a year or two ago.
And now for three years (1884-87) it was only an
occasional leisure hour that I could snatch from my medical
studies for a chat with my Persian friends (who, though they
knew English well for the most part, were kind enough to talk
for my benefit their own language), or for quiet communing in
the cool vaulted reading-room of the British Museum with my
favourite Siifi writers, whose mystical idealism, which had long
since cast its spell over my mind, now supplied me with a
powerful antidote against the pessimistic tendencies evoked by
the daily contemplation of misery and pain. This period was
far from being an unhappy one, for my work, if hard, was full
of interest ; and if in the hospital I saw much that was sad,
much that made me wonder at man's clinging to life (since
to the vast majority life seemed but a succession of pains,
struggles, and sorrows), on the other hand I saw much to
strengthen my faith in the goodness and nobility of human
nature. Never before or since have I realised so clearly the
immortality, greatness, and virtue of the spirit of man, or the
misery of its earthly environment : it seemed to me like a
prince in rags, ignorant alike of his birth and his rights, but to
whom is reserved a glorious heritage. No wonder, then, that
the Pantheistic idealism of the Masnavi took hold of me, or
that such words as these of Hafiz thrilled me to the very
soul :
" Turd zi kungara-i- arsh mt-zanand safir: Na-ddnamat ki dar In khdkddn die uftddast."
" They are calling to thee from the pinnacles of the throne of God : I know not what hath befallen thee in this dust-heap " (the world).
Even my medical studies, strange as it may appear, favoured the development of this habit of mind ; for physiology, when it does not encourage materialism, encourages mysticism ; and
l6 A YKAR AAfONGST THE PERSIANS
nothing so mucli tends to shake one's faitli in tlie reality ol' the objective ^vol•ld as tlie exaniinalion of certain of" the subjective phenomena of mental and nervous disorders.
r.ul now this period, too, uas drawing to a close, and my dreams of visiting Persia, even when tlicir accomplislnnent seemed most unlikely, were rapidly approaching fulfilment. The hopes with which I had left Cambridge had been damped by repeated disappointments. I had thought that the know- ledge I had acquired of Persian, Turkish, and Arabic might enable me to find employment in the Consular Service, but had learned from curt ofificial letters, referring me to printed official regulations, that this was not so, that these languages were not recognised as subjects of examination, and that not they, but German, Greek, Spanish, and Italian were the quali- ficatious by which one might hope to become a consul in Western Asia. The words of Dr. Wright's warning came back to me, and I acknowledged their justice. To my j)ro- fessional studies, I felt, and not to my linguistic attainments, must I look to earn my livelihood.
I had passed my final examinations at the College of Surgeons, the College of Physicians, and the University of Cambridge, received from the two former, with a sense of exultation which I well remember, the diplomas authorising me to practise, and was beginning to consider what my next step should be, when the luck of which I had despaired came to me at last. Eeturning to my rooms on the evening of May 30, 1887, I found a telegram lying on the table. I opened it with indifference, which changed, in the moment I grasped its purport, to ecstatic joy. I had that day been elected a Fellow of my College.
CHAPTEE II
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER
" Fa md adri, idhd yammamtu ardh"'^ Uridu 'l-khayra, ayyuhumd yal'ml : A'' al-khayru 'lladJii ana abtaghlhi, Ami 'sh-s7ia7TU 'lladhl huwa yabtarjhini."
" And I know not, when bound for the land of my quest, if my portion shall be The good which I hope for and seek, or the evil that seeketh for me."
— {Al-Muthakkibu' l-'Abdi. )
So at last I was really to go to Persia. About that there could be no question. For I had long determined to go if I got the chance ; and now, not only had the opportunity come, but, in view of the probability that the University would soon require a resident teacher of Persian, I was urged by my friends at Cambridge to spend the first year of my fellowship in the way which would best qualify me for this post. Yet, as the time for my departure approached, a strange shrinking from this journey which I had so much desired — a shrinking to which I look back with shame and wonder, and for which I can in no wise account — took possession of me. It arose partly, I suppose, from the sudden reaction which unexpected good fortune will at times produce ; partly, if not from ill health, at least from that lowering of the vitality which results from hard work and lack of exercise and fresh air ; partly also from the worry inseparable from the preparations for a long journey into regions little known. But, whatever its cause, it did much to mar my happiness at a time when I had no excuse for being otherwise than happy. At length, how- ever, it came to an end. Bewildered by conflicting counsels
1 8 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
as to tlu' iviuipineiit which I shoiihl need and the route whicli T had best take, 1 at hist settled the matter hy bookintr niy jiassaj^e from IMarsoilles to l^atoinn at tlic T.ondon ofTice of tlie I^Iessageries IMaritinies, and by adding; tu the two sinall port- manteaus into which I had compressed so much clothing as appeared absolutely indisi^ensable nothing but a Wolseley valise, a saddle and hiiilK', a pith hat (which was broken to pieces long before the summer came round), a small medicine- chest, a few surgical instruments, a revolver, a box of a hun- dred cartridges, a few books, a passport with the Eussian and Turkish visas, and a money-belt containing about £200 in gold, paper, and circular notes. At the last moment I was
joined by an old college friend, H , who, having just
completed a term of office at the hospital, was desirous to travel, and whose proposal to join me I welcomed. He was my companion as far as Teheran, where, as I desired to tarry for a while, and he to proceed, we were obliged to separate.
"VYe had booked our passage, as I have said, to Batoum, intending to take the train thence to Baku, and so by the Caspian to Kesht in Persia. For this route, unquestionably the shortest and easiest, I had from the first felt little liking, my own wish being to enter Persia through Turkey, either by way of Damascus and Baghdad, or of Trebizonde and Erzeroum. I had suffered myself to be persuaded against my inclinations, which, I think, where no question of principle is involved, is always a mistake, for the longer and harder way of one's own choosing is preferable to the shorter and easier way chosen by another. And so, as soon as I was withdrawn from the influences which had temporarily overcome my own judgment and inclination, I began to repent of having adopted an uncongenial plan, and to consider whether even now, at this eleventh hour, it was not possiljle to change. The sight of the Turkish shore and the sound of the Turkish tongue (for we stayed two days at Constantinople, whence to Trebi- zonde the deck of the steamer was crowded with Turks and Persians, with whom I spent the greater part of each day in conversing) swept away my last scruples as to the wisdom of thus reversing at the outset a decision which had been fully discussed. I consulted with H , who raised no objection ;
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 19
and we decided ou reaching Trebizonde (where the steamer anchored on 4th October) to enquire at the British Consulate as to the safety and practicability of the old caravan road leading thence into Central Asia, and, if the report were favourable, to adopt that route.
There was a heavy swell in the open roadstead, and the wind, which rolled back the rain-clouds on the green, thickly- wooded hills, seemed to be rising, as we clambered into one of the clumsy boats which hovered round the steamer to go ashore. Nor had the gruff old captain's answer to my enquiry as to how loner the steamer would lie there tended to reassure me. " If the wind gets up much more," he had said, " I may start at any time." " And if we are on shore," I demanded, " how shall we know that you are starting ?" " Vous me vcrrcz pai'tvr, voila tout^' he replied, and, with a shrug of his shoulders, walked off to his cabin. So I was somewhat un- easy in my mind lest, while we were conducting our enquiries ou shore, the steamer might put out to sea, bearing with it all our worldly goods. This disquieting reflection was dispelled by the shock of the boat striking against the little wooden jetty. We stepped out, and found ourselves confronted by one of the Turkish police, who demanded our passports. These had not been presented, as theoretically they should have been, at Constantinople for a fresh visa, and I feared we might consequently have some trouble in landing. However, I as- sumed an air of confident alacrity, produced the passports, and pointed to the seal of the Turkish Considate given in London. As the visa — " hon pour sc rendrc a Constantinople " — to which this was attached was in French, the officer was not much the wiser, and, after scrutinising the passports (which he held upside down) with a critical air, he returned them and stood aside to let us pass. And this is typical of Turkey, where the laws, though theoretically striugent, are not practically trouble- some ; in which point it has the advantage over Eussia.
Guided by a boy belonging to our boat, w^e ascended through narrow, tortuous streets to the British Consulate, where, though unprovided with recommendations, we received from the Consul, Mr. Longworth, that courteous and kindly welcome which, to their honour be it said. Englishmen (and,
20 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
iiuleeil, other luiropeans, as well as Americans) resident in the Turkish and Persian dominions seldom fail to give the traveller. In reply to our enquiries, he told us that the road to the Persian frontier was peri'ectly safe, and that we should have no ditUculty in hiring horses or mules to convey lis to Erzerouni, whence we could easily engage others for the journey to Tabriz. He also kindly offered to send his dragoman, an Armenian gentleman, named Hekimian, to assist us in clearing our ba£;£:ai:ce at the custom-house. So we returned to the steamer to bring it ashore. As we pushed our way through the deck- passengers to the side of the ship, some of my I'ersian acquaintances called out to me to tell them why I was disembarking and whither I was going, and, on learning my intention of taking the old caravan -road through Erzeroum, they cried, " 0, dear soul, it will take you three months to get to Teheran thus, if indeed you get there at all ! Why have you thus made your road difficult ? " But the step was taken now, and I paid no heed to their words.
The custom-house, thanks to the fcgis of the British Consulate, dealt very gently with us. We were even asked, if I remember right, which of our packages we should prefer
to have opened. H 's Wolseley valise Avas selected ; but
we forgot that his rifle had been rolled up in it. The Turkish excisemen stroked their chins a little at this sight (for fire-arms are contraband), but said nothing. When this form of examina- tion was over we thanked the 7iiudir, or superintendent, for his courtesy, gave a few small coins to his subordinates, and, with the help of two or three sturdy porters, transported our luggage to the one hotel which Trebizonde possesses. It is called the " Hotel d'ltalie," and, though unpretentious, is clean and comfortable. During the three days we spent there we had no cause to complain either of being underfed or overcharged.
Next morning our preparations began in earnest. Heki- mian was of inestimable service, arranging everything and accom- panying us everywhere. The Eussian paper-money with which we had provided ourselves for the earlier part of the journey was soon converted into Turkish gold ; tinned provisions and a few simple cooking utensils and other necessaries were bought in the bazaars; and arrangements were concluded with two sturdy
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 21
muleteers for the journey to Erzeroum. They on their part agreed to provide us with five horses for ourselves and our baggage, to convey us to Erzeroum in six or seven days, and to do what lay in their power to render the journey pleasant ; while we on our part covenanted to pay them 6^ Turkish pounds (£3 down, and the remainder at Erzeroum), to which we promised to add a trifle if they gave us satisfaction.
There remained a more important matter, the choice of a servant to accompany us on the journey. Two candidates presented themselves : an honest-looking old Turkish Kavvds of the Consulate, and a shifty Armenian, who, on the strength of his alleged skill in cookery, demanded exorbitantly high wages. We chose the Turk, agreeing to pay him one Turkish pound a week, to guarantee this payment for six months, and to defray his expenses back to Trebizonde from any point at which we might finally leave him. It was a rash agree- ment, and might have caused us more trouble than it actually did, but there seemed to be no better alternative, seeing that a servant was an absolute necessity. The old Turk's real name was 'Omar; but, having regard to the detestation in which this name is held in Persia (for he whom Sunnite Muhammad- ans account the second Caliph, or successor of the Prophet, is regarded by the sect of the Shi'a as the worst of evil-doers and usurpers),^ it was decided that he should henceforth bear the more auspicious name of 'All, the darling hero of the Persian Shi'ites. As for our old servant's character, viewed in the light of subsequent experience, I do him but justice when I express my conviction that a more honest, straightforward, faithful, loyal soul could not easily be found anywhere. But, on the other hand, he was rather fidgety; rather obstinate ; too old to travel in a strange country, adapt himself to new sur- roundings, and learn a new language ; and too simple to cope with the astute and wily Persians, whom, moreover, religious and national prejudices caused him ever to regard with uncon- querable aversion.
^ The repetition of the following curse on the three first Caliphs of the Simnis is accounted by Persian Shi'ites as a pious exercise of singular virtue : "0 God, curse 'Omar: then Ahil Bekr and 'Omar: then 'OtJwidn and 'Omar: then 'Omar : then 'Omar ! "
22 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
This business concluded, wc liad still to get our passports for the interior, llekiniian accompanied us to the Govern- ment olUccs, where, while a courteous old Turk entertained me with coffee and conversation, a shrewd-looking subordinate noted down the details of our personal appearance in the spaces reserved for that purpose on the passport. 1 was amused on receiving the document to find my religion de- scribed as "English" and my moustache as "fresh" (tcr)^ Ijut not alogether pleased at the entries in the " head " and " chin " columns, which respectively were ''toil" (bullet-shaped) and " dcyirmcn" (round). Before leaving the Government-house we paid our respects to Sururi Efendi, the governor of Trebi- zoude, one of the judges who tried and condenmed the wise and patriotic Midhat Pasha. He was a fine-looking old man, and withal courteous ; but he is reputed to be corrupt and bigoted.
In the evening at the hotel we made tlie acquaintance of a Belgian mining-engineer, who had lived for some time in Persia. The account which he gave of that country and its inhabitants was far from encouraging. " I have travelled in many lands," he said, " and have discovered some good quali- ties in every people, with the exception of the Persians, in whom I have failed to find a single admirable characteristic. Their very language bears witness against them and exjDOses the sordidness of their minds. When they wish to thank you they say, ' Liitf-i-shumd ziydd,' ' May your kindness be in- creased,' that is, ' May you give me something more ' ; and when they desire to support an assertion with an oath they say ' Bi-jdn-i-'aziz-i-khudat,' ' By thy precious life,' or ' £i- marg-i-sJmmd,' ' By your death,' that is, ' May you die if I speak untruly.' ^ And they would be as indifferent to your death as to the truth of their own assertions."
Although we were ready to start on the following day, we were prevented from doing so by a steady downpour of rain. Having completed all our arrangements, we paid a visit to the
^ Apart from tlie doubtful justice of judging a people by the idioms of their language, it may be pointed out that, with regard to the two last expressions, they are based on the idea that to swear by one's own life or deatli would be to swear by a thing of little value compared to the life or death of a friend.
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 23
Persian Consulate in company with Mr. Longworth. In answer to our enquiry as to whether our passports required his visa, the Persian Consul signified that this was essential, and, for the sum of one mcjicliyyi a- piece, endorsed each of them with a lengthy inscription so tastefully executed that it seemed a pity that, during the whole period of our sojourn in Persia, no one asked to see them. Though perfectly useless and unnecessary, the visa, as a specimen of calligraphy, was cheap at the price.
Next day (Friday 7th October) the rain had ceased, and at an early hour we were plunged in the confusion without which, as it would seem, not even the smallest caravan can start. The muleteers, who had been urging us to hasten our preparations, disappeared so soon as everything was ready. When they had been found and brought back, it was dis- covered that no bridle had been provided for H 's horse ;
for, though both of us had brought saddles from England, he had thought that it would be better to use a native bridle. Eventually one was procured, and, about 9 a.m., we emerged from the little crowd which had been watching our proceedings with a keen interest, and rode out of the town. Our course lay for a little while along the coast, until we reached the moutli of the valley of Khosh Oghhin, which we entered, turning to the south. The beauty of the day, which the late rains had rendered pleasantly cool, combined with the novelty of the scene and the picturesque appearance of the people whom we met on the road, raised our spirits, and completely removed certain misgivings as to the wisdom of choosing this route which, when it was too late to draw back, had taken possession of my mind. The horses which we rode were good, and, leaving the muleteers and baggage behind, we pushed on until, at 2.30 p.m., we reached the pretty little village of Jevizlik, the first halting-place out of Trebizonde. Here we should have halted for the night ; but, since the muleteers had not informed us of their plans, and it was still early, we determined to proceed to Khamse-Kyiiy, and accordingly continued our course up the beautiful wooded valley towards the pass of Zighana-dagh, which gleamed before us white with newly-fallen snow. During the latter part of the day we fell in with a wild-looking horseman, who informed
A VKAK AMONGST THE PERSIANS
ine that lio, like all the inhaliitants of Klianise-Kyliy, "was a Christian.
It M'as quiU' dark beruiv we ]t>aclK'il Kliaiiisi'-Kyiiy, and it took lis sonic little time to liiid a Iclu'in at which to rest \o\ the night. The nudcteers and haggagc were far behind, and at first it seemed probalile that we should have to postpone our supper till their arrival, or else do without it altogether. However, 'Ali presently succeeded in obtaining some bread, and also a few eggs, which he fried in oil, so that, with the whisky in our flasks, we fared better than might have been expected.
At about 9 P.i^i. the muleteers arrived and demanded to see me at once. They were very tired, and very angry because we had not waited for them at Jevizlik. I did not at first easily understand the cause of their indignation (for this was my first experience of this kind of travelling, and my ideas about the capacity of horses were rather vague) till it was explained to me that at the present rate of proceeding both men and animals would be wearied out long before we reached Erzeroum. " 0, my soul ! " said the elder muleteer in conclu- sion, more in sorrow than in anger, " a fine novice art thou if thou thinkest that these horses can go so swiftly from morning till evening without rest or food. Henceforth let us proceed in company at a slower pace, by which means we shall all, please God, reach Erzeroum with safety and comfort in seven days, even as w^as agreed between us." Not much pleased at being thus admonished, but compelled to admit the justice of the muleteer's remarks, I betook myself to the Wolseley valise which I had, after much deliberation, selected as the form of bed most suitable for the journey. Excellent as this contrivance is, and invaluable as it proved to be, my first night in it was anything but comfortable. As I intended to stuff with straw the space left for that purpose beneath the lining, I had neglected to bring a mattress. Straw, however, was not forth- coming, and I was therefore painfully conscious of every irregularity in the ill-paved floor ; while the fleas which invest most Turkish khdns did not fail on this occasion to welcome the advent of the stranger. In spite of these discomforts and the novelty of my surroundings I soon fell fast asleep.
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 25
Looking back at those first days of my journey in the light of fuller experience, I marvel at the discomforts which we readily endured, and even courted by our ignorance and lack of foresight.
Bewildered by conflicting counsels as to equipment, I had finally resolved to take only what appeared absolutely essential, and to reduce our baggage to the smallest possible compass. Prepared by what I had read in books of Eastern travel to endure discomforts far exceeding any which I was actually called upon to experience, I had yet to learn how comfortably one may travel even in countries where the rail- road and the hotel are unknown. Yet I do not regret this experience, which at least taught me how few are the neces- saries of life, and how needless are many of those things which we are accustomed to regard as such. Indeed, I am by no means certain that the absence of many luxuries which we commonly regard as indispensable to our haj)piness is not fully compensated for by the freedom from care and hurry, the continual variety of scenery and costume, and the sense of health produced by exposure to the open air, which, taken together, constitute the irresistible charm of Eastern travel.
On the following morning we were up betimes, and after a steep ascent of an hour or so reached the summit of the pass of Zighana-dagh, which was thinly covered with a dazzling garment of snow. Here we passed a little hlUm, which would have been our second resting-place had we halted at Jevizlik on the preceding day instead of pushing on to Khamse-Kyliy. As it was, however, we passed it without stopping, and commenced the descent to the village of Zighana-Kyiiy, where we halted for an hour to rest and refresh ourselves and the horses. Excellent fruit and coffee were obtainable here ; and as we had yielded to the muleteers' request that we would not separate ourselves from the baggage, we had our own provisions as well, and altogether fared much better than on tlie previous day.
After the completion of our meal we proceeded on our journey, and towards evening reached the pretty little hamlet of Kyiipri-bashi situated on a river called, from the town of Ardessa through which it flows, Ardessa-irmaghi, in which we enjoyed the luxury of a bathe. The inhabitants of
26 A YEAR AAWNGST THE PERSIANS
this deli<:;litful spot were few in numlier, peacealilc in appeav- ance, and totally devoid of that inquisitiveness about strangers which is so characteristic of the Tcrsians. Although it can hardly be the case that many Europeans pass through their village, they scarcely looked at us, and asked Ijut few questions as to our business, nationality, or destination. This lack of curiosity, N\liitli, so I'ar as my experience goes, usually char- acterises the Turkish peasant, extends to all his surroundings. Enquiries as to the name of a wayside flower, or the fate of a traveller whose last resting-place was marked by a mound of earth at the roadside, were alike met with a half-scornful, half- amused " 1dm hilir ? " (" who knows ? "), indicative of surprise on the part of the person addressed at being questioned on a matter in which, as it did not concern himself, he felt no interest. In Persia, more especially in Southern Persia, it is quite otherwise ; and, whether right or wrong, an ingenious answer is usually forthcoming to the traveller's enquiries.
Our third day's march took us first through the town of Ardessa, and then through the village of Demirji-siiyu, on emerging from which we were confronted and stopped by two most evil-looking individuals armed to the teeth with pistols and daggers. My first idea was that they were robbers ; but, on riding forward to ascertain their business, I discovered that they were excisemen of a kind called diglitabdn, whose business it is to watch for and seize tobacco which does not bear the stamp of the Ottoman Eegie. It appeared that some one, either from malice or a misdirected sense of humour, had laid information against us, alleging that we had in our possession a quantity of such tobacco. A violent altercation took place between the excisemen and our servant 'All, whose pockets they insisted on searching, and whose tobacco-pouch was torn in two in the struggle. Meanwhile the muleteers continued to manifest the most ostentatious eagerness to un- load our baggage and submit it to examination, until finally, by protestations and remonstrances, we prevailed on the custom-house officers to let us pass. The cause of the muleteers' unnecessary eagerness to open our baggage now became apparent. Sidling up to my horse, one of these honest fellows triumphantly showed me a great bag of smuggled
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 27
tobacco which he had secreted in his pocket. I asked him what he would have done if it had been detected, whereat he tapped the stock of a pistol which was thrust into his belt with a sinister and suggestive smile. Although I could not help being amused at his cool impudence, I was far from being reassured by the warlike propensities which this gesture revealed.
Continuing on our way, and still keeping near the river, we passed one or two old castles, situated on rocky heights, which, we were informed, had been built by the Genoese Towards noon we entered the valley of Gyumish-Ivhane, so- called from the silver mines which occur in the neighbourhood. This valley is walled in by steep and rocky cliffs, and is barren and arid, except near the river, which is surrounded by beauti- ful orchards. Indeed the pears and apples of Gyumish-Khane are celebrated throughout the district. We passed several prosperous-looking villages, at one of which we halted for lunch. Here for the first time I tasted pdmcz, a kind of treacle or syrup made from fruit. In Persia this is known as duslu'ib or sliird; it is not unpalatable, and we used occasionally to eat it with boiled rice as a substitute for pudding. Here also we fell in with a respectable-looking Armenian going on foot to Erzeroum. Anyone worse equipped for a journey of 150 miles on foot I never saw. He wore a black frock coat and a fez ; his feet were shod with slippers down at the heels ; and to protect himself from the heat of the sun he carried a large white umbrella. He looked so hot and tired and dusty that I was moved to compassion, and asked him whether he would not like to ride my horse for a while. This offer he gladly accepted, whereupon I dismounted and walked for a few miles, until he announced that he was sufficiently rested and would proceed on foot. He was so grateful for this indulgence that he bore us company as far as Erzeroum, and would readily have followed us farther had we encouraged
him to do so. Every day H and myself allowed him to
ride for some distance on our horses, and the poor man's journey was, I trust, thereby rendered less fatiguing to him.
During the latter part of the day our course lay through a most gloomy and desolate valley, walled in with red rocks
28 A VKAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
and utterly devoiil of trees or verdure. Emerging from this, and passing another line old castle situated on a lofty and precipitous crag, we arrived about 5 I'.M. at the little hamlet of Tekkc, where we halted for the night. It is rathei- a miserable place, containing several khdns swarming witli Persian camel-drivers, but very few private houses. A shallow river which runs near it again enabled us to enjoy the luxury of a bathe.
Our fourth day's march was very dreary, lying for the most part through gloomy ravines walled in with reddish rocks, like tliat which we had traversed at the end of the previous day's journey. In addition to the depressing character of the scene, there was a report that robbers were lurking in the neighbour- hood, and we were consequently joined by several pedestrians, all armed to the teeth, who sought safety in numbers. Shortly after noon we halted at a small roadside inn, where we obtained some cheese, and a not very savoury compound called kawTLirma, which consists of small square lumps of mutton imbedded in fat. At 3 p.m. we reached the solitary Ichdn of Kadarak, which was to be our halting-place for the night. A few zdbtiyTjds were lounging about outside, waiting for the post, which was expected to pass shortly. As it was still early, I went out into the balcony to write my diary and con- template the somewhat cheerless view ; but I w\as soon inter- rupted by our Armenian fellow-traveller, who came to tell me that the zdbtiyy6s outside were watching my proceedings with no favourable eye, and suspected that I was drawing maps of the country. He therefore advised me either to stop writing or to retire indoors, lest my diary should be seized and destroyed. Whether the Armenian spoke the truth, or whether he was merely indulging that propensity to revile the ruling race for which the Christian subjects of the Porte are con- spicuous, I had no means of deciding, so I thought it best to follow his advice and retire from the balcony till I had com- pleted my writing.
Our fifth day's march led us through the interesting old Armenian village of Varzahan. Just before reaching this we passed several horsemen, who were engaged in wild and appa- rently purposeless evolutions, accompanied with much firing of
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 29
guns. It appeared that these had come out to welcome the KdHm-makdm of Diyadi'n, who had been dismissed from office, and was returning to his native town of Gyumish-Khdne ; and we had scarcely passed them when he appeared in sight, met, and passed us. I wished to examine the curious old churches which still bear witness that Varzahan, notwithstanding its present decayed condition, must formerly have been a place of some importance. Our Armenian fellow-traveller offered to conduct me, and I was glad to avail myself of his guidance. After I had examined the strange construction of the churches, the Armenian inscriptions cut here and there on their walls, and the tombstones which surrounded them (amongst which were several carved in the form of a sheep), my companion suggested that we should try and obtain some refreshment. Although I was anxious to overtake our caravan, I yielded to his importunity, and followed him into n, large and dimly- lighted room, to which we only obtained admission after pro- longed knocking. The door was at length opened by an old man, with whom my companion conversed for a while in Armenian, after he had bidden me to be seated. Presently several other men, all armed to the teeth, entered the room, and seated themselves by the door. A considerable time elapsed, and still no signs of food appeared. The annoyance which I felt at this useless delay gradually gave way to a vague feeling of alarm. This was heightened by the fact that I was unable to comprehend the drift of the conversation, which was still carried on in Armenian. I be^an to wonder whether I had been enticed into a trap where I could be robbed at leisure, and to speculate on the chances of escape or resistance, in case such an attempt should be made. I could not but feel that these were slender, for I had no weapon except a small pocket revolver ; five or six armed men sat by the heavy wooden door, which had been closed, and, for anything that I knew, bolted ; and even should I succeed in effecting an exit, I knew that our caravan must have proceeded a con- siderable distance. My apprehensions were, however, relieved by the appearance of a bowl of yorjli'Art (curds) and a quantity of the insipid wafer-like bread called lawdsh. Having eaten, we rose to go ; and when my companion, whom I had sus-
30 A YEAR AA/ONGSr THE PERSIANS
pected of liarbouriug such sinister designs against my property and perhajvs my life, refused to let mo pay for our refreshment, I was idled with shame at my unAvarranted sus])icions. (^ii emerging once more into the road I found the faitliful 'Ah' patiently awaiting me. Terliaps he too had been doubtful of the honesty of the Armenian villagers. At any rate he had refused to proceed without me.
About '1 VM. we arrived at the town of Baiburt, and found
that H and the nmleteers had already taken up their
quarters at a clean and well-built khdn owned by one Khali'l Efendi. We at once proceeded to explore the town, which lies at the foot of a hill surmounted by an old fortress. Being too lazy to climb this hill, we contented ourselves with strol- ling through the bazaars which Ibrm so important a feature of every Eastern town, and afford so sure an index of the degree of prosperity which it enjoys. We were accompanied by the indefatigable Armenian, who, thinking to give me pleasure, exerted himself to collect a crowd of Persians (mostly natives of Khi'iy and Tabriz), whom he incited to converse with me. A throng of idlers soon gathered round us to gaze and gape at our unfamiliar aspect and dress, which some, bolder or less polite than the rest, stretched out their hands to finger and feel. Anxious to escape, I took refuge in a barber's shop and demanded a shave, but the crowd again assembled outside the open window, and continued to watch the proceeding with sustained interest. Meanwhile 'All had not been idle, and on our return to the hhdn we enjoyed better fare, as well as better quarters, than had fallen to our lot since we left Trebizoude.
Our sixth day's march commenced soon after daybreak. The early morning was chilly, but later on the sun shone forth in a cloudless sky, and the day grew hot. The first part of our way lay near the river which flows through Baiburt, and the scenery was a great improvement on anything that we had seen since leaving Gyumish-Khane. We halted for our mid- day rest and refreshment by a clump of willow trees in a pleasant grassy meadow by the river. On resuming our march we entered a narrow defile leading into the mountains of Kop- dagh. A gradual ascent brought us to the summit of the pass,
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 31
just below wliich, on the farther side, we came to our halting- place, Pcisha-punari. The view of the surrounding mountains standing out against the clear evening sky was very beautiful, and the little hliim at which we alighted was worthy of its delightful situation. We were lodged in a sort of barn, in which was stored a quantity of hay. How fragrant and soft it seemed ! I still think of that night's sleep as one of the soundest and sweetest in my experience.
Early on the morning of the seventh day we resumed our march along a circuitous road, which, after winding downwards amongst grassy hills, followed the course of a river surrounded by stunted trees. We saw numerous large birds of the falcon
kind, called by the Turks cloghAn. One of these H brought
down with his rifle while it was hovering in the air, to the great delight of the muleteers. At a village called Ash-IvaVa we purchased honey, bread, and grapes, which we consumed while halting for the mid-day rest by an old bridge. Continu- ing on our way by the river, we were presently joined by a turbaned and genial Turk, who was travelling on horseback from Gyumish-Khane to Erzeroum. I was pleased to hear him use in the course of conversation certain words which I had hitherto only met with in the writings of the old poet Fuziili of Baghdad, and which I had regarded as archaic and obsolete. The road gradually became more frequented than it had been since leaving Baiburt, and we passed numerous travellers and peasants. Many of the latter drove bullock-carts, of which the ungreased axles sent forth the most excruciating sound. The sun had set before we reached our halting-place, Yeni-Khan, and so full was it that we had some difficulty in securing a room to ourselves.
The eighth day of our march, wdiich was to conclude the first portion of our journey, saw us in the saddle betimes. After riding for four hours through a scorched-up plain, we arrived about 10.30 a.m. at the large village of Ilija, so named from its hot springs, over which a bath has been erected. From this point the gardens and minarets of Erzeroum were plainly visible, and accordingly we pushed on without halting. Fully three hours elapsed, however, ere we had traversed the weary stretch of white dusty road which still separated us from our
32 --/ YF.AR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
goal ; and the sun was well past the iiieridian when we finally enteivil Ihe gate of tlie city, and threaded our way through tlio massive fortifications l)y which it is surroun(U',d.
Erzerouni lias one hotel, which stands midway in the scale of development between the Hotel d'ltalie at Trebizonde and an average caravansaray. "Were these two towns connected Ijy a railroad, so as to bring them within a day's journey of one another, this institution might perhaps form a happy transition between the west and the east. As things are at i^resent, it is too much like a caravansaray to be comfortable, and too much like a casino to be quiet.
On alighting at this delectable house of entertainment, we were met by a young Armenian representing the bank on which our cheque was drawn, who informed us in very fair French that his name was Missak Vanetzian, and tliat his principal, Simon Dermounukian, had been apprised of our coming by letter from Trebizonde, and instructed to give us such help as we might need. After a brief conversation in the balcony of a coffee-room thronged with Turkish officers and enlivened by the strains of a semi -oriental band, he departed, inviting us to visit his chief so soon as we were at leisure.
We now requested an attendant to show us our room, and were forthwith conducted to a large, dingy, uncarpeted apart- ment on the first floor, lighted by several windows looking out upon the street, and containing for its sole furniture a divan covered with faded chintz, which ran the whole length of one side, and a washing-stand placed in a curtained recess on the other. It was already occupied by a Turkish mucUr, bound for the frontier fortress of Bayezi'd, whom the landlord was trying to dislodge so that we might take possession. This he very naturally resented ; but when I apologised, and offered to withdraw, he was at once mollified, declared that there was plenty of room for all of us, and politely retired, leaving us to perform our ablutions in private.
Just as we were ready to go out, an officer of the Turkish
police called to inspect our passports, so, while H went to
visit Mr. Devey, the acting British Consul, I remained to entertain the visitor with coffee and cigarettes — an attention
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 33
which he seemed to appreciate, for he readily gave the required
visa, and then sat conversing with me till H returned
from the consulate. We next paid a visit to our banker, Simon Dermounukian, called by the Turks " Simiin Agha," a fine-looking old man, who only spoke Turkish and Armenian, and whose appearance would have led one to suppose that the former rather than the latter was his native tongue. After the ordinary interchange of civilities, we drew a cheque for three or four pounds, and returned to the hotel to settle with the muleteers. On the way to Erzeroum these had frequently expressed a wish to go with us as far as Teheran ; but since their arrival they had been so alarmed by fabulous accounts of the dangers of travelling in Persia, the inhospitality of the country, and the malignant disposition of the people, that they made no further allusion to this plan, and on receiving the money due to them, together with a small gratuity, took leave of us with expressions of gratitude and esteem.
After a thoroughly Turkish dinner, I again proposed to go out, but the mudir told me that this was impossible, as the streets were not lighted, and no one was allowed to walk abroad after nightfall without a lantern. He offered, however, to introduce me to some acquaintances of his who occupied an adjoining room. One of these was a Turk who spoke Persian with a fluency and correctness rarely attained by his coun- trymen ; the other was a Christian of Csesarea. Both were men of intelligence, and their conversation interested me so much that it was late before I retired to rest on the chintz- covered divan, which I would gladly have exchanged for the fragrant hay of Pasha-punari.
Next day our troubles began. The news that two English- men were about to start for Persia had got abroad, and crowds of muleteers — Persians, Turks, and Armenians — came to offer their services for the journey. The scene of turmoil which our room presented during the whole morning baffles descrip- tion, while our ears were deafened with the clamour of voices. It was like the noisiest bazaar imaginable, with this difference, that whereas one can escape from the din of a bazaar when it becomes insupportable, this turmoil followed us wherever we went. An Armenian called Vartan demanded the exorbitant
34 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
sum of £5 T. per horse to Tabrfz. A Persian offered to convey us thitlior in a nii^lity waggon which he possessed, wherein, he dcchired, we shouKl perform the journey witli inconccivaV)h', ease. This statement, which 1 was from the first but little disposed to credit, was subsequently denied in the most cate- gorical manner by our friend the mndir, who assured me that he had once essayed to travel in such a vehicle, but had been soroughly jolted during the first stage that he had sworn never again to set foot in it, and had completed his journey on horse- back. Any lingering regrets which we might have entertained at having renounced the prospect of " inconceivable ease " held out to us by the owner of the waggon were entirely dispelled some days later by the sight of a similar vehicle hopelessly stuck, and abandoned by its possessor, in the middle of a river which we had to ford.
At length, partly because no better offer seemed forth- coming, partly from a desire to have done with the matter and enjoy a little peace and quietude for the remainder of our stay in Erzeroum, we accepted the terms proposed by a Persian muleteer called Farach, who promised to supply us with five horses to Tabriz at £2 T. and 2 mejidiyy^s a head ; to convey us thither in twelve days ; and to allow us the right of stopping for two days on the road at whatever place we might choose.
I now flattered myself that I should be allowed a little peace, but I found that I had reckoned without my host. No sooner had I satisfied myself as to the efficiency of Farach's animals, agreed to the terms proposed by him, and accepted the i^eh (a pledge of money, which it is customary for the muleteer to place in the hands of his client as a guarantee that he will hold to the bargain, and be prepared to start on the appointed day), than our ears were assailed on all sides with aspersions on the honesty and respectability of the successful candidate. Farach, so I was assured, was a native of the village of Sey van, near Khuy, and the Sey vanlis were, as was well known, the wickedest, most faithless, and most dishonest people in Persia. In this assertion all the muleteers present agreed, the only difference being that while the Persians rested content with the reprobation of the Seyvanlis, the non-Persians further emphasised it by adding that the Persians were the
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 35
wickedest, most faithless, and most dishonest people in the world.
At first I paid no attention to these statements, but my suspicions were in some degree aroused by Farach's disinclination to go before the Persian Consul, and by the doubts expressed by Vanetzian and Simiin Agha as to his honesty and trust- worthiness. With Vanetzian I was somewhat annoyed, because he, being present when I engaged Farach, had withheld liis advice till it was too late to be useful. I therefore told him that lie should either have spoken sooner or not at all, to which he replied that it was still possible to rescind the bargain. Farach was accordingly summoned and requested to take back his pledge. This, however, he resolutely declined to do, and I could not help admitting that he was in the right.
Finally Vanetzian desisted from his attempts to annul the contract, and indeed retracted to some extent the objections which he had raised against it. What motive impelled him to this change of front I cannot say, and I am unwilling to credit an assertion made to me by Farach a few days later, to the effect that the Armenian's sole object in these manoeuvres was to extort a bribe from the poor muleteer, and that having obtained this he was content to withdraw all opposition.
Although these annoyances, combined with a temporary indisposition (due, probably, to the badness of the water-supply), somewhat marred the pleasure of our stay in Erzeroum, the kindness shown us by Mr. Devey, the British Consul, and Mr. Chambers, an American missionary, and his wife, rendered it much more agreeable than it would otherwise have been. Before leaving we paid a visit to the Persian Consul, who received us very courteously, and gave us a letter to Pasha Khan of Avajik, the Persian Warden of the Marches, from whom, he added, we should receive an escort to conduct us to Khuy, should this be necessary. Beyond Klmy the country was perfectly safe, and no such protection would be required.
The consul next enquired whether we were travelling with our own horses or with hired animals, and, on learning that the latter was the case, insisted on summoning the muleteer to " admonish " him. Knowing that Farach was un-
36 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
williiii,' l(» appear before the consul, I ventured to deprecate this i)roeecdin;j:, and made as though I had forgotten the muleteer's name. The consul, however, insisted, and at once desiiatched some of his servants to make enquiries. These returned in a surprisingly short space of time, bringing with them the muleteer, whose appearance indicated the utmost dis- quietude. After demanding his name and that of his native place, the cousid asked him whether it was true that lie had promised to convey us to Tabriz in twelve days, and whether, if so, he had any intention of keeping this promise. To these questions the muleteer replied in a voice trembling with fear, that " perhaps, In-shalldh, he would do so." This statement was received by the consul with derision. " You lie, Mr. Perhaps," cried he ; " you eat dirt, Mr. In-sha'Udh ; hence, rascal, and be assured that if I hear any complaints about you, you shall give a full account of your conduct to me on your return to Erzeroum ! " Whether in consequence of this " admonition," or whether, as I believe, because the muleteer was really an honest fellow, we certainly had no cause for complaint, and, indeed, were glad to re-engage Farach at Tabriz for the journey to Teheran.
On Monday, l7th October, we quitted Erzeroum. In con- sequence of the difficulty of getting fairly under way, to which I have already alluded, it is usual to make the first stage a very short one. Indeed, it is often merely what the Persians call " JVakl-i-makdn " (change of place), a breaking up of one's quarters, a bidding farewell to one's friends, and a shaking one's self free from the innumerable delays which continue to arise so long as one is still within the walls of an Eastern town. We therefore did not expect to get farther than Hasan- Kara, which is about three hours' ride from Erzeroum. Before we had finished our leave-taking and settled the hotel bill (which only reached the modest sum of 108 piastres — about £1 sterling — for the two of us and 'Ali for three days) the rest of the caravan had disappeared, and it was only on emerging from the town that I was able to take note of those who composed it. There were, besides the muleteers, our friend the mucUr and his companions and servants, who were bound for Bayezid ; a Turkish zcibtiyye, who was to escort us as far as Hasan-
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 37
Kara ; and three Persians proceeding to Tabriz, Of these last, one was a decrepit old man ; the other two were his sons. In spite of the somewhat ludicrous appearance given to the old man by a long white beard of which the lower half was dyed I'ed with henna, the cause which had led him to undertake so long a journey in spite of his advanced age commanded respect and sympathy. His two sons had gone to Trebizonde for purposes of trade, and had there settled ; and although he had written to them repeatedly entreating them to return to Tabriz, they had declined to comply with his wishes, until eventually lie had determined to go himself, and, if possible, persuade them to return home with him. In this attempt he had met with the success which he so well deserved.
As we advanced towards the low pass of Deve-boyiin (the Camel's Neck), over which our road lay, I was much impressed with the mighty redoubts which crown the heights to the north-east and east of Erzeroum, many of which have, I believe, been erected since the Eussian war. Beyond these, and such instruction and amusement as I could derive from our travelling companions, there was little to break the monotony of the road till we arrived at our halting -place about 3 P.M. As the khdn was full, we were obliged to be content with quarters even less luxurious ; and even there the mucUr, with prudent forethought, secured the best room for himself and his companions.
Hasan-Kara is, like Ilija, which is about equidistant from Erzeroum on the other side, remarkable for its natural hot- springs, over which a bath has been erected. The imuUr was anxious to visit these springs, and invited us to accompany
liim. To this I agreed, but H , not feeling well,
preferred to remain quiet. The bath consists of a circular basin, twenty -five or thirty feet in diameter, surrounded with masonry and roofed in by a dome. In the summit of the dome was a large aperture through which we could see the stars shining. The water, which is almost as hot as one can bear with comfort, bubbles up from the centre of the basin, and is everywhere out of one's depth. After a most refresli- ing bathe, we returned to our quarters.
Next day we started about 6 a.m., and were presently
3S A YKAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
joined by :i 'I'mkish mufti proceeding to B;'iyczi'd, willi wliom I conversed lor some time in Persian, wliicli lie spoke very incorrectly and with great effort. He was, liowever, an amusing companion, and liis conversation beguiled the time pleasantly enough till "vve halted about mid-day at a large squalid Armenian village called Kunuisur. Our Turkish fellow-travellers occupied the mvs((fir-vdii, or guest- room, ami intimated to us that they wished to be left undis- turbed for their mid -day devotions, so we were compelled to be content with a stable. As the rest of the caravan had not yet come up, we had nothing for lunch but a few biscuits and a little brandy and water, which we fortunately had with us. Several of the Armenian villagers came to see us. They were apathetic and dull, presenting a sad contrast to the Armenians of the towns. They talked much of their grievances, especially of the rapacity of the multezim, or tax-gatherer, of the district, who had, as they declared, mortally wounded one of the villagers a few days previously, because he had brought eight piastres short of the sum due from him. They said that the heaviest tax was on cereals, amounting to 1 in 8 of their total value, and that for the privilege of collecting this the tax-gatherer paid a certain fixed sum to the Govern- ment and made what profit he could.
Quitting this unhappy spot as soon as the rest of our caravan appeared, we again joined the mudir's party, which had been further reinforced by a clidiviish (sergeant) and two zdbtiyy4s, one of whom kept breaking out into snatches of song in the shrillest voice I ever heard. For some time we suc- ceeded in keeping up with these, who were advancing at a pace impossible for the baggage animals, but presently our horses began to flag, and we were finally left behind, in some doubt as to the road wdiich we should follow. Shortly after this, my horse, in going down a hill to a river, fell violently and threw me on my face. I picked myself up and re- mounted, but having proceeded some distance, discovered that my watch was gone, having probably been torn out of my pocket when I fell. We rode back and sought diligently for it, but without success ; and while we were still so occupied, Farach the muleteer came up with 'Ali. These joined us in
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 39
the fruitless attempt to find the lost watch, the former attri- Ijuting my misfortune to the inconsiderate haste of the mudir, the latter attempting to console me with the philosophical reflection that some evil had evidently been destined to befall me, and that the loss of the watch had probably averted a more serious catastrophe. At length the near approach of the sun to the horizon warned us that we must tarry no longer ; and though we made as much haste as possible, it was dark before we reached the village of Deli Baba.
Here we obtained lodgings in a large stable, at one side of which was a wooden platform, raised some two feet above the ground and covered with a felt carpet. On this our host spread cushions and pillows, but the hopes of a comfortable night's rest which these preparations raised in our minds were not destined to be fulfilled, for the stable was full of fowls, and the fowls swarmed with fleas. There were also several buffaloes in the stable, and these apparently were endowed with carnivorous instincts, for during the night they ate up some cold meat which was to have served us for breakfast. At this place I tasted buffalo's milk for the first time. It is very rich, but has a peculiar flavour, which is, to my mind, very disagreeable.
On starting the next day, we found that the mudir, who had obtained quarters elsewhere in the village, had already set out ; neither did we again overtake him. Soon after leaving our halting-place we entered a magnificent defile leading into the mountains and surrounded by precipitous crags. On the summit of one of these crags which lay to our left was a ruined castle, said to have been formerly a stronghold of the celebrated bandit-minstrel, Kurroghlu. The face of the rock showed numerous cave -like apertures, apparently enlarged, if not made, by the hand of man, and possibly communicating with the interior of the castle.
About noon we reached a Kurdish village, situated amidst grassy uplands at the summit of the pass, and here we halted for a rest. Most of the male inhabitants were out on the hills looking after their flocks, but the women gathered round us, staring, laughing, and chattering Kurdish. Some few of them knew a little Turkish, and asked us if we had any
40 .-/ y/iA/^ AMONGST 71 IE PERSIANS
munjas to give thcni. This word, whicli I did not understand, appeared to denote some kind of ornament.
On qiiittinji: tliis villa<4e our way led us tlirou^di fertile uplands covered thinly with low shrubs, on which hundreds of draught camels were feeding. The bales of merchandise, unladen from their backs, were piled up in hollow squares, in and around whicli the Persian camel-drivers were resting till such time as the setting of the sun (for camels rarely travel by day) should give the signal for departure.
A little farther on we passed one of the battlefields of the Iiussian war, and were shown an earthwork close to the road, where we were told that F;irik Piishi'i had been killed. Soon after this, on rounding a corner, the mighty snow -crowned cone of Mount Ararat burst upon our view across a wide hill- girt plain, into which we now began to descend. During this descent we came upon a party of Kurdish mountebanks, surrounded by a crowd of peasants. In the midst of the group a little girl, in a bright red dress, was performing a dance on stilts, to the sound of wild music, produced by a drum and a flute. It was a pretty sight, and one which I would fain have watched for a time ; but the muleteers were anxious to reach the end of our day's journey, and indeed it was already dusk when we arrived at the village of Zeyti- Kyau. The inhabitants of this place were, as we entered it, engaged in a violent altercation, the cause of which I did not ascertain ; while a few Turkish zahtiyyis were making strenuous efforts to disperse them, in which they eventually succeeded. It was only after 'Ali had been to haK the houses in the village that he succeeded in obtaining a lodging for us in the house of a poor Armenian family, who were content to share with us their only room. As usual, no sort of privacy was possible, numbers of people coming in to stare at us, question us, and watch us eat.
Next day's march was both short and uninteresting. At 2 P.M. we reached the large squalid village of Kara Kilisa. As the day was still young, and the place far from attractive, we were anxious to proceed farther, but this the muleteers declined to do, answering, after the manner of their class, that they had agreed to take us to Tabriz in twelve days from
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 41
Erzeroum, and that this they would do ; but that for the rest we must allow them to arrange the stages as they thought fit. Farach concluded the argument by making me a propitiatory gift of a melon, which he had just received from a fellow- countryman whom he had met on the road ; and, half amused, half annoyed, I was obliged to acquiesce in his arrangement.
We obtained wretched quarters in the house of a very ill- favoured and inquisitive Armenian, and, after allaying our ill-humour with tea, strolled through the village to see the yuz-hdslii, or captain of the police, about securing a zaUiyye as an escort for the morrow. From him we learned that our friend the mudir had not forgotten us, for on his way through the village that morning he had left instructions that we were to be provided with a zahtvjye, should we require one. The dustiness of the streets, combined with the inquisitiveness of the inhabitants, soon drove us back to our lodging, where a night disturbed by innumerable fleas concluded a miserable day.
In spite of our desire to quit so unattractive a spot, we did not start till 7.45 a.m. (a much later hour than usual), partly because we knew that the stage before us was a short one, and had no reason to anticipate better quarters at the end of it than those we were leaving; partly because 'All's whip had disappeared, and could not be found till our host was informed that no money would be paid him until it was forth- coming ; whereupon it was speedily produced. We were accompanied by a fine old Armenian zahtiyyi, who presented a thoroughly soldierly, as well as a very picturesque, appearance. The scenery through which we passed reminded me more of England or Scotland than anything which I had seen since leavinof home. Close to the road ran a beautiful clear river, rippling down over its stony bed to join the Western Euphrates. On either side of this lay undulating grassy hills, beyond which appeared in the distance more lofty mountains. The warm, cloudy day, too, and the thin mists which lay on the hills, favoured the fancy that we were back once more in our native land.
About 1 P.M. we reached our halting-place, Tashli-Chay, and found lodgings in a gloomy hovel, which served the double
42 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
purpose of a rostiiig-]>lacc for guests and a stable for buffaloes. The people, however, were better than the place. Our host was an old Persian with henna-dyed beard and nails, who manifested his good feeling towards ns by plunging his hand, with an introductory " Bismi 'Udh" into the dish of poached eggs which was set before us for luncheon. His sou, a Itright handsome lad of sixteen or seventeen, made every eflbrt to enliven us, and, on my enquiring whether there were any fisli in the river, offered to conduct us thither, and show ns not only where they were, but how to catch them. Having collected several other youths, he commenced operations by constructing a dam of stones and turf half across the river, at a point where it was divided into two branches by a bed of shingle. The effect of this was to direct the bulk of the water into the left-hand channel, while the deptli of that which remained in the right-hand channel (at the lower end of which a boy was stationed to beat the water with a stick, and so prevent the imprisoned fish from effecting their escape) sunk to a few inches. Having completed these preparations, the operators entered the water with sticks in their hands, struck at the fish as they darted past, thereby killing or stunning them, and then picked them up and tossed them on to the bank. One lad had a sort of gaff wherewith he hooked the fish very dexterously. In less than an hour we had nearly fifty fish, several of which must have weighed 2-0- or 3 lbs. Some of these we ate for supper ; others we gave to the muleteers and to our fellow-travellers. They were not unpalatable, and made a pleasing change from the fowls and eggs of which our fare had so long consisted.
Although our lodging was not much superior, in point of cleanliness and comfort, to that of the preceding night, it was with something like regret that I bade farewell to the kindly folk of Tashli-Chay. Farach had started on in front with the baggage, leaving his brother Feyzu 'IMh, of whom we had hitherto seen but little, to bear us company. This Feyzu 'llah was a smooth-faced, narrow-eyed, smug-looking, sturdy rascal, whose face wore a perpetual and intolerable grin, and whose head was concealed rather than crowned by the large, low.
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 43
conical, long-haired ixqxtkh which constitutes the usual head- dress of the peasants inhabiting that region which lies just beyond the Turco-Persian frontier. We were also accompanied by a Turkish zabtiyy6, who proved to be unusually intelligent ; for when we were come opposite to the village of Uch-Kilisa, which lies on the farther side of the river, he told us that there was an old Armenian church there which was worth looking at, and that we should by no means neglect to pay our respects to an aged Armenian ecclesiastic, entitled by him the " MurahhMias Efcndi" who, as he assured us, enjoyed such influence in the neighbourhood that, were he to give the command, a hundred men would escort us to Tabriz.
We therefore turned aside from our course (to the infinite disgust of Feyzu 'llah, whose only desire was to reach the end of the stage as soon as possible), and first proceeded to the church. This was a fine old building, but it had suffered at the hands of the Kurds during the Eussian war, and the beautiful designs and paintings with which it had before that time been adorned had for the most part been destroyed by fire. Leaving the church, we passed the house and mill of the " Muraklikhas Efendi" who, on hearing of our approach, came out to meet us, and begged us to enter his house and partake of some refreshment. The opposition offered by Feyzu 'llah to any further delay compelled us to decline his hospitality ; yet would he scarcely take nay for an answer, saying that he was ashamed to let strangers pass by without alighting at his house. Finally, seeing that we were firm in our resolve, he bade us farewell with the words, " I pray Almighty God that He will bring you in safety to Tabriz."
It was with a sense of comfort and encouragement that we parted from the venerable and reverend old man ; but this feeling was presently changed to one of indignation against Feyzu 'llah, who had urged the length of the stage as a reason for hastening on, when, not much after 1.30 p.m., we arrived at the wretched town of Diyadi'n, where we were to sleep for the last time on Turkish territory. A more desolate spot I do not think I have ever seen ; the dirty, dusty town, which scarcely contains two respectable houses, stands in a barren, treeless waste, and is half encompassed by a vast crescent-
44 A YFAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
slia])ed cliiisiu with precipitous sides. Heaps of refuse lie about in all directions, both before the doors of the miserable hoN'els which compose the town, and amon^^st the f,a'aves of the extensive and neglected cemetery which surrounds it. Of the two respectable houses which I have noticed, one belongs to the governor, the other is the post-office. To the latter we paid a visit, and conversed for a while with the postmaster and telegraph -clerk (for both functions were united in one individual), who was a Turk of Adrianople. He complained bitterly of the dulness of Uiyadi'n, where he had been for two years, and to which a marriage contracted with a Kurdish girl had failed to reconcile him. On returning to our lodging we found that the aperture in the roof which did duty for window and chimney alike admitted so much wind and dust that we were compelled to cover it with sacking ; while to add to our miseries we discovered that all our candles were used up. Having eaten our supper by the dim light of a little earthenware lamp, we had therefore no resource but to seek forgetfulness of our discomforts in sleep.
Next morning (23rd October), the seventh day of our departure from Erzeroum, we were in the saddle by 6 a.m. My spirits were high, for I knew that before sunset we should enter the land which I had so long and so eagerly desired to behold. The zabtiyy6 who accompanied us (remarkable for an enormous hooked nose) took pains to impress upon us the necessity of keeping well together, as there w^as some danger of robbers. Presently, on rounding a corner, a glorious view burst upon us. Ararat (which had been hidden from us by lower hills since we first saw it from the heights above Zeyti-Kyan) lay far to the left, its snowy summit veiled in clouds, which, however, left unconcealed the lower peak of little Ararat. Before us, at the end of the valley, perched midway up the face of a steep, rocky mountain, lay the town and fortress of Bayezid, which keeps solitary watch over the north-east frontier of the Turkish Empire. This we did but see afar off, for, while two or three hours' march still separated us from it, we turned sharply to the right into the valley leading to Kizil-Dize, the last village on Turkish soil. At this point we left the telegraph wires, which had, since our
FROM ENGLAND TO THE PERSIAN FRONTIER 45
departure from Trebizonde, kept us company and indicated the course of our road.
Soon after mid-day we reached Kizil-Diz^, and, leaving our baggage in the custom-house, betook ourselves for rest and refreshment to a large and commodious Jilidn. The custom- house officials gave us no trouble ; but as soon as we were again on the road Farach informed us, with many lamenta- tions, that they had exacted from him a sum of forty-five piastres, alleging, as a pretext for this extortion, that whereas lie had brought seven horses with him on his last journey into Turkey, he was returning witli only five ; that they suspected him of having sold the two missing horses in Turkish territory ; and that they should therefore exact from him the duty pay- able on animals imported into the country for purposes of commerce. It was in vain that Farach protested that the two horses in question had died on the road, for they demanded documentary proof of this assertion, which he was unable to produce. And, indeed, to me it seemed an absurd thing to expect a certificate of deatli for an animal which had perished in the mountains of Asia Minor.
The hook-nosed veteran who had accompanied us from Diyadin had yielded place to a fresh zaMiyyi, who rode silently before us for two hours, during which we continued to ascend gradually through wild but monotonous hills, till, on reaching a slight eminence over which the road passed, he reined in his horse, and, turning in his saddle, said, " Farther I cannot go with you, for this is our frontier, and yonder before you lies the Persian land."
CHAPTEli III
FROM THE TERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ
" Che khusli hdshad ki had az intizdri Bi-ummidi rasad ummklvdrl ! "
" How good it is when one with waiting tired Obtaiueth that which he hath long desired ! "
{Sa'di.)
" Kunj-i-'uzlat, ki tilismdt-i-' ajaih ddrad,
Fat-h-i-dn dar nazar-i-ldmmat-i-darvisluln-ast. " " The talisman of magic might, hid in some ruin's lonely site,
Emerges from its ancient night at the mild glance of dervishes."
(Hdfiz, rendered by Herman Bicknell.)
There is always a pleasant sense of excitement and expecta- tion in entering for the first time a foreign country. Especially is this the case when to visit that country has long been the object of one's ambition. Yet that which most sharply marks such a transition, and most forcibly reminds the traveller that he is amongst another race — I mean a change of language — is not observable by one who enters Persia from the north-west; for the inhabitants of the province of Azarbaijan, which forms this portion of the Persian Empire, uniformly employ a dialect of Turkish, which, though differing widely from the speech of the Ottoman Turks, is not so far removed from it as to render either lancjuasze unintelligible to those who speak the other. If, amongst the better classes in the towns of Azarbaijan, and here and there in the villages, the Persian language is understood or spoken, it is as a foreign tongue acquired by study or travel ; while the narrow, affected enunciation of the vowels, so different from the bold, broad
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ 47
pronunciation of Persia proper, and the introduction of the Y-sound after K and G, at once serve to mark the province to which the speaker belongs. It is not till Kazvin is reached, and only four or five stages separate the traveller from Teheran, that the Persian distinctly predominates over the Turkish language ; while even four stages south of the capital, as far as the sacred city of Kum, the latter is still generally imderstood.
The country immediately beyond the frontier was as desolate and devoid of cultivation as that which we had just quitted, and it was not until we reached the Persian frontier- village of Avajik that we had any opportunity of observing that change of costume which constitutes the other cjreat siu'u of entry amongst a new race. Indeed the approach of night, which overtook us ere we reached our destination, prevented us even then from getting more than a very partial idea of the differences which distinguish a Persian from a Turkish village. So far as we could see, however, the change was distinctly for the better ; the square houses, built of unbaked clay, were clean and commodious, while a goodly array of poplar trees gave to the place an appearance of verdure which contrasted pleasantly with our too vivid recollections of the hideous waste of Diyadin.
Immediately on our arrival we sent our letter of introduc- tion, which had been given to us by the Persian Consul at Erzeroum, to Pasha Khan, the sar-hadd-ddr, or Warden of the Marches, intending to pay our respects to him in the morning before our departure. While we were eating our supper, how- ever, a message came from him to say that he would, if we pleased, receive us at once, as he was in the habit of rising late. As this invitation was practically equivalent to a command, we hastened, in spite of our weariness and dis- inclination to move, to respond to it, and were presently ushered by our host, who was one of the great man's retainers, into the presence of Pashti Khan, having previously removed our boots on an intimation from the farrdshes who stood at the door of the presence-chamber. We were invited to seat our- selves on the floor opposite the frontier-chief, who sat in a corner of the room, on the side next the door, reclining on
48 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
cushions. On one side of liini was seated his vazir, on the other a i,'rini-k)oking secretary, whose face was adorned with a pair of tioroe moustaches, and wliose hand still held the letter of introduction which he had been reading to IVislui Kluin. The Warden of the IMarches conversed with me for a short time, in a somewliat fitful manner, in Persian, enquiring par- ticularly about the terms on which England stood with Kussia. Seeing, however, that he was disinclined to prolong the inter- view, and that he appeared moody and preoccupied (a fact due, as we subsequently learned, to a quarrel which had arisen between him and his brother), we were preparing to take our leave when several servants entered bearing trays oi inlaw and slurhct, of which, though we had already supped, we were com- pelled by politeness to partake. The sherbet was excellent, as was also the pilmv (consisting of pieces of lamb's flesh buried in rice), which we had to eat, awkwardly enough, with our hands. This accomplishment, which, in spite of assiduous efforts, I never succeeded in thoroughly acquiring, is far from being so easy as might at first sight appear. The rice is pressed by the four fingers into a wedge-shaped bolus, which is then thrust into the mouth by an upward motion of the terminal joint of the thumb, placed behind it. Any grains of rice which remain clinging to the fingers must then be collected by a semi-circular sweep of the thumb into another smaller bolus, which is eaten before a fresh handful of rice is taken up. It is wonderful what dexterity the Persians acquire in this method of eating, which is indeed far more cleanly and con- venient than might be supposed. To the foreigner, however, it is hardly less difficult of acquisition than the Persian manner of sitting on the heels ; and if, on this our first attempt, we did not meet with the ridicule of our entertainers, it was rather from their politeness than from any dexterity on our part. On the conclusion of the meal we took our leave. Pasha Khan ordering our host in his capacity oi farrdsh to accompany us on our journey as far as Kara Ayne. For this we were very grateful, not so much because we hoped for any advantage from our escort, as because we had feared that it mi^rht be larger; for a large escort naturally involves considerable ex- pense.
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ
49
Next day (24th October) we started a little before 8 A.M., and we were now able to contrast the appearance of the numerous villages through which we passed with those on the Turkish side of the frontier. The comparison was certainly very much to the advantage of Persia. The houses, surrounded by gardens of poplars, were neater, cleaner, and better built than is usual in Turkey ; while nearly every village contained at least one house of considerable size. The change in the costume of the people was equally striking : the fez had entirely disappeared, and its place was taken either by the thickly -lined, close-fitting skull-cap of cloth trimmed with black wool, which is called " shikciH" or by the hideous long- haired pdpdkh of black or brown colour which I have already noticed as constituting the head-dress of our muleteers.
Before we had gone very far we were overtaken by two more of Pasha Khan's mounted irregulars, who appeared desirous of attaching themselves to us as an additional escort, in spite of our unwillingness to accept their services. About 2 P.M. we reached the village of Kara Ayne, which was to be our halting-place for the night. Hearing that there was a bazaar, I was minded to visit it, but found it to be a single sho]3 kejit by a leper, whose stock-in-trade appeared to consist chiefly of small tawdry mirrors and very rank tobacco.
On the following day we were joined by two more armed horsemen, making five in all, so that our cavalcade now pre- sented a most imposing appearance, and there seemed to be every chance that, at this rate of proceeding, we should ac- cumulate a small army before reaching Tabriz. In order, as I believe, to sustain our flagging faith in their utility, and to convince us of the danger of the road, an alarm of robbers was started by our escort as we were traversing a narrow defile. Assuring us that only three days ago three men had been robbed and murdered in this very spot, they galloped wildly ahead, now cautiously ascending and peeping over the summit of a hillock, now madly descending it at break-neck speed, and scouring across the country. In the caravan all were huddled together in a compact mass ; and, in spite of our scepticism, 'All insisted on the rifle being got ready for action, while he continued to brandish an old sword (which he had bought at
4
50 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
Erzcroum) in the most truculent manner. Notwithstanding all these preparations, no robbers appeared ; and, after we had been sutliciontly entertained by the evolutions of our escort, we were permitted to lapse once more into tranquillity, li^arly in the afternoon, after fording a river (the eminently picturesque brid'^e being broken down), and passing a pretty hamlet situated by the side of a stream, we arrived at the village of Zor;iwa, where we halted for the night. Here we obtained very fair quarters in the house of a fine-looking old man, with some knowledge of Persian. Four or five of the inhabitants came in to stare at us and smoke their halydns (" hubble- bubbles "), with intermittent attempts to mend a broken door. 'All struck up a great friendship with our host, and, inspired by this, and the reilection that on the morrow we should reach a town of some importance, made him a present of all that remained of our tea.
Next day (2Gth October) we found to our delight that our escort was reduced to two, who still continued their attempts to scare us with alarms of robbers. Whether the road was indeed dangerous I do not know, but it was certainly amazingly bad. About mid-day, on emerging from a very fine gorge, we saw at our feet a wide and cultivated plain, surrounded almost entirely by mountains, except to the right, in the direction of Urumiyye. In this plain lay the beautiful little city of Khiiy, and, somewhat nearer to us, the suburb of Pir(^ — both sur- rounded by a mass of gardens. The latter we reached in about an hour, and here we rested for a while. Thence onwards to the very walls of Khuy (appropriately styled " Bariis-mfd" " the Abode of Delight ") our way lay through pleasant gardens of poplars, willows, and fruit-trees, and fields planted with cotton. At 3.30 p.m. we entered the town, and put up at a clean and well-constructed caravansaray.
"VAHiile the baggage was being unloaded, I perceived that we were undergoing an attentive scrutiny on the part of a magnificent-looking dervish, who wore on his head a green turban, of which one end depended over his shoulder, and carried in his hand a shining battle-axe. Presently he began to address enquiries to 'Ali, and, on learning from him that I spoke Persian, approached me and entered into conversation.
i
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ 51
He proved to be a native of Kirman, Mir Jalalu 'cl-Din by name ; and liis extraordinary fertility of imagination, which often carried him far beyond the bounds, not only of the jDrobable, but of the possible, rendered him a very amusing companion, if not a very reliable informant. He at once constituted himself our guide, philosopher, and friend, and hardly quitted us during the three days which we spent at Khuy, declaring that he perceived us to be excellent fellows, worthy of his society and conversation. He assured us that he had travelled much, and had thrice visited London, once in company with the Shah ; that he had instructed members of the Eussian royal family in Persian ; and that besides this, his native tongue, he was conversant with no less than ten languages, including Kurdish, Eussian, and the dialect of Sistan on the eastern frontier of Persia. Having given us these details about himself, he began to question us as to our destination, and, on learning that we were bound for Tabriz, told us that we must on no account omit to visit the towns of Salmas, Khusravabad, and Dilmaghan, more especially the latter, in which, as he declared, there were no less than a thousand English residents, who, through converse with dervishes and Sufis, had become enlightened and philosophical. While we were engaged in conversation, a man entered the room to enquire our names and whence we came, the object for which this information was sought being, as Mir Jalalu 'd- Din informed us with perfect gravity, that it might be inserted in the newspapers of Tabriz ! His imagination being now temporarily exhausted, our worthy friend bade us good- night ; and, promising to be with us betimes in the morning, and to show us something of the town, left us to repose.
Our first business on awaking in the morning was to make enquiries as to the possibility of obtaining a bath in the adjacent licmimdm, and this indulgence was without difficulty accorded to us. On our return we found our friend the dervish awaiting our arrival. He at once launched out into a disquisition on things pertaining to his order. The true 'drif or adept, he informed us, was distinguished by four external signs : the tabar, or axe, which serves to protect him during his wanderings in the desert from ferocious beasts ; the
52 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
Irshhil, or gourd sluug on chains, in which he receives ahns ; the tdj, or felt cap embroidered witli texts, which crowns his head ; and the i/isii, or long locks, which fall over his shoulders. He then showed nie some pills, compounded, as he assured me, after a ju'escription of the sage Lokm;in, of a substance called harsh, and known by the name of habh-i-nishdt, or " pills of gladness." One of these he offered me to eat, assuring me that it would not fail to produce a most delightful sense of exhilaration and ecstasy ; but, although I complied with his invitation, I failed to observe any such effect.
About i 1 A.M. we accompanied him for a stroll through the town. He first took us to a neighbouring caravansaray and introduced us to a Syrian Christian of Urumiyye, named Simon Abraham, who practised the trade of a photographer, and spoke English (which he had learned from the missionaries settled at that place) very well. He, in his turn, introduced us to another Syrian Christian, called Dr. Samuel, who kept a dispensary at the opposite side of the caravansaray, and who likewise possessed a good knowledge of English. Both received us very cordially, and did much to render pleasant our sojourn at Khuy.
In the afternoon we were taken by the indefatigable Mir Jalalu 'd-Din to visit a tcky6, or retreat for dervishes, situated near the walls of the town. The dervishes, who were a most heterogeneous crew, including, besides Persians, Kurds and negroes, received us very hospitably, and gave us tea. On our return to the caravansaray, our companion introduced us to a rammdl, or geomancer, who occupied a room adjacent to ours. This votary of the occult sciences, Mirza Taki by name, was a native of Kirniiinshah. So far as I could see, he never quitted his cell, dividing his time between opium-smoking, tea-drinking, and casting the four dice-like brass cubes pivoted together whereby he essayed to unravel the mysteries of the future. After offering us a share of his tea, he proceeded to cast his dice and tell me my fortune, scribbling on a piece of paper the while, somewhat as follows : — " Three, tioo, one, two " (counting the numbers uppermost on the dice), " Praise be to AlliUi ! thou wert born under a lucky star. One, one, three, four ; thy journey will be a long one, and seven months at
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABR/Z 53
least will elapse ere thou slialt see again thy native land. Tivo, two, four, two ; I take refuge with Allah, the Supreme, the Mighty! What is it that I see? Thou shalt without doubt incur a great danger on the road, and indeed it seemeth to me that one will attempt thy life before thou reachest Tabriz. Four, three, one, four ; thou hast already lost, or wilt
sliortly lose, two things of value " (I immediately thought
of my watch, and then recollected that I had informed Mir Jalalu 'd-Din of its loss). " Four, four, two, one ; our refuge is in God ! A violent storm will overtake thee on thy voyage homewards, but from this thou wilt, In-slia 'lldh, escape, by means of a talisman which I will prepare for thee. Thire, one, one, three ; on thy return home thou wilt marry and have four sons and three daughters. Four, tivo, three, one; thou hast, alas ! several powerful enemies, and an evil influence threatens thy star; but shouldst thou escape these (rs, please God, thou wilt do, by the help of a charm which I will presently write for thee), thou wilt without doubt gain the favour of thy Queen, and attain unto great prosperity — In-sha 'IWi ! Thy fortune," he continued, sweeping up the implements of his craft, " is, praise be to Allah, far from bad ; a proof of which is that thou hast fallen in with one truly skilled in the occult sciences, and endowed with all kinds of knowledge, who is able not only to warn thee of the misfortunes which threaten thee, but also to provide thee with the means of averting, or at least of mitigating, the same. The talismans which thou needest now are as follows : — One to protect thee from the attempt on thy life which will be made before thou reachest Tabriz ; one to ensure thy safety in the storm which will assail thee on thy
homeward voyage ; one "
" Honoured sir ! " I interrupted at this point, " before giving you the trouble of writing so many charms, I would fain have some further proof of the efficacy of your science. I do not, indeed, like many of my countrymen, deny its exist- ence, but of its truth I would desire a proof which 570U can easily afford me. To describe the events of the past is without doubt less difficult than to predict those of the future. Tell me, then, the name of my birthplace, the number of my brothers and sisters, and the adventures which have already befallen
54 ^i YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
1110. Thou, iiuleed, shall T know for certain that you aro a skilful luai^ician, and that the science which you practise is not (as some of my uulx'licvin_Ljf countrymen assert) a vain and useless thing."
lieasonable as this request appeared to niu to be, it did not seem to meet with the approbation of the geomancer, who appeared suddenly to lose interest in the conversation, seeing which we withdrew to our own room, where we subsequently received a visit from our Syrian friends,
Next morning, before I was dressed, ]\Iir Jahilu 'd-Di'n appeared with two small manuscripts, both of which, he said, belonged to a poor Sufi, who was willing to sell them for a small sum only because he was stricken down by a mortal disease. One of these manuscripts contained, besides the well- known philosophical poem of Sheykh Mahmud Shabistari known as the G^ulshan-i-Rdz or " Eose Garden of Mystery," a treatise on the mystical science of managing the breath, from which he read me several long extracts. The other consisted of a few scattered pages from a work on medicine, which, he gravely informed me, had been written hj the hand of Galen himself, and discovered by himself and a comrade amongst the ruins of one of the lyyramids destroyed hy the English ! Not wishing to hurt the feelings of my ingenious friend by giving expression to my doubts, and thinking that some compensation was due to him for the trouble which he had been at to entertain us, I agreed to purchase these manuscripts for the moderate sum which he named.
We next visited the dispensary of Dr. Samuel, whither
H had already preceded us. Here for the first time I
was able to appreciate the difficulties incidental to the practice of medicine amongst a people whose curiosity prompts them to hover round the physician long after their own cases have been dealt with, and who are only too eager to throw out hints on diagnosis and treatment whenever they get the oppor- tunity. Our visit to the dispensary was so far unfortunate that, on returning to our caravansaray towards evening, after a stroll in the bazaar and a chat with the postmaster, I found a crowd of people assembled outside, who, on beholding me, cried out, " He comes ! the Firangi hahim has arrived," and thronged
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ 55
after me into the square. This assembly consisted of several sick people, accompanied by a number of their friends and relatives, who, hearing that we had some knowledge of medi- cine, were anxious to consult us. On enquiry I learned that they had previously been attending Dr. Samuel, from whom they had obtained medicine, of which they had only made a very brief trial. I therefore told them that they had better give his treatment a fair chance before deserting it for some new remedy, especially as I was convinced, both by conversa- tion with the Syrian doctor, and by observation of his practice, that he was at least as competent as myself to advise them.
It was with much reoret that on the followino; morniucf (29th October) we prepared to quit Khuy. For some time I despaired of ever getting off. Inside the room, where we were vainly attempting to pack our things, were our Syrian friends, together witli Mir Jalalu 'd-Din, who had come to bid us fare- well. Outside were crowds of sick people come for advice and treatment, irregular soldiers anxious to be engaged as an escort, and idle spectators ; while above all was visible the ugly grinning face of Feyzu llah, the muleteer, trying to hasten our departure with cries of " Giclakh ! " which, in the Turkish dialect of Azarbaijan, signifies " Let us go." At length, about 11 a.m., our preparations were completed, and we were on the point of starting, when Mir Jalalu 'd-Din (who had disappeared for a while previously) approached me to bid me farewell and to give me two more proofs of his good will. The first of these was a letter of introduction to a brother dervish at Tabriz, who, he assured me, would very probably consent to accompany me on my travels, and would perhaps even return with me to my native country. Unfor- tunately, I was unable to put tliis statement to the test, and the letter was never used. The second was a small white circular object, looking like an unperforated and much-worn shirt button, which he said was a talisman, sufficient, in all probability, to protect me against the danger of being robbed or murdered which had been predicted by the opium-smoking geomancer. As a further precaution, however, he added that I should do well, in the event of robbers making their appear- ance, to dismount from my horse, take a handful of dust from
56 A YEAR AAfONGST THE PERSIANS
the road, Mow on it, and scatter it around me, at the same time uttering the " ])wni Ih'th," wlien the robbers would infallibly disperse. He then asked me to give him a nazr, or oflering of money, for the dervishes, who would exert their influence to protect me from harm, and, having received this, he finally bade me farewell.
Quitting the town by a gate opposite to that by which we had entered it, we passed through a long avenue of poplars, and shortly afterwards reached a point where the road bifur- cated, one branch running southwards in tlie direction of Urumiyy6, and the other, which we pursued, eastwards towards the hills which we must cross to reach Tabriz. Near the summit of one of these hills was a small imdmzddS, or shrine, which, as Farach informed us, was reputed most effica- cious in curing persons afflicted with hydrophobia, or bitten by a serpent. After a short stage of four hours we reached a little village called Seyyid Tiiju 'd-Din, where we halted for the night.
Next day we continued to ascend for about two hours, until we reached the top of the pass. From this we had a magnificent view of the great salt lake of Urumiyy^, glittering in the sun, and studded with numerous rocky islands, which, as an effect of the mirage, aj^peared deeply indented at the base. Descending by the dry bed of a river which did duty for a road, we soon entered the plain which skirts the lake on this its northern side. Here we fell in with a wandering snake-charmer, who, after exhibiting to us the immunity with which he handled his snakes, pressed us to buy pieces of dirty bread, which he assured us would prove an infallible remedy for snake-bites. This, however, I declined to do, for I thought myself sufficiently provided with talismans for the present.
Before 2 p.m. we reached our halting-place, Tasuch, a large but uninteresting village distant about a mile from the shore of the lake. Nothing worthy of note befell us here, except the loss of a purse of money, which event our friend the geomancer, had he known of it, might perhaps have claimed as the fulfilment of a part of his prediction.
The following day's march took us to Dize-Khalil, a good- sized village with a fair bazaar, situated amidst gardens of
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ 57
poplars near the north-east corner of the lake. Here we obtained good quarters, where our host brought us, together with a present of flowers, an old copy of the Pilgrims Progress left behind by some previous traveller.
Next day, Tuesday, 1st November, after a tedious march of nearly ten hours, broken by a short halt about 2 p.m. at a disconsolate village called Miyan, we reached Tabriz, the capital of the province of Azarbaijan, the residence of the Vali-ahd, or Crown Prince, and one of the largest, if not the largest, of the cities of Persia. Although we were provided with letters of introduction to Mr. Abbott, the British Consul, it was too late to think of presenting them that evening, and accordingly, after threading our way for nearly an hour through the vast suburbs which surround the city, we were glad to alight at the first respectable caravansaray which we came to.
On the following morning we repaired to the British Consulate, and were very kindly received by Mr. Abbott and his wife, who invited us to be their guests during our sojourn in Tabriz. We gladly accepted this invitation, for we had not seen a European since leaving Erzeroum, and had not slept in a proper bed since we quitted the Hotel d'ltalie at Trebizonde.
We remained at Tabriz four days. During this time we became acquainted with Mr. Whipple, one of the American missionaries, who kindly undertook to pilot us through the interminable labyrinth of bazaars (perhaps the most extensive in Persia), and the Turkish Consul, Behjet Bey, who, in addition to an excellent knowledge of Persian, possessed the best temper, the keenest sense of humour, the cheeriest laugh, and the most voracious appetite that I have ever seen in one of his nation.
Although Tabriz is so important a town, it offers few attractions to the sight-seer beyond the bazaars, the " Blue Mosque " {Masjid-i-Kabud), and the citadel (Arg), of which the two last are said to date from the time of Haninu 'r-Eashid.
Both of these monuments of antiquity we visited on the second day after our arrival. The Blue Mosque is now little more than a ruin, but the handsome tiles and inscriptions which still adorn its walls bear witness to its ancient splendour.
58 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
The citadel (also said to have been originally a mosque) consists of a square enclosure with a sinf^le entrance, o])posite to M^hich rises a lol'ty, massive rectangular tower, accessible by means of a staircase in tlie left lateral wall of the quadrangle. The opposite side of the quadrangle is formed by a large amhdr, or magazine, now used as a storehouse for arms and ammunition.
The view from the summit of the citadel is very extensive, and enabled me in some degree to realise the magnitude of the city, which lay below us like a map. From this height, in former days, criminals were sometimes hurled into the ditch below. On one occasion, we were informed, a woman con- demned to suffer death in this manner was so buoyed up by the air inflating her loose garments that she reached the ground uninjured. Whether this story is true or false I cannot say, neither did I pay much attention to its recital, my thoughts being occupied with the tragic death of the young prophet of Shiraz, Mirza 'Ali Muhammad, better known as the Bab, which took place on 9th July 1850, at or near this spot. As I shall have to say a good deal about the Babi religion in subsequent chapters, it may not be altogether out of place to give here a brief account of the life and death of its founder, although the history of these is well known, and has been repeatedly set forth.^
Mi'rza 'All Muhammad was born at Shiraz on 9th October 1820. His father, Seyyid Muhammad Eiza, a cloth-merchant in that town, died while he was still of tender age, leaving him to the care of his uncle Haji Seyyid 'Ali. At the age of seventeen he was sent to the port of Bushire on the Persian Gulf, where, while engaged in transacting the business with which he had been entrusted, he rendered himself conspicuous not less by the austerity of his morals than by the sweetness and amiability of his disposition. Addicted from an early age
^ See Gobineau's Religions et Philosopldes clans VAsic Centrale ; Jlirza Kazem- Beg's articles on Bab et les Bdbys in the Journal Asiatiquc for 1866 ; several articles by myself in the Jov^rnal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1889 and 1892 ; the Traveller's Narrative, written to illustrate the Episode of the Bah, edited, translated, and annotated by me for the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press (1891) ; and my forthcoming translation of the New History of Mirzd 'Ali Muhammad the Bdb (1893).
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ 59
to religious meditation, he was soon impelled to abandon com- mercial pursuits and to undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca and the shrines of the Imams (so dear to every pious Persian) at Nejef and Kerbela. Here he became the pupil of Haji Seyyid Kazim of Eesht, a theologian who, notwithstanding the enmity and opposition of the orthodox Shi'ite clergy, had already begun to exert a considerable influence on Persian thought, and to gather round him a numerous band of ardent disciples. Mi'rza 'All Muhammad, in spite of his youth and retiring dis- position, soon attracted the attention of this teacher, who did not fail to be struck by the sweet and thoughtful countenance of the young Shirazi. Nor was Seyyid Kazim the only one who yielded to a charm which few could wholly resist. Many other learned and devout men began to look with respect and affection on one whose humility only served to throw his other virtues into bolder relief. Thus were sown the seeds of that devotion which was destined ere long to write the testimony of its sincerity in letters of blood throughout the length and breadth of the Persian land, and which was to prove once more to the world that all the torments which the tyrant can devise or the torturer execute are impotent to subdue the courage born of faith and enthusiasm.
It is unnecessary for me to describe in detail the process whereby there grew up in the mind of Mirza 'Ali Muhammad a conviction that he was destined to become the reformer and saviour of his nation. Suffice it to say, that, after a prolonged inward struggle, on 23rd May 1844 he proclaimed himself to the world as the Bah or Gate whereby men might win to the sacred mysteries and spiritual truths of which he had become the recipient.
Before long he had gathered round himself a number of disciples. Amongst these were many of the most distinguished pupils of Seyyid Kazim, whose recent death had left them temporarily without a recognised head. They eagerly adopted the doctrines of their former fellow-student, and began to preach them openly wherever they went, so that in a short time the fame of Mi'rza 'All Muhammad was noised abroad throughout the whole of Persia, and everywhere men began to say that the Imam Mahdi had come at last for the deliverance
6o .-; YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
of the nations ami the establishment, of universal justice ami peace.
At first but little attention M^as paid to the new sect by the government or clergy, but towards the end of tlie summer of 1845 they began to be alarmed at its rapid spread, and took measures to check its progress. The Bi'ib, who had just returned from Mecca to Bushire, was brought to Shiraz and placed in confinement. His followers were prohibited from discussing his doctrines in public, and some of the more active were beaten, mutilated, and expelled from the town. In the early summer of 1846, however, a plague broke out in Shi'nlz, and, during the general consternation caused by this, the ]3;Lb effected his escape, and made his way to Isfahan, where he was well received by Minuchihr Khan, governor of that city, who afforded him protection and hospitality for nearly a year.
Early in 1847 Minuchiln- Khan died, and his successor, anxious to curry favour with the Government, sent the Bab, under the care of an escort of armed horsemen, to the capital. So serious were the apprehensions already entertained by the Government of a popular demonstration in the prisoner's favour, that his guards had received instructions to avoid entering the towns by which they must needs pass. At Kashan, however, a respectable merchant named Mirza Jjini',^ who subsequently suffered martyrdom for his faith, prevailed on them by means of a bribe to allow their prisoner to tarry with him two days. At the village of Khanlik, also near Teheran, a number of believers came out to meet the Bab. Amongst these was Mirza Huseyn 'Ali of Nur in Mazandaran, who, at a later date, under the title of BcMu'lWi (" the Splen- dour of God "), was recognised by the great majority of the Babis as their spiritual chief, and who, till his death on 16 th
^ Mirza Jani's chief claim to distinction is as the historian of the move- ment for which he gave his life. His liistory, of primary importance for the study of Babiism, contains a vast number of curious particulars, doctrinal and biographical, which have been omitted (not unintentionally) by later Babi ■writers. It is, however, exti-emely rare. So far as I knoAV, only two manuscri})ts of it exist, and one of these contains only a third part of the work. Both these manuscripts belonged fonnerly to the Comte de Gobineau, and both are now in the Bibliotheque Rationale at Paris. See my translation of the New liistory, Introduction, and Appendix ii. *
\
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ 6i
May 1892, resided at Acre in Syria, surrounded by a band of faithful followers, and visited yearly by numbers of pilgrims.
The late king, Muhammad Shah, and his chief minister, Haji Mirza Aghasi, dreading the effect likely to be produced in the capital by the presence of the Bab, determined to send him to the fortress of M;ikii on the north-west frontier of Persia, without allowing him to enter Teheran. Thither he was accordingly conveyed ; but at Zanjan and Milan he received a popular ovation, and even at Maku it was found impossible to prevent him from receiving occasional letters and visits from his adherents. Nor did the plan of transferrin q; him to the sterner custody of Yahya Khan, governor of the castle of Chihrik, near Urumiyye, meet with much better success in this respect.
Meantime, while the Bab was occupying the weary days of his imprisonment in compiling and arranging the books des- tined to serve as a guide to his followers after the fate which he had but too much cause to apprehend should have removed him from their midst, his emissaries were actively engaged in propagating his doctrines. Fiery enthusiasm on the part of these was met by fierce opposition from the orthodox party, headed by the clergy, and it needed only the confusion and disorder introduced into all departments of the empire by the death of Muhammad Shah (5th October 1848) to bring the two factions into armed collision. The strife, once kindled, rapidly assumed the most alarming proportions, and the reign of the present king, ISTasiru'd-Din Shah, was inaugurated by formidable insurrections of the Babis at Yezd, Ni'riz, Zanjan, and in Mazandaran. Of the two latter risings I shall have to say something when I come to speak of the j)laces at which they occurred. For the present it is sufficient to state that, after the rising in Mazandaran had been suppressed with great difficulty and the sacrifice of many lives, a revolt, which threatened to defy the united efforts of the whole Persian army, broke out at Zanjan. Thereupon, by the advice of Mirza Taki Khiin (at that time prime minister to the young king), an attempt was made to strike terror into the hearts of the insurgents, and to fill their minds with despair, by the public
62 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
execution of (lie r.;ll), nvIki, though innocent of any direct share in the plans or councils of the rebels, was regarded as tlie source from which they drew the enthusiasm wliich in- spired them with a resolution so obstinate and a courage so invincible.
Accordingly, orders were despatched to I'abn'z to bring the Biib thither from his prison-house, and, after the form of a trial, to put him to death. After enduring all manner of insults at the hands of the Government authorities, the clergy, and the rabble of the city, through the streets of which he was dragged for many hours, he was finally brought to the place of execution, near the citadel, a little before sundown. An immense crowd, drawn thither some by sympatliy, others by a vindictive desire to witness the death of one whom they regarded as an arch-heretic, but actuated for the most part, probably, by mere curiosity, was here assembled. Many of those who composed it were at least half- convinced of the divine mission of the Bab ; others, who had come with feel- ings of animosity or indifference, were moved to compassion by the sight of the youthful victim, who continued to manifest the same dignity and fortitude which had characterised him during the whole period of his imprisonment.
The Bab was not to suffer alone. The sentence which had been pronounced against him included also two of his disciples. One of these, Aka Seyyid Huseyn of Yezd, who had been his companion and amanuensis during the whole period of his captivity, either actuated by a momentary but uncontrollable fear of death, or, as the Babis assert with more probability, obediently to orders received from his Master, bidding him escape at all hazards and convey to the faithful the sacred writings of which he was the depositary, declared himself willing to renounce the creed for which he had already sacrificed so much, and tlie Master to whom he had hitherto so faithfully adhered. His recantation was accepted and his life spared, but his death was only deferred for two years. In September 1852 he met the fate which he no longer affected to fear amongst the martyrs of Teheran.
The other disciple was a young merchant of Tabriz, named Aka Muhammad 'Ali. Although every effort was made to
FROM THE PERSIAN FRONTIER TO TABRIZ 63
induce him to follow the example of his comrade, and though his wife and little children were brought before him, entreat- ing him with tears to save his life, he stood firm in his faith, and only requested that at the moment of death he might still be allowed to fix his gaze on his Master. Finding all efforts to alter his decision unavailing, the executioners proceeded to suspend him alongside of his Master at the distance of a few feet from the ground by means of cords passed under the arms. As he hung thus he was heard to address the Bab in these words : " Master ! art thou satisfied with me ? " Then the file of soldiers drawn up before the prisoners received the command to fire, and for a moment the smoke of the volley concealed the sufferers from view. "When it rolled away, a cry of mingled exultation and terror arose from the sjDectators, for, while the bleeding corpse of the disciple hung suspended in the air pierced with bullets, the Bab hod disappeared from sight ! It seemed, indeed, that his life had been preserved by a miracle, for, of the storm of bullets which had been aimed at him, not one had touched him ; nay, instead of death they had brought him deliverance by cutting the ropes which bound him, so that he fell to the ground unhurt.
For a moment even the executioners were overwhelmed with amazement, which rapidly gave place to alarm as they reflected what efiect this marvellous deliverance was likely to have on the inconstant and impressionable multitude. These apprehensions, however, were of short duration. One of the soldiers espied the B;ib hiding in a guardroom which opened on to the stone platform over which he had been suspended. He was seized, dragged fortli, and again suspended ; a new firing -party was ordered to advance (for the men who had composed the first refused to act again) ; and before the spectators had recovered from their first astonishment, or the Babis had had time to attempt a rescue, the body of the young prophet of Shiniz was riddled with bullets.
The two corpses were dragged through the streets and bazaars, and cast out beyond the city gates to be devoured by dogs and jackals. From this last indignity, however, they were saved by the devotion of Suleyman Khan and a few other believers, who, whether by force, bribes, or the influence
64 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
of powerful friends, succeeded in obtaining possession of them. They were wrapped in white silk, })laced in one coIlin, and sent to Tolionin, where, by order of Mi'rzii Yahyt'i Huhk-i-Ezcl (" the ^lorniug of Eternity," who, thougli but twenty years of age, had been chosen to succeed the Bab), they were deposited in a little shrine called Imdm-zdd4-i-Ma sibn, which stands by the Hamadiin road not far from liibat-Kari'm. Here they remained undisturbed for seventeen or eighteen years, till the schism originated by Beh;i deprived his half-brother Ezel of the supremacy in the B;ibi Church which he had hitherto enjoyed, when they were removed by the Beha'is, to whom alone is now known the last resting-place of the glorious martyrs of Tabriz.
CHAPTER IV
FEOM TABRfz TO TEHERAN
"We have a liorrour for uncouth monsters; but, upon experience, all these bugs grow familiar and easy to us." — L' Estrange.
On Monday, 7tli November, bidding farewell to onr kind host, we quitted Tabriz as we had entered it, with Farach's animals, which we had decided to re-engage at sixty-five krdns a head (nearly £2 sterling) for our journey to the capital. Contrary to the general rule, we managed to begin our journey with a good long stage of eight farsakhs} We passed nothing of interest except a large sheet of water, lying to the north of the road, on which were multitudes of water-fowl ; and, as we had made a late start, it was more than an hour after sundown when we reached Haji-Aka, where we halted for the night.
Next day we were joined on the road by a horseman of respectable appearance, who accompanied us on our journey as far as Miyane. His name, as I discovered, was Mirzu Htishim, and his conversation did much to beguile the tediousness of the way. Approaching the subject with some diffidence, I asked him to tell me what he knew about the Babi insur- rection at Zanjan. He answered that he could not tell me much about it, except that the insurgents, whose numbers
^ The farsakJi, farsang, or parasang is a somewhat variable measure of length averaging about 3| miles. As Dr. Wills has remarked {Land of the Lion and the Sun), it varies with the nature of the ground, being longer when the road is good, and shorter when it is bad. This leads me to believe that it is intended to indicate the distance which can be traversed in an hour by a good horse going at walking pace. It is, however, considerably longer than the Turkish "hour" (saat), which is only 3 miles. A caravan rarely covers afarsakh in an hour.
5
66 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
hardly oxcecclecl 300 fighting men, hold at bay an ;iniiy (if nearly 10,000 men for nine months. He added that he liad himself known one of them who had succeeded in eflecting his escape after the sack of the town, and wlio used to boast that he had with his own hand slain lOOU ui' the royal troops !
In the course of the morning we passed a fine -looking though somewhat ruined building, situated on the left side of the road opposite to the village of Tikme-Tash, Mdiich our companion informed us was a palace built for the Shjih nearly forty years ago, on the occasion of his visiting this part of his dominions. Since then it has remained unused, and has been allowed to fall into disrepair. Another neglected palace of this sort exists farther east, at Sultitniyye.
Farther on w^e passed two fine old caravansarays, constructed with the care and solidity which characterise all the work done in the glorious days of the Safavi kings. These, how- ever, we passed without halting, and pushed on to ly'ira Chiman, a picturesquely situated village, lying somewhat to the south of the main road in a little valley through which runs a river bordered with groves of poplar trees. Here we obtained very good quarters in a clean, well-constructed hdld- khdn6 (upper room), commanding a fine view of the valley, river, and village.
Next morning (9th Xovember) we passed, soon after start- ing, two large villages, situated at some distance from the road, the one to the north, the other to the south. The former is called Bashsiz, the latter Bulgliawar. Beyond tliese there was little worthy of note in the parched-up undulating country through which our road lav, until, about ?> P.M., we reached our halting-place, Suma, wdiere we obtained good quarters at the house of one Mashhadi Hasan. In the evening we received a \dsit from our travelling companion, Mirza Ilashim ; and as our next stage would bring us to ]\Iiyaue, which enjoys so evil a reputation by reason of the poisonous bugs which infest it, we asked him whether it was true, as is currently reported, that the bite of these animals proves fatal to a stranger. After assuring us that this was sometimes the case, he informed us that the so-called " Miyan^ bug," or '' mala" was not altogether confined to that town, but that it also occurred in Suma, the
FROM TABRIZ TO TEHERAN 67
village wherein we then were. The villagers, he added, have the following curious story about its origin : —
Once upon a time a native of Siinia went to the neigh- bouring village of Hashtarud, where he became involved in a quarrel with the inhabitants, which culminated in his being- murdered by them. From the body of the murdered man emerged a number of these malas, which established themselves in the villagre of Si'una. Whenever a native of Hashtarud arrives there, they remember the blood -feud which exists, and avenge the death of their " ancestor " by inflicting a fatal bite upon the descendant of his murderers. To all others, however, their bite, though painful, is comparatively harmless.
Mi'rza Hashim then told us of the severity of the winters at Ardabil, and showed us a woollen cap with coverings for the ears, admirably adapted for a protection against severe cold. Having informed me that he had refused to sell it for fifteen krdns (rather less than ten shillings), he offered to make me a present of it. Of course I politely declined his offer, telling him that I could not consent to deprive him of so valuable a possession ; for I had no need of the cap, and did not think it worth the sum he had mentioned.
Europeans travelling in Persia have sometimes complained of what they regard as the meanness of the Persians in offering presents in return for which they expect money. It appears to me that this complaint arises from a failure to understand the fact that such an offer from a man of distinctly lower rank than oneself is merely tantamount to a declaration that he is willing to sell or exchange the article in question. When he offers to give it as a present, he merely uses the same figure of speech as did Ephron the Hittite in negotiating the sale of the cave of Machpelah with Abraham. All peoples make use, to a greater or less extent, of similar euphemisms, and we have no more right to blame a poor Persian for offering us a " present," in return for which he expects to receive equivalent value, than to censure as sordid the desire expressed by a cabman to be " remembered " by us.
As I have touched on this subject, I may as well say something about presents in general. There are not fewer than eight words more or less commonly used in Persian
68 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
in this sense. Of these, tliree, viz. armwjhdn, rah-dvard, ami fiduyhiU, signify any object which one brings back from a jour- ney to give to one's friends at home. YddifjAr is a keepsake, to remind the owner of the absent friend by whom it was given. Iladii/i/t' is a general term for any sort of present. There remain the terms tadrvf, pish-lxsh, and in dm, each of which requires a somewhat fuller explanation.
The first of these signifies a present given to some one of about the same social rank as the donor. In such cases no return is usually expected, at any rate in money. Sometimes, however, the term is used by one who, while desirous of receiv- ing the monetary equivalent of that which he offers, does not wish to admit his social inferiority to the person to whom the " present " is offered by using the term 2nsh-kcsh.
When, however, a peasant, servant, muleteer, gardener, or the like, offers a present of fiowers, fruits, or fowls to the traveller, he calls it a iJish-kcsh (offering), and for such he gener- ally expects at least the proper value in money of the article so offered. When the " present " is something to which a definite monetary value can be assigned {e.g. an article of food), this is only right and proper. To expect a poor villager to supply travellers gratis with the necessaries of life, W'hicli he can often ill spare, and to blame him for desiring to receive the value of the same, is surely the height of absurdity. With presents of flowers the case is somewhat different. It often happens that the traveller, on visiting a garden, for instance, is confronted on his exit by a row of gardeners, each of wliom offers him a bunch of flowers. He is then placed in rather a dilemma, for, on the one hand, he feels some delicacy^ in refus- ing what may, after all, be a gift prompted solely by courtesy and kindness ; while, on the other hand, he may not care to pay several krdns for that which is of no use to him. Even in this case I think that EurojDeans are partly to blame for a custom which has, in some of the more frequented parts of Persia, become an intolerable nuisance. My reason for believ- ing that what sometimes amounts to little less than a system of extortion (theoretically capable of unlimited expansion so long as there is a handful of flowers in the village and a peasant to bring and offer the same) originally grew out of a graceful and
FROM TABRIZ TO TEHERAn 69
courteous custom of welcoming a stranger by presenting him with a nosegay, is that in parts of Persia less frequently visited by Europeans, such as the neighbourhood of Yezd and Kirman, I have often been given a handful of roses or other flowers by a passing peasant, who continued on his w^ay after the accom- plishment of this little act of courtesy without once pausing or looking back in expectation of receiving a reward.
As regards the last kind of present, the in Am, or gratuity, it is, as its name implies, one bestowed by a superior on an inferior, and is almost always given in the form of money. The term is applied not only to the presents of money spoken of above, but to the gratuities given to villagers in whose houses one puts up for the night, keepers of caravansarays and post-houses at which one alights, 8Muj%rd-cli{i'pars who accompany one on each stage in posting to show the way and bring back the horses, servants in houses at which one stays, and, in short, any one of humble rank who renders one a service. To determine the amount which ought to be given in any particular case is sometimes rather a difficult matter for the traveller.
A reliable native servant is of great use in this matter ; and should the traveller possess such, he will do well to follow his advice until he is able to judge for himself. The most costly 171 dms, and those which one is most inclined to grudge, are such as must occasionally be given to the farrdsJies of a governor or other great man, who are sent to bear a present from their master, or to meet the traveller and form his escort. To these I shall have occasion to allude again.
I must now return from this digression to our march of 10 th November. The day was cloudy and overcast, and soon after we had started a gentle rain began to fall. We crossed the river Kizil Uzan in several places, and for a considerable distance wended our way along its broad gravelly bed. Traversing the crest of a hill soon after mid-day, we came in full view of the little town of Miyane, which looked very pretty with its blue domes and background of poplars and willows. We had no sooner reached the outskirts of the town than we were met by a number of the inhabitants, each eager to induce us to take up our quarters at his house, the
70 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
ailvantages of wliiili lu' loudly proclaiinod. No sooner had we aliLjlited at one i)laee to examine the quarters offered, than all the competitors of its owner cried out with one accord that if we put up tliQre we should assuredly suffer from the bite of the poisonous bugs with which, they averred, the house in question swarmed. We accordingly moved on to another house, where the same scene was repeated, each man represent- ing his own house as the one place in the town free from this pest, and everyone except the owner uniting in the condemnation of any quarters which we seemed likely to select, finally, in despair we selected the first clean-looking room which presented itself, and occupied it, regardless of the warnings of the disappointed competitors, who at length departed, assuring us that we had pitched on one of the very worst houses in the whole town.
Soon after our arrival we took a walk through the town, and visited the tolerably good bazaars (in which we purchased some dried figs, and a fruit called idar, or, in Turkish, hliunnOb, somewhat resembling a small date, with a very large stone), and the imdmzdde, of which the blue dome is the most conspicuous feature of Miyand. Here, as it was Thursday evening (shah-i- junia, the eve of Friday), many people were assembled to witness a taziya, or representation of the sufferings of the Im;ims Hasan and Huseyn. In the enclosure surrounding the building was seated a half-naked man, who held in his hand a scourge armed with iron thongs, wherewith he occasionally struck himself on the shoulders and back. All those who entered this enclosure, from which we were excluded, kissed the chains which hung in festoons across the gate.
On returning to our quarters we found a man who had brought his horse to consult us about its eye, which had received a slight injury. After advising him as to its treatment, we entered into conversation with him. He warned us that in spite of the apparent cleanliness of our lodging, he knew for certain that there were bugs in it ; but on questioning him further, it appeared that his only reason for saying so was that he had seen one three years ago. Nevertheless, he advised us to take two precautions, which he assured us would protect us from injury : firstly, to keep a candle burning all night ;
FROM TABRIZ TO TEHERAN 71
secondly, to take a small quantity of the spirit called 'arah just before going to bed. We neglected the first of these measures, but not the second ; and whether owing to this, or to the absence of the malas, we slept untroubled by the noxious insects which have given to Miyane so evil a reputation.
Our road next day led us towards the imposing-looking mass of the Kaflan-Kiih. A tortuous path brought us to the summit of the pass, whence we again descended to the river, which we crossed by a fine bridge. On the other side of this bridge we were met by a man who besought us to help him in recovering his horse from the soldiers at an adjacent guard- house, who had, as he alleged, forcibly and wrongfully taken it from him. We accordingly went with him to the guard-house, and endeavoured to ascertain the truth of the matter, and, if possible, effect a satisfactory settlement. lu answer to our enquiries, the soldiers informed us that they had reason to suspect that the horse had been stolen, as it was too valuable an animal to be the lawful property of the man in whose possession they had found it. They added that if he desired to recover it, he must go to Miyan^ and obtain a paper from some respectable citizen to certify that the horse really belonged to him, when it would be restored to him. With this explanation and promise we were compelled to be satis- fied, and proceeded on our way till we reached another pass. On crossing this, we entered on an immense flat table-land, the surface of which was thrown into conical mounds resembling gigantic ant-hills, and thinly covered with mountain plants, which perfumed the air with their fragrance. The ground was riddled with the holes of what appeared to be a kind of jerboa. These little animals were very fearless, and allowed us to approach quite close to them before they retreated into their burrows.
About 4 P.M. we reached the compact and almost treeless village of Sarcham, where we halted for the night. Just before reaching it we came up with one of those " caravans of the dead," so graphically described by Vambery. The coffins (which differ in some degree from those used in Europe, the upper end being flat instead of convex, and furnished with two short handles, like a wheelbarrow) were sewn up in sacking, to which was affixed a paper label bearing the name of the
72 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
deceased. Each niiiinal in this dismal caravan was laden M'illi two or three cothns, on llm lop of which was mounted, in sonic cases, a man or woman, related probably to one of tlic deceased, whose bodies were on their M'ay to their last resting- place in the sacred precincts of Kum.
We had no ditliculty in getting lodgings at Sarcham, for the place contains an extraordinary number of caravansarays, considering its small size, and the inhabitants vied with each other in offering hospitality.
Next day (Saturday, 12 th November) we started early, being given to understand that a long stage lay before us. All day we followed the course of the river, which is a tributary of the Kizil Uzan, though here it seems to be known by the name of the Zanj;in-ab. Dense fogs obscured the sun in the earlier part of the day, but these rolled away as the heat increased, leaving a cloudless sky. The air was perfumed with the scent of the plant which we had observed on the preceding day. On our march we passed three immense caravans, consisting respectively of 102, 72, and 39 camels, bearing merchandise to Tabriz. There is to my mind an indescribable dignity about the camel, who seems to eye one scornfully with half- turned head as he passes majestically on his way ; and the sight of a string of these animals was one of which I never grew weary. On the road we saw a serpent, as well as numbers of lizards, and a small tortoise, which our muleteers called s2Mrghd, a word which I have never heard elsewhere, and which seems to be purely local.
About 3 P.M. we reached the village of Nikh-beg, where we halted. It is a squalid-looking place, devoid of trees, and only remarkable for a very fine old caravansaray of the Safavi period, which bears an inscription over the gateway to the effect that it was repaired by order of Shah Safi, who alighted here on his return from the successful siege of the fortress of Erivan, While copying this inscription, we were surprised and pleased to perceive the approach of Mr. Whipple, the American missionary, who was posting from Tabriz to Hamadan to visit his fellow- workers there.
Our next stage brought us to the considerable town of Zanjan, so celebrated for its obstinate defence by the Babis
FROM TABRIZ TO TEHERAn -ji
against the royal troops in the year 1850. It lies in a plain surrounded by hills, and is situated near, but not on, the river called Zanjan-ab, which is at this point surrounded by gardens. The town has never recovered from the effects of the siege, for, besides the injury which it sustained from the cannonade to which it was exposed for several months, a considerable portion was burnt by the besieged on one occasion, when they were hard pressed by the enemy, to create a diversion. We entered the town by the western gate, passing on our left an extensive cemetery, of which two blue-domed imdmzdcUs con- stitute the most conspicuous feature.
We alighted at a caravansaray near the bazaar, which we visited shortly after our arrival. It is not very extensive, being limited to one long street running east and west more than half through the town (which is much longer in this direction than from north to south). The great drawback to Zanjan is the enormous number of beggars who throng its streets and importune the traveller for alms with cries of "Allah oiejdt versin ! Alldh nejdt versin ! " (" May God give you salvation ! ") In this respect it is unrivalled, so far as I have seen, by any town in Persia, with the exception of Kirman ; and even there, though the poverty of the mendicant classes is probably greater, their importunity is far less.
In the evening we received a visit from a very rascally- looking Teherani with a frightful squint, who enquired if we had any 'arak, and, on learning that we had, requested per- mission to introduce some companions of his who were waiting outside. These presently appeared, and, having done full justice to the 'arah, which they finished off" suggested that we might perhaps like to hear a song. Without waiting for an answer, one of them broke forth into the most discordant strains, shouting the end of each verse which struck him as peculiarly touching into the ear of the man who sat next him, who received it with a drunken simper and a languid " Bali " ("Yes"), as though it had been a question addressed to him. When this entertainment had come to an end, the eyes of our visitors fell on my pocket-flask, which they began to admire, saying, " This bottle is very good, and admirably adapted for the pocket . . . but we have already given enough trouble."
74 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
As I affected not to uiiderstaiul tlio purport of their remarks, tliey ])re.sently departed, to our ^i;reat satisfaction. From the dilllculty which the squint-eyed man seemed to experience in gettinjj; his feet into his shoes, I fancied that our 'aixik was not the first wliich he had tasted tliat night.
"We remained at ZanjVin during the next day, for I was anxious to examine the town and its walls, with a view to obtaining a clearer idea of the history of the siege, and the causes which had enabled the Babi insurgents to keep the royal troops at bay so long. Sir Henry Bethune, quoted by Watson in his History of Persia render the Kdjdr Dynasty, says that in his opinion the place ought to have been subdued by a regular army in a few days, and, so far as I can judge, it possesses no natural advantages as a stronghold. It is true that it is surrounded by a wall (now destroyed in some places), but though this averages twenty or twenty-five feet in height, it is built of no stronger material than unbaked clay. The desperate resistance offered by the Babi's must therefore be attributed less to the strength of the position which they occupied than to the extraordinary valour with which they defended themselves. Even the women took part in the defence, and I subsequently heard it stated on good authority that, like the Carthaginian women of old, they cut off their long hair, and bound it round the crazy guns to afford them the necessary support. The fiercest fighting was on the north and north-west sides of the town, by the cemetery and Tabriz gate. Unfortunately there was no one from whom I could obtain detailed information about the siege. This I regretted the more because I was convinced that, could I have found them, there must have been many persons resident in Zanjan who had witnessed it, or even taken part in it. I had, how- ever, at that time no clue to guide me to those who would probably have preserved the most circumstantial details about it, viz. the Babis. There was therefore nothing to induce me to prolong my stay, and accordingly, after one day's halt, we left Zanjan on 15th November for Sultaniyye.
The road from Zanjan to Sultaniyye runs through a per- fectly flat stony plain bounded by low hills to the north and the south, and is devoid of interest. Nearly three hours
FROM TABRIZ TO TEHERAN 75
before reaching the latter place we could plainly see the great green dome of the mosque for which it is so celebrated. From a distance this appeared to form part of a mass of buildings, which, on nearer approach, proved to be a large palace con- structed in the modern style, and situated some way to the north-west of the mosque.
We paid a visit to the mosque immediately on our arrival, and were shown over it by an old Seyyid who spoke Persian. It is built in the shape of an octagon, and is surmounted by the large green dome which forms so conspicuous a feature of the landscape. From one side of the octagon (that farthest from the road) is thrown out a rectangular annexe containing the milirdh. The main entrance is on the east side. The interior of the building is lined with most exquisite tile-work, and beautiful inscriptions in Arabic. In some places, where these tiles have been destroyed or removod, an older, deeper layer of still finer pattern is visible. As the mosque is no longer used, the European traveller meets with none of the difficulties which usually form an insuperable obstacle to visiting similar buildings in Persia. The village of Sultaniyy^ must formerly have been a flourishing place, but it now consists of only a few hovels, which form a sad contrast to the ancient splendour of the mosque.
As to the date when the mosque was built, our guide was unable to inform us, but he said that it had been repaired and beautified by Shah Ivhuda - Bande, concerning whom he repeated some lines of doggerel, which we had already heard from the muleteer, and which ran as follows : —
" Ey Shah Khudu-Bande, Zulm kunande, Ihi toy'dk Mr kande ! "
" 0 Shah Khuda-bancle, practiser of tyranny, two fowls to one village ! "
The last line of this is Turkish : what event it alludes to, or what its real purport is, I was unable to ascertain. Our guide informed us that some time ago a European engineer had spent a week at this place, making elaborate plans and drawings of the mosque. Having completed our inspection, we offered a small sum of money to the old Seyyid who had
76 .-/ YEAR ylAfONGST THE PERSIANS
accompanied us; 1ml he bade us give wliatever we wished to his sou, a little boy, who liad also followed us. I accordingly gave him two krdns, wliich appeared to mo a sufficient recom- pense for the amount of trouble we luul ^iven, but the Seyyid seemed to be of a different opinion, remarking tliat it was " a very trivial sum for people of distinction." I asked him what reason he had for supposing that we were " people of distinc- tion," to which he only replied that we were " vniklddr " — free to do as we pleased.
Besides the mosque and the palace, there are several little imdmzdd^s at Sultiiniyye, and I was anxious to remain another day to examine these. Farach, however, appeared to divine my intention and took pains to frustrate it, for he avoided me all the evening, instead of coming in after supper, as he usually did, to discuss the events of the day, and sent off all the baggage early in the morning, so that we had no course open to us but to proceed. After another uneventful stage, we reached our next halting-place of Khurram-der^ — a pretty village situated on a river, surrounded by poplars and willows — about 4.30 p.m. Here, as usual, we were very hospitably received by the villagers, two of whom came out some distance to meet us and conduct us to their house, where we were lodged in a very good upper room, thickly carpeted, and furnished with eight large windows provided with shutters.
Next day we started early, the muleteers pretending that they would try to reach Kazvin that evening, which, as I believe, they had from the first no intention of doing. Our road ran towards the north-east in the direction of a low range of hills. On reaching the highest point of the ridge we could see before us the mighty range of the Elburz mountains, which separates Persian 'Irak from the humid, richly -wooded provinces bordering on the Caspian Sea. Between us and these mountains lay a wide, flat, stony plain, in which the position of Kazvin was clearly indicated by the thin pall of blue smoke which hung over it. Towards this plain our road now began to descend, and in a few minutes we arrived at the village of Kirishkin, where the muleteers announced their intention of halting for the night — a decision from which it
FROM TABRIZ TO TEHERAN 77
was impossible to move them, and to which I was in great measure reconciled by the kindly welcome given to us by the inhabitants. Here, indeed, a marked change was observable in the people, who appeared much brighter, more intelligent, and more amiable than the natives of Azarbaijan. The latter, with their scowling faces and furtive gray eyes, are not popular amongst the Persians, whose opinion about the inhabitants of their metropolis, Tabriz, is expressed in the following rhyme : —
" Zi Tabrtzl hi-juz Mzi na-hint : Hamdn bihtar hi Tabrki na-bini.''
" From a Tabrizi tliou wilt see naught but rascality : Even this is best, that thou shouldst not see a Tabrizi."
The change in the appearance of the people is accompanied by a change in language, for this was the first place we came to at which the Persian tongue appeared to preponderate over the Turkish.
At this village we obtained the most sumptuous quarters in a large room, twenty-five feet long by fifteen wide, thickly spread with carpets, A few works of Persian poetry, placed in niches in the wall, showed that our entertainers united a taste for literature with a love of comfort. In the course of the evening we received a visit from our host and his sons. One of the latter — the one to whom the books chiefly belonged — was a bright intelligent youth who discussed the merits of various Persian and Turkish poets with great zest. I was much amused at one remark which he made. Speak- ing of the recently-concluded taziyas (dramatic representations of various moving episodes in the lives of the Prophet and his successors), and especially of the scene wherein the " Firangi ambassador " at the court of Damascus, moved by the misfor- tunes and patience of the captive believers, embraces Islam, and is put to death by the cruel tyrant Yezid, he said, " How I wish you had come here a little earlier, for then we could have borrowed your hats and clothes for the Pirangis, and indeed you might have even taught us some words of your language to put in the mouths of the actors who personated them. As it was, not knowing anything of the tongue of the
78 ./ YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
Firan<,'is, wo had In make tlic actors wlio represented them talk Turkisli, Avhich seemed to us the nearest approach possible to Firangi speech."
Xext day we reached Kazvi'u after a shurt stage, during which we descended into the i^lain of which I have already spoken. Here we intended to halt for a day to see the town, which is of considerable size and contains many fine buildings. Amongst these is a mihmdn-hhdiiA, or guest-house, which is one of a series constructed between Enzeli and Teheriin, and thence as far south as Kum. At this, however, we did not put up, as I was anxious to cling for a few days longer to the more Oriental abodes to which I had become not only accustomed, but attached, and which I foresaw would have to be aban- doned on reaching Teheran in favour of more civilised modes of existence. Unfortunately, our muleteers, either through indifference or ignorance, took us to a very poor caravansaray, far inferior in comfort to the quarters which we had enjoyed since leaving Zanjan, where we had suffered in a similar way. Indeed it is usually the case that the traveller (unless pro- vided with introductions) fares less well in the towns than in the villages.
We spent most of the following day in wandering through the bazaars and examining the appearance of the town and its inhabitants. The bazaars were much like those which we had already seen at Khiiy, Tabriz, and Zanjan; but as regards the people, the advantage was decidedly in favour of the Kazvinis, who are more pleasing in countenance, more gentle in manners, and rather darker in complexion than the Azarbaijauis. Persian is spoken by them universally, but almost all understand Turkish as well.
The road from Eesht to Teheran, which is the route usually taken by those entering Persia from Europe, passes through KazWu. This road we now joined, and by it we proceeded to the capital, accomplishing the journey thither in three days. As it is probably the best known and the least interesting of all the roads in Persia, I will not describe it in detail, and will only notice certain points which appear worthy of mention.
First of all the milimdn-khd'tTAs, or guest-houses, of which
FROM TABRIZ TO TEHERAN 79
I have already spoken, merit a few words. They were built, I believe, by order of the present Shah on his return from his first visit to Europe. They are intended to afford the traveller by the ordinary route to the capital greater comfort and better accommodation than are obtainable in cara- vansarays, and to fulfil in some degree the functions of a hotel. I cannot say that I was at all favourably impressed by these institutions, at the first of which, called Kishlakh, we arrived on the evening of the day of our departure from Kazvi'n (20th November). It is true that they are well built, and stand in gardens pleasantly surrounded by trees ; that the rooms are furnished with European beds, chairs, and tables ; and that cooked food can be obtained from the attend- ants. But these advantages are, to my mind, far more than counterbalanced by the exorbitance of the charges and the insolence of the servants, which contrasted painfully with the ready hospitality, genial courtesy, and slight demands of the villagers in whose humble but cleanly homes we had hitherto generally found a resting-place at the end of our day's journey. The mihmdn-hhmU, in short, has all the worst defects of a European hotel without its luxury. Let me briefly describe our experiences at one — that of Kishlakh — as a specimen which will serve for all. On our first arrival we are dis- courteously told that there is no room. Eemonstrances and requests are alike useless, so we prepare to move on and try to find a village where we can halt for the night, which is now rapidly advancing. We have hardly started, after a con- siderable delay to allow of the baggage-animals coming up, when a man runs after us and informs us that there is room. No explanation or apology is offered for the previous statement, but, as no other habitation is in sight, we decide to turn back. On dismounting, we are conducted to a room littered up, rather than furnished, with several beds, a number of cane-bottomed chairs, and a table or two. The windows are furnished with tawdry curtains ; the walls are bedecked with tinselled mirrors and gaudy pictures; while on the washing-stand a single ragged tooth-brush is ostentatiously displayed by the side of a clothes-brush, which would seem to be intended to serve as a hair-brush as well.
8o A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
While coutemplating this chaos of luxury, and meditating somewhat sadly ou the unhappy cftect produced in Eastern lauds by the adoption of Western customs, I became aware of a stir outside, and, rushing out, was just in time to see the Imihn-Junia, or chief ecclesiastic, of Tabriz drive up in a carriage followed by a number of attendants in other vehicles. By the side of the road lay the bleeding carcase of a sheep, whose throat had just been cut to do honour to the approaching dignitary. This not very graceful custom is common in Persia, and Mr. Abbott, the British Consul at Tabriz, informed me that he had great difficulty in preventing its performance whenever he returned to Persia after an absence in Europe.
Before we retired for the night — not on the unattractive- looking beds, but, as usual, on our Wolseley valises — we received another proof of the advance of European ideas in the neighbourhood of the capital in the form of a till (a thing which we had not seen since we left Erzeroum), in which two krdns were charged for " service," which charge the bearer of the document was careful to inform us was not intended to prevent us from bestowing on him a further gratuity. The total amount of the bill was eight krdns — not much, indeed, but about double the sum which we had usually expended for a night's lodging hitherto — and we were requested to settle it the same evening — a request which showed that a becoming suspicion of one's fellow-creatures was amongst the European " improvements " introduced by the mihmdn-khdnds.
The muleteers, who had been compelled to pay an exorbit- ant price for food for their animals, were not less disgusted than ourselves, and declared that they would henceforth avoid mihmdn-khdn^s entirely. Next day, accordingly, passing two of these, we made a long stage, and halted about nightfall at a walled village called Kara-i-Imam-Jum'a, where we were assured by Earach that we should find " everything that our hearts desired." Unless he fancied that our hearts would desire nothing but melon-peel, which was scattered freely about the floor of the little cell where we took up our quarters, Farach's promise must have been dictated less by a strict regard for truth than by a fear of being compelled by us to halt at a mihmdn-khdnd. However, we eventually succeeded
FROM TABRfZ TO TEHERAN 8i
iu obtaining some bread from a kindly Persian who had become cognisant of our need, and with this, and the last remains of the preserved meats bought at Trebizonde, we managed to appease our hunger, consoling ourselves with the thought that this would be our last night in the wilderness for the present, and that on the morrow we should be amongst the fleshpots of Teheran.
Next morning we were astir early, for the excitement of being so near the Persian capital made sloth impossible. Yet to me at least this excitement was not free from a certain tinge of sorrow at the thought that I must soon bid farewell to the faithful Farach, whom, notwithstanding his occasional obstinacy and intractability, I had learned to like. Moreover, difficult as may be the transition from European to Asiatic life, the return is scarcely easier. I sighed inwardly at the thought of exchanging the free, unconsLrained, open - air existence of the caravan for the restraints of society and the trammels of town life ; and it was only when I reflected on the old friends I should see again, and the new friends I hoped to make, that I felt quite reconciled to the change before me.
This day's march was the most interesting since leaving Kazvin. To the north, on our left liand, towered the long range of the Elburz mountains, much loftier and bolder in outline here than at their western extremity ; nor had we proceeded far when there burst suddenly on our view the majestic snow-capped cone of Mount Demavend, where, as ancient legend runs, the tyrant-parricide, Zuhliak, lies bound in chains. At the base of this giant wall are gentler slopes, covered with villages which serve as a summer retreat to the more opulent when the heat of the capital has become intoler- able. Kear the road for some distance runs the river Karach, bright and rippling ; while, to the south of this, numerous little villages set with poplars diversify the monotony of the gray stony plain. Once or twice we passed bands of soldiers returning from their military service to their homes in Azarbaijan, and then a mighty caravan of 1 11 camels wending its slow course westwards. Then, all at once, our eyes were dazzled by flashes of light reflected from an object far away
82 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
towards the south, which shone likegtiM in the sun. Tliis I at first imagined must be the situation df the capital, hut I was mistaken ; it was the dome of tlie lioly slirinc of 8]i:ih 'Abdu 'I-'Azim, situated five or six miles south of Tehenin, which, lying as it does somewhat in a hollow, is not clearly seen until it is almost reached. At length, however, at a little roadside tea-house, where we halted for refreshment, we came in sight of it.
j\Iany such tea-houses formerly existed in the capital, but most of them were closed some time ago by order of the Sh;lh. The reason commonly alleged for this proceeding is that they were supposed to encourage extravagance and idleness, or, as I have also heard said, evils of a more serious kind. Outside the town, however, some of them are still permitted to continue their trade and provide the " hond fide traveller " with refreshment, which, needless to say, does not include wine or spirits.
At length, about sunset, we entered the city by the Deinvdz6-i-Nmu (New Gate), and here we were accosted by one Yiisuf 'All, who, though he wore the Persian dress, was, as he proudly informed us, a British subject of Indian nationality. We asked him what accommodation was to be found in Teheran. He replied that there were two hotels, one kept by a family called Prevost, of Prench or Swiss extraction, the other by a man called Albert, and advised us to go to the latter, because it was cheaper. As, however, we purposed making a sojourn of some length in the capital, and the comfort of our abode was therefore a matter of more importance than when we were halting only for a niglit or two, we determined to inspect both places on the following day, and in the meantime, as it was now late, to take up temporary quarters at a caravansaray situated not far from the gate whereby we had entered.
CHAPTEE V
TEHEKAN
"There was a most ingenious Arcliitect, who had contrived a new Method for building Houses, by beginning at the Roof, and working downwards to the Foundation, which he justified to mo, by tlie like Practice of those two prudent Insects, the Bee and the Spider." — Swift.
Hitherto I have, in describing my travels, followed pretty closely the journals which I kept during their continuance, only amplifying such things as appeared unfamiliar or interesting, and suppressing or abridging entries which I deemed to be of consequence to no one but myself. Now, however, a different plan becomes necessary ; for since I continued at the Persian capital for about ten weeks, and since many days passed uneventfully, either in study or in conversation w^ith friends and acquaintances, a full record of this period would necessarily be both prolix and unprofitable. I shall therefore include in this chapter all that I have to say about the people, topography, institutions, public buildings, gardens, squares, palaces, mosques, and educational establish- ments of Teheran, to which I shall add a short notice on the royal family, a description of some entertainments to which I was admitted as a guest, and a few anecdotes illustrative of the Persian genius and character.
Now, my stay at Teheran was divided into two periods, differing somewhat in character. During the first, which began on the second day after our arrival (24th November), and
ended with the departure of my companion H • on
I 29th December, we lodged at Prevost's Hotel, and were for the most part occupied with sight-seeing and social distractions,
84 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
from both of which we derived much profit ;uul i)leasure. Ihit when we IkuI heeonie thus generally conversant willi the hl'e
of the capital, H , who had no special interest in tlie
language, literature, or science of the Persians, and whose time was, moreover, limited, desired to continue Ids journey to the Persian Gulf; while I, finding at Tehenin facilities for the prosecution of my studies which I was unwilling to let slip, wished to remain there. So, finding our objects incompatible, we were compelled to separate. He left Teheran for the south on 29tli December, taking with him our Turkish servant 'All, who was unwilling to remain in Persia longer than he could help, since he found the people and the climate equally uncongenial. These, then, journeyed gradually southwards, halting for a while at the chief towns through which they passed, until about the beginning of April they reached Bushire, and thence took ship homewards.
Soon after their departure, about the beginning of the new year (1888), I was invited by my friend the Nawwab Mirzii Hasan 'All Khan, a Persian nobleman whose acquaintance I had made in Loudon, to take up my abode with him in a house which he had rented near the English Embassy. Of this kind offer I very gratefully availed myself, and continued for the remainder of my stay in Teheran {i.e. till 7th February 1888) an inmate of his house, to my great j)leasure and advantage. For my whole desire was, as my host well knew, to obtain as full an insight as possible into Persian life ; and though he was thoroughly conversant with the English language, yet, out of regard for me, he rarely talked with me save in Persian, except that in the evening he would sometimes ask me to read with him a chapter of Carlyle's Heroes and Hero- Worship, which work, by reason of the favourable oxjinion of the Prophet Muhammad entertained by the author, is very highly esteemed by Muhammadaus acquainted with English. Moreover most of my host's visitors and all his servants were Persian, and spoke, for the most part, only Persian (though his younger brother, an officer in the Persian army, and two of his nephews, whom I had known in London, had been educated partly in England and spoke English extremely well), so that I was not only able but forced to make much progress in speaking and under-
teherAn 85
standing. And during all this time I was able to benefit by the teaching of a very able scholar, Mirza Asadu 'llah of Sabzawar, a pupil of the late H;iji Mulla Hadi of Sabzawar, the greatest philosopher whom Persia has produced during the present century. Thus was I enabled to obtain some insight into the philosophical doctrines current in Persia, of which I shall say something in the next chapter.
The European colony in Teheran is considerable, and the society which it affords equally remarkable for distinction and hospitality. It comprises the covps diploviatique attached to the different embassies (and almost every European nation of note is represented, as well as the United States of America) ; the staff of the Indo-European Telegraph ; the American missionaries ; several merchants and men of business ; and a few Europeans employed in the Persian service. From many of these I received much hospitality and kindness, which I shall not soon forget, and on which I would gladly dwell did I feel justified in so doing. But my business at present is not to attempt an inadequate discharge of personal obligations (a discharge, moreover, which would probably be unacceptable to those to whom I am so indebted), but to depict with such fidelity as I may the life, character, and customs of the Persians. Of the European colony, then, I will say no more than this, that it is associated in my mind with every feeling of gratitude and every pleasant remembrance which kindness and hospitality received in a strange land can evoke in the heart or impress on the mind of the recipient.
Teheran, as everyone knows, was not always the capital of Persia. In the most ancient days the province of Ears, or Persia proper, and at a later time Isfahan, generally enjoyed this dignity. At other times, when, on the decay of some great dynasty, the empire was split up into numerous fragments, princes of different dynasties often reigned over one or two provinces, fixing the seat of government at the most important town in their dominions. Under the Safavi kings, when the ancient greatness of Persia enjoyed a temporary revival, it was Isfahan which was graced by their splendid court. About a century ago, when the great struggle between the Zend dynasty and the present reigning family of the Kajars was in progress,
86 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
the foniier, represented by tlie iiol)le and generous Karfm Kluin, had its capital at Shini/, while tlie latter, personified by that atrocious and bloodthirsty tyrant Aka Muhammad Khan, fixed their headquarters at Tchen'm. On the final victory of the latter, the northern city, situated as it is near the lands from which sprung the originally Turkish tribe of the Kiijars, was definitely raised to the rank of capital, and has enjoyed this dignity ever since, while each of the three kings who succeeded the founder of the dynasty has further exerted himself to enlarge and beautify the city.
Tehenin, as it is at present, is a large town lying in a slight hollow, just sufficient to prevent its being seen from any distance on the plain ; roughly speaking circular in shape ; and entirely surrounded by walls of unbaked clay, and for the most part by a ditch as well. Access is given to the interior by twelve gates, which are as follows : —
Between the north and the east —
1. Tlie Derwdze-i-Behjetubdd, \ leading to the gardens, palaces, and
2. The Denvdze-i-Daivlat, V villages situated to the north of the
3. The Derwdze-i-Shiniran, ) city on the slopes of Elburz.
Between the east and south —
4. The Derwdz^-i-Dawshdn-tep^, leading to the Shah's hunting-palace
of Dawshan-tepe ("Hare-hill").
5. The Derwdze-i-D(ddh (" the Mill Gate ").
6. The Derwdz^-i-Mashhad (" the Mashhad gate ").
Between the south and west —
7. The Derwdz^-i-Shdh-Abdu'l-Azlm (through which passes the great
caravan road to the south).
8. The JDerwdze-i-Ghdr (" the Cave Gate ").
9. The Dencdz^-i-Naw (" the New Gate ").
Between the west and north —
10. The Derwdze-i-Gumruk (" the Custom-house gate ").
1 1. The Derwdz^-i-Kazvin (" the Kazvin gate ").
12. The Derwdze-i-Asp-davdni ("the Eace-course gate").
To the north of the city are numerous gardens; some, like Behjetabad and Yiisufabad, situated within a short walk of the walls ; some in the villages of Shimran, like Kulahak and
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Tajrish, which serve as summer retreats to the Europeans and rich Persians, distant five or six miles from the town ; and others yet more distant, on the slopes of Elburz. Some of the gardens belonging to the royal family are very beautifully laid out, as, for example, the garden called Kdnirdniyyd, which is the property of the Shah's third son, the Na'ibu's-Saltanah. The Persians take the greatest delight in their gardens, and show more pride in exhibiting them to the stranger than in pointing out to him their finest buildings. Yet to one accustomed to the gardens of the West they appear, as a rule, nothing very wonderful. They generally consist of a square enclosure sur- rounded by a mud wall, planted with rows of poplar trees in long straight avenues, and intersected with little streams of water. The total absence of grass seems their greatest defect in the eyes of a European, but apart from this they do not, as a rule, contain a great variety of flowers, and, except in the spring, present a very bare appearance. But in the eyes of the Persian, accustomed to the naked stony plains which con- stitute so large a portion of his country, they appear as veritable gardens of Eden, and he will never be happier than when seated under the shade of a poplar by the side of the stream, sipping his tea and smoking his kalydii. What I have said applies to the great majority of gardens in Persia, but not to all ; for some of those in Shi'raz are very beautiful, and, except for the lack of the well-trimmed lawns which we regard as so indispensable to the perfect beauty of a garden, might well defy all competition.
Many of the gardens near Teheran are cultivated by " Guebres," the remnant of the ancient faith of Zoroaster. The headquarters of Zoroastrianism in Persia are at Yezd and Kirman, in and about which cities there may be in all some 7000 or 8000 adherents of the old creed. In other towns they are met with but sparingly, and are not distinguished by the dull yellow dress and loosely-wound yellow turban which they are compelled to wear in the two cities above mentioned. As I shall speak of this interesting people at some length when I come to describe my stay amongst them in the only two places in Persia where they still exist in any numbers, I will not at present dwell on their characteristics further than to allude
88 A YEAR AAWNGST THE PERSIANS
hvielly to their dal-]nm\ or "tower of silence," situated two or three miles south of Telier;'m, ou one of tlie rocky spurs of the jagged mountain called Kuli-i-l]ib{ Shahrb;inu.
Bi'bf Shahr-banu was the daughter of the unfurUnuito Yezdigird III, whose sad fate it was to see the mighty empire of the Sasanians and the ancient religion of Zoroaster fall in one common ruin before the savage onslaught of the hitherto despised Arabs, ere he himself, a liunted fugitive, perished by the hand of a treacherous miller in whose house he had taken refuge. The daughter subsequently married Huseyn, the son of 'AH, thus uniting the royal blood of tlie house of Sasan with the holy race of the Imams and the kindred of the Arabian prophet. To this union is perhaps to be attributed in some degree the enthusiasm with which the Persians, bereft of their old religion, espoused the cause of 'Ali and his successors (or in other words the Shf ite faction of the Muhammadans) against the usurpations of those whom the Sunm's dignify with the title of Khalifa, or vicegerent of the Prophet. After the calamities suffered by the family of 'All at the hands of their ruthless foes, Bibi Shahr-banii is said to have fled to Persia, and to have found a refuge from her oppressors in the mountain just to the south of Teheran which still bears her name. It is said that the place where she hid is still marked by a shrine which has the miraculous property of being inaccessible to men, though women may visit it unimpeded. "Where this shrine is I do not know, neither did I make any attempt to test the truth of the legend.
The Guebres' dahhmi is situated midway up a sharp ridge which descends from the summit of this mountain on the northern side, and is a conspicuous object from a distance. It consists of a circular tower of clay or unbaked brick, of the grayish colour common to all buildings in Persia. The wall, which is provided with no door or gate, is about forty-five feet high on the outside ; inside (as we could see by ascending the spur on which it stands to a point which overlooks it) its height, owing to the raised floor, is probably not more than ten feet. The floor of the tower consists of a level surface broken at regular intervals by rectangular pits. Whenever a Zoro- astrian dies, his body is conveyed hither, and deposited by
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two of his co-religionists (set apart for this duty) inside the dakhm6 and over one of these pits. The carrion birds which hover round this dreary spot soon swoop down, tear it in pieces, and devour its flesh, till nothing is left but the disarticulated bones, which fall into the pit below. Little, therefore, remains to tell of those who have been laid in this charnel-house ; and from the ridge above, where I could see almost the whole of the interior, I counted not more than two skulls and a few long bones. Of course the total number of Zoroastrians in Teheran is very small, and the deaths do not probably exceed two or three a year, which may to some extent explain the paucity of remains in the daklimL Yezd and Kirman have each two dakhmes, similarly constructed, and situated in like manner on the spurs of mountains at a distance of several miles from the city. These five dakhmds constitute, so far as I know, the total number now in use in Persia. This method of disposing of the dead often strikes Europeans as very dis- gusting, and, indeed, it would clearly be inapplicable to a thickly-populated, flat country with a humid atmosphere. In Persia, however, where the air is so clear, the sun so strong, the population so sparse, and mountains so numerous, I can well imagine that no inconvenience was caused by its adoption, even in the days when the whole population was Zoroastrian.
Near the mouth of the valley which lies to the north of the Kuh-i-Bibi Shahrbanu, and on the opposite side to the dakhmc, is a tablet cut in the rock (in rough imitation of the ancient monuments about Persepolis), bearing the figure of a king, and an inscription in modern Persian. Though of such recent date, it possesses none of the clearness still discernible in its Sasanian prototypes, and the writing on it is already almost illegible.
Below this, at the end of the valley, are to be seen the remains of gigantic mud walls, which are said to have formed a portion of the ancient city of Ptey (Phages), though by some this is supposed to have lain farther from Teheran towards the east, near the present village of Varamin. Eather nearer to the Shah 'Abdu 'l-'Azim road (which crosses the mouth of the valley at right angles), are two high brick towers, one of which
is called the Tower of Toghrul.
90 A YEAR AMONGST THE PERSIANS
C)f till' little town of Sh;ili 'Alulu 'l-'A/i'in itsi'lf, which is chietly iiotablo for its very fine mosque and its very detestable population (the place being what is called "has.t" that is, a sanctuary or city of refuge, where all criminals are safe from pursuit), I shall linve something to say in another chapter. It was to this place that the railway of which such great things were expected, and which it was hoped might be ex- tended farther south — perhaps even to the Persian Gulf — was laid from Teller;! n. When I returned there in the autumn of 1888 on my way home, this railway was open, and was run- ning some eight or ten trains a day each way. Its prosperity, alas ! was short-lived : before the end of the year it was torn up and completely wrecked by a mob, exasperated at the accidental death of a man who had tried to leap from the train while it was in motion.
That the friends of this man, whose death was brought about solely by his own folly and rashness, acted unreasonably in revenging themselves on the railway I do not for a moment wish to deny. That the deep-seated prejudice against this and other European innovations which found its manifestation in this act is equally unreasonable, I am not, however, dis- posed to admit. I think that the jealousy with which the Persian people are prone to regard these railways, tramways, monopolies, concessions, and companies, of which so much has been heard lately, is both natural and reasonable. These things, so far as they are sources of wealth at all, are so, not to the Persian people, but to the Shah and his ministers on the one hand, and to the European promoters of the schemes on the other. People who reason about them in Europe too often suppose that the interests of the Shah and of his subjects are iden- tical, when they are in fact generally diametrically opposed ; and that the Shah is an enlightened monarch, eager for the welfare and progress of a stubborn and refractory j)eople who delight in thwarting his benevolent schemes, when in reality he is a selfish despot, devoid of public spirit,