tiE ARTISTIC CRAFTS ilRIES OF TECHNICAL ND BOOKS
IlTING&ILLUMINATING LETTERING
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WRITING & ILLUMINATING, & LETTERING.
First printed, 1906; Second Edition, 1908; Third Edition, ign Fourth Edition {a Reprint oj the Third Edition), 1911 ; Fifth Edition {a Ref>rint of the Fourth Edition), 191 3 ; Sixth Editi n (a Reprint of the Fifth Edition), 1913 ; Seventh Edition \a Reprint of the Sixth Edition), 1915; Eighth Edition (« Reprint of the Seventh Edition)^ I9i7«
By the same Author.
MANUSCRIPT AND INSCRIPTION LETTERS.
A portfolio of j(> Plates, with notes. First printed 1909; Second Euition, 191 1 : Third Edition, 1916.
THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS
EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY
WRITING & ILLUMINATING, AND LETTERING
frontispiece.
A SCRIPTORIUM
This drawing {about tivo-Jifths of the linear size of the original) is made from a photograph of a miniature painted in an old MS. (written in I456 at the Hague by Jean Mielot, Secretary to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy)^ now in the Paris National Library (MS, Fonds fran^ais 9,198).
// depicts Jean Mielot himself writing upon a scroll {said to be his " Miracles of Our Lady "). His parchment appears to be held steady by a weight and also by ( ? the knife or filler in) his left hand — compare Jig. 41 in this book. Aboiie there is a sort of reading desk, holding MSS. for copying or reference.
WRITINGS ILLUMIN- ATING, & LETTERING
BY ED WARD JOHNSTON. WITH DIAGRAMS & ILLUSTRATIONS BYTHEAUTHOR& NOELROOKE 8 pp. EXAMPLES IN RED & BLACK AND 24pp. OF COLLOTYPES
EIGHTH EDITION
PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG
13 PATERNOSTER ROW
LONDON 19 1 7
TRINTED BY
S)OTTISWOODK. BAM ANTYNE AND CO. LTD.
LONDON, COLCHESTER AND ETON
EDITOR'S PREFACE
In issuing these volumes of a series ot Handbooks Editor*« on the Artistic Crafts, it will be well to state what Preface are our general aims.
In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of workshop practice, from the points of view of experts who have critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting aside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to treat design itself as an essential part of good work- manship. During the last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an academic kind, were little considered, and there was a tendency to look on " design " as a mere matter of appearance. Such " ornamentation " as there was was usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a draw- ing provided by an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in production. With the critical attention given to the crafts by vii
Editor's Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seen that it was rreface impossible to detach design from craft in this way, and that, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable element of good quality, involving as it does the selection of good and suitable material, contrivance for special purpose, expert workman- ship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere ornament, and indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought — that is, from design — inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into affectation. Proper ornamention may be defined as a language addressed to the eye ; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool. In the third place, we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of academic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a very few per cent, can fairly hope to suc- ceed as painters and sculptors ; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of success.
In the blending of handwork and thought in viii
such arts as we propose to deal with, happy careers Editor's may be found as far removed from the dreary Preface routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncer- tainty of academic art. It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts : there are more than enough of us " in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship. • •••••
Of all the Arts, writing, perhaps, shows most *
clearly the formative force of the instruments used. In the analysis which Mr. Johnston gives us in this volume, nearly all seems to be explained by the two factors, utility and masterly use of tools. No one has ever invented a form of script, and herein lies the wonderful interest of the subject ; the forms used have always formed themselves by a continuous process of development.
The curious assemblages of wedge-shaped in- dentations which make up Assyrian writing are a direct outcome of the clay cake, and the stylus used to imprint little marks on it. The forms of Chinese characters, it is evident, were made by quickly representing with a brush earlier pictorial signs. The Roman characters, which are our letters to-day, although their earlier forms have only come down to us cut in stone, must have been formed by incessant practice with a flat, stiff tx
Gditor*8 brush, or some such tool. The disposition of the Preface thicks and thins, and the exact shape of the curves, must have been settled by an instrument used rapidly ; I suppose, indeed, that most of the great monumental inscriptions were designed in situ by a master writer, and only cut in by the mason, the cutting being merely a fixing, as it were, of the writing, and the cut inscriptions must always have been intended to be completed by painting.
The " Rustic letters " found in stone inscriptions of the fourth century are still more obviously cursive, and in the Catacombs some painted inscriptions of this kind remain which perfectly show that they were rapidly written. The ordi- nary " lower case " type with which this page is printed is, in its turn, a simplified cursive form of the Capital letters. The Italic is a still more swiftly written hand, and comes near to the standard for ordinary handwriting.
All fine monumental inscriptions and types are but forms of writing modified according to the materials to which they are applied. The Italian type-founders of the fifteenth century sought out fine examples of old writing as models, and for their capitals studied the monumental Roman inscriptions. Roman letters were first introduced into English inscriptions by Italian artists. Torriglano, on the tombs he made for
X
Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey and for Dr. £clitor*8 Young at the Rolls Chapel, designed probably Preface the most beautiful inscriptions of this kind to be found in England.
This volume is remarkable for the way in which its subject seems to be developed inevitably. There is here no collection of all sorts of lettering, some sensible and many eccentric, for us to choose from, but we are shown the essentials of form and spacing, and the way is opened out to all who will devote practice to it to form an individual style by imperceptible variations from a fine standard.
Writing is for us the most universal of the Arts, and most craftsmen have to deal with lettering of a more formal kind. It is a commonplace of his- torical criticism to point out how much the Italian artists owed to the general practice amongst them of goldsmith's work, a craft which required accuracy and delicacy of hand. We cannot go back to that, but we do need a basis of training in a demon- strably useful art, and I doubt if any is so generally fitted for the purpose of educating the hand, the eye, and the mind as this one of writing.
W. R. LETHABY.
October I906.
" li^e must set up the strong present tense against all the rumours of turath., past or to come. So many things are unsettled nvhich it is of the Jirst importance to settle^ — and^ pending their settlement^ nve ivill do as ive do. . . , Expe- diency of literature, reason of literature^ laaif nines s of 'writing doivn a thought, is questioned; much is to say on both sides, and, 'while the Jig ht fwaxes hot, thou, dearest scholar, stick to thy foolish task, add a line every hour, and hetnveen <whdes add a line. Right to hold land, right of property is disputed, and the conventions convene, and before the vote is taken, dig anvay in your garden, and spend your earnings as a nvaif or god- send to all serene and beautiful purposes. Life itself is a bubble and a scepticism, and a sleep 'within a sleep. Grant it, and as much more as they 'will, — but thou, God's darling ! heed thy private dream : thou 'wilt not be missed in the scorning and scepticism: there are enough of them: stay there in thy closet, and toil, until the rest are agreed nvhat to do about it. Thy sickness, they say, and thy puny habit, require that thou do this or avoid that^ but kno'w that thy life is ajlitting state, a tent for a night, and do thou, sick or zuell, finish that stint. Thou art sick, but shalt not be 'Worse, and the universe, 'which holds thee dear, shall be the better.'* — Emerson.
** / began to think that if I should discover ho'w to make enamels, I could make earthen vessels and other things very prettily, because God had gfted me fwith some kno'wledge of dra'wing. And thereafter, regardless of the fact that I had no kno'wledge of drugs, I began to seek for the enamels as a man gropes in the dark.*' — Palissy.
"... in that communion only, beholding beauty twith the eye of the mind, he 'will be enabled to bring forth, not images of beauty, but realities {for he has hold not of an image but of a reality ) , and bringing forth and nourishing true virtue to become the friend of God and be immortal, tj mortal man may.'* — Plato.
xii
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
The arts of WRITING, ILLUMINATING, & LETTERING ofFer a wide field for the ingenious and careful craftsman and open the way to a number of delightful occupations. Be- yond their many uses — some of which are referred to below — they have a very great educational value. This has long been recognized in the teaching of elementary design, and the practice of designing Alphabets and Inscriptions is now common in most Schools of Art. Much would be gained by substituting, generally, writing for designings because writing being the medium by which our letters have been evolved, the use of the pen — essentially the letter-making tool — gives a practical insight into the construction of letters attainable in no other way. The most important use of letters is in the making of books, and the founda- tions of typography and book decoration may be mastered — as they were laid — by the planning, writing, and illuminating of MSS. in book form. Of this a modern printer, Mr. T. J. Cobden- Sanderson, says :
"In the making of the Written Book, the
adjustment of letter to letter, of word to word, of picture to text and of text to picture, and of the whole to the subject matter and to the page, admits of great nicety and peifection. The type is fluid, and the letters and words, picture, text, and page are conceived of as one and are all executed by one hand, or by several hands all working together without intermediation on one identical page and xiii
Author's Preface
WRITING
Author's Preface
ILLUMI- NATING
with a view to one identical effect. In the Printed Book
this adjustment is more difficult Yet in the
making of the printed book, as in the making of the written book, this adjustment is essential, and should be specially borne in mind, and Calligraphy and im- mediate decoration by hand and the unity which should be inseparably as=Jociated therewith would serve as an admirable disciplme to that end." f And see p. 368 beloiv. )
And though calligraphy is a means to many ends, a fine MS. has a beauty of its own that — if two arts may be compared — surpasses that of the finest printing. This in itself would justify the transcrib- ing and preservation of much good literature in this beautiful form (besides the preparation of " Illumi- nated Addresses," Service Books, Heraldic and other MSS.) and make the practice of formal writing desirable. And furthermore as the old-fashioned notion that a legible hand is a mark of bad breeding dies out, it may be that our current handwriting will take legibility and beauty from such practice. And even the strict utilitarian could not fail to value the benefits that might some day come to men, if children learnt to appreciate beauty of form in their letters, and in their writing the beauty of carefulness.
Of the practice of illuminating — properly associated with writing — it may be observed that, among various ways of acquiring a knowledge of the elements of design ^ decoration it is one of the most simple and complete. Moreover, a fine illumination or miniature has a beauty of its own that may surpass the finest printed book-decoration. And pictures in books may be as desirable as pic- tures on the wall — even though like the beautiful household gods of the Japanese they are kept in safe hiding and displayed only now and then. xiv
Magnificent as are the dreams of a fine Decora- Author*! tion based on lettering, the innumerable practical Preface applications of lettering itself (see Cliap. XVI.) make the study of Letter-Craft not only desirable letter- but imperative. And perhaps I may here be per- ing
mitted to quote from The Athencsum of Feb. 3, 1906, which says of "the new school of scribes and designers of inscriptions"
** These have attacked the problem of applied de- sign in one of its simplest and most universal applications, and they have already done a great deal to establish a standard by which we shall be bound to revise all printed and written lettering. If once the principles they have established could gain currency, what a load of ugliness would be lifted from modern civilization ! If once the names of streets and houses, and, let us hope, even the announcements of advertisers, were executed in beautifully designed and well-spaced letters, the eye would become 60 accustomed to good proportion in these simple and obvious things that it would insist on a similar gratifica- tion in more complex and difficult matter?."
Yet Ordinary Writing and even scribbling has had, and still might have, a good influence on the art of the Letter maker, and at least the common use of pen, ink, & paper makes it a simple matter for any one to essay a formal or * book ' hand. A broad nib cut to give clean thick and thin strokes (without appreciable variation of pressure) will teach any one who cares to learn, very clearly and certainly. And though much practice goes to the making of a perfect MS., it is easier than people suppose to make really beautiful things by taking a little pains. As " copy book " hands simple, primi- tive pen-forms — such as the Uncial & Half-Uncial (pp. 38, 70) — afford the best training and permit
XV
Author's Preface
MODERN DEVELOP- MENT OF WRITING
ILLUMI- NATING
the cultivation of the freedom which is essential in writing : they prepare the way for the mastery of the most practical characters — the ROMAN CAPITAL, roman small-letter, & Italic — and the ultimate development of a lively and personal penmanship.
Developing, or rather r^-developing, an art in- volves the tracing in one's own experience of a process resembling its past development. And it is by such a course that we, who wish to revive Writing & Illuminating, may renew them, evolving new methods and traditions for ourselves, till at length we attain a modern and beautiful technique. And if we would be more than amateurs, we must study and practise the making of beautiful THINGS and thereby gain experience of Tools, Materials, and Methods. For it is certain that we must teach ourselves how to make beautiful things, and must have some notion of the aim and bent of our work, of what we seek and what we do.
Early illuminated MSS. and printed books with woodcuts (or good facsimiles) may be studied witu advantage by the would-be Illuminator, and he should if possible learn to draw from hedgerows and from country gardens. In his practice he should begin as a scribe making MS. books and then decorating them with simple pen & colour work. We may pass most naturally from writing to the decoration of writing, by the making and placing of initial letters. For in seeking first a fine effectiveness we may put readableness before " looks " and, generally, make a text to read smoothly, broken only by its natural division into paragraphs, chap- ters, and the like. But these divisions, suggesting that a pause in reading is desirable, suggest also that xvi
a mark is required — as in music — indicating the Author's " rest " : this a large capital does most effectively. Preface
A technical division of illumination into Colour- work^ Pen-work^ and Draughtsmanship is con- venient (see Chap. XL). Though these are properly combined in practice, it is suggested that, at first, it vf'iW be helpful to think of their effects as distinct so that we may attain quite definitely some mastery of pure, bright, colours & simple colour effects, of pen flourishing and ornament, and of drav^^ing — v^^hether plain or coloured, that will go decoratively with writing or printing. This distinction makes it easier to devise definite schemes of illumination that will be within our power to carry out at any stage of our development. And while the penman inevitably gains some power of pen decoration it is well for him as an illuminator to practise in bright colours and gold ; for illumination may be as brilliant and splendid in its own way as stained glass, enamels, and jewellery are in theirs.^ At first, at any rate, hues that have the least suspicion of being dull or weak are to be avoided as though they were plainly " muddy " or " washed-out." The more definite we make our work the more definitely will our materials instruct us ; and such service must precede mastery.
Referring again to good lettering : the modern second part of this book deals with some of its develop- Qualities^ Forms — the Roman Capitals & their im- ment of portant pen-derivatives — and Uses, It is written lettering
1 See Chap. XVI. "Of Colour " in «< Stained Glass Work " by C. W. Whall, in this Series, and the illuminator might profit by the suggestion (jbid,, p. 232) of playing with a home- made kaleidoscope.
xvii B
Author's largely from the penman's point of view,^ but a Preface chapter on inscriptions in stone has been added and various types and modes of letter making are dis- cussed. The essential qualities of Lettering are legibility^ beauty^ and character^ and these are to be found in numberless inscriptions and writings of the last two thousand years. But since the tradi- tions of the early scribes and printers and carvers have decayed, we have become so used to inferior forms and arrangements that we hardly realize how poor the bulk of modern lettering really is. In the recent " revival " of printing and book decoration, many attempts have been made to design fine alphabets and beautiful books — in a number of cases with notable success. But the study of Palaeography and Typography has hitherto been confined to a few specialists, and these at- tempts to make " decorative " books often shew a vagueness of intention, which weakens their in- terest and an ignorance of Letter-craft which makes the poorest, ordinary printing seem pleasant by comparison. The development of Letters was a purely natural process in the course of which dis- tinct and characteristic types were evolved and some knowledge of how these came into being will help us in understanding their anatomy and dis- tinguishing good and bad forms. A comparatively little study of old manuscripts and inscriptions will make clear much of the beauty and method of the early work. And we may accustom ourselves to good lettering by carefully studying such examples as we can find, and acquire a practical knowledge
1 Dealing with the practical and theoretical knowledge of letter-making and arrangement which may be gained most effectually by the use of the pen.
xviii
of it by copying from them with a pen or chisel or Author's
other letter-making tool. A conscientious endea- Preface
vour to make our lettering readable, and models^
and methods chosen to that end, will keep our
work straight : and after all the problem before us
is fairly simple — To make good letters and to arrange
them zuell. To make good letters is not necessarily
to " design " them — they have been designed long
ago — but it is to take the best letters we can find,
and to acquire them and make them our own. To
arrange letters well requires no great art, but it
requires a working knowledge of letter-forms and
of the reasonable methods of grouping these forms
to suit every circumstance.
Generally this book has been planned as a sort of the scope " guide " to models and methods for Letter-crafts- of this men and Students — more particularly for those who handbook cannot see the actual processes of Writing, Illumi- nating, &c. carried out, and who may not have access to collections of MSS. Much of, if not all, the explanation is of the most obvious, but that, I hope, gives it more nearly the value of a practical demonstration. In describing methods and pro- cesses I have generally used the present tense — saying that they " are — " : this is to be taken as meaning that they are so in early MSS. and in- scriptions, and in the practice of the modern school of scribes who found their work on them.
Regarding the copying of early work (see pp. 195, 323, &c.) it is contended that to revive an art
^ In making choice of a model we seek an essentially legible character, remembering that our personal view of legibility is apt to favour custom and use unduly, for a quite bad, familiar writing may seem to us more readable than one that is far clearer in itself but unfamiliar.
xix
Author's one must begin at the beginning, and that, in an Preface honest attempt to achieve a simple end, one may lawfully follow a method ^ without imitating a style. We have an excellent precedent in the Italian scribes who went back 300 years for a model and gave us the Roman small-letter as a result (see p. 47). The beginner's attitude is largely, and neces- sarily, imitative, and at this time we should have much to hope from a school of Artist-Beginners who would make good construction the only novelty in their work. We have almost as much — or as little — to be afraid of in Originality as in imitation, and our best attitude towards this pro- blem is that of the Irishman with a difficulty — " to look it boldly in the face and pass on " — making an honest attempt to achieve a simple end. Perhaps we trouble too much about what we " ought to do " & '* do " : it is of greater moment to know what we are doing & trying to do. In so far as tradition fails to bound or guide us we must think for ourselves and in practice make methods and rules for our- selves : endeavouring that our work should he effec- tive rather than have " a fine effect " — or be, rather than appear, good — and following our craft rather than making it follow us. For all things — mate- rials, tools, methods — are waiting to serve us and
1 Much remains to be found out and done in the matter of improving tools & materials & processes, and it would be preferable that the rediscovery of simple, old methods should precede new & complex inventions. We still find the Quill — for its substance & for shaping it and keeping it sharp — is a better tool than a modern gold or metal pen (see p. 60). The old parchment, paper, ink, gilding-size & colours are all much better than those now obtainable (see pp. 51, 167, 173, 178- 179). I should greatly appreciate any advice from illuminators and Jetter-craftsmen as to materials and methods, and should endearour to loake such information available to otheri. — E. J. XX
we have only to find the "spell" that will set the Author's whole universe a-making for us. Preface
Endeavouring to attain this freedom we may make Rules and Methods serve us (see p. 221), knowing that Rules are only Guides and that Methods are suggested by the work itself: from first to last our necessary equipment consists in good models, good tools, & a good will. Within the limits of our craft we cannot have too much freedom ; for too much fitting & planning makes the work lifeless, and it is conceivable that in the finest work the Rules are concealed, and that, for example, a MS. might be most beautiful without ruled lines and methodical arrangement (see p. 343). But the more clearly we realize our limita- tions the more practical our work. And it is rather as a stimulus to definite thought — not as an embodiment of hard and fast rules — that various methodical plans & tables of comparison & analysis are given in this book. It is well to recognize at once, the fact that mere taking to pieces, or analys- ing, followed by "putting together," is only a means of becoming acquainted with the mechan- ism of construction, and will not reproduce the original beauty of a thing : it is an education for work, but all work which is honest and straight- forward has a beauty and freshness of its own.
The commercial prospects of the student of Writing & Illuminating — or, indeed, of any Art or Craft — are somewhat problematical, depending largely on his efficiency & opportunities. There is a fairly steady demand for Illuminated Addresses ; but the independent craftsman would have to establish himself by useful practice, and by seizing opportuni- ties, and by doing his work well. Only an attempt xxi
Author's to do practical work will raise practical problems, Preface and therefore useful practice is the making of real or definite things. In the special conditions attaching to work which the craftsman is commissioned to do for another person, there is a great advantage. And the beginner by setting himself specific tasks (for example : making a MS. book for a specific pur- pose— see p. lOo) should give reality to his work. As a craftsman in Lettering he might get work in some of the directions mentioned in pp. 337-341.
Although the demand for good work is at present limited, the production of good work will inevit- ably create a demand ; and, finally, the value of Quality is always recognized — sooner or later, but inevitably — and whatever " practical " reasons we may hear urged in favour of Quantity ^ the value of Quality is gaining recognition every day in com- merce and even in art, and there or here, sooner or later we shall know that we can afford the best,
EDWARD JOHNSTON.
October 1906.
My thanks are due to Mr. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, to Mr. Emery Walker, and to Mr. George Allen for quotations : to Mr. Graily Hewitt, to Mr. Douglas Cockerell, to Mr. A. E. R. Gill, to Mr. C. M. Firth, and to Mr. G. Loumyer, for special contributions on gilding, binding, and inscription-cutting : to Mr. S. C. Cockerell for several of the plates : to Mr. W. H. Cowlishaw, to the Rev. Dr. T. K. Abbott, to Dr. F. S. Kenyon of the New Paiaeographical Society, to the Vicar of Holy Trinity Church, Hastings, to the Secretary of the Board of Education, S. Kensington, to Mr. H. Yates Thompson, to Mr. G. H. Powell, and to others, for permission to reproduce photographs, &c. : and to Mr. Noel Rooke and Mr. Godfrey J. Hogg for assistance with the illustrations and many other matters : I should like, moreover, to acknowledge my indebted- ness to Mr. W. R. Lethaby and Mr. S. C. Cockerell for encouragement and advice in years past. E. J.
xxii
ADDENDA & CORRIGENDA
P. 51. Beginners practising large writing may Addenda & more easily use a //;/«, or diluted^ ink : in Corrigenda small writing this does not show up the faults with sufficient clearness.
P. 59. Quills often have a sort o^ skin (which tends to make a ragged nib), this should be scraped off the back.
Pp. 63 Until the simple pen-stroke forms are & mastered, the pen should be used with- 73. out appreciable pressure. With practice one gains sleight of hand (pp. 85, 311), and slightly changing pressures & quick movements on to the corners^ or points, of the nib are used. The forms in the best MSS. shew such variations ; e.g. the Uncials in fig. 5 appear to have been made with varying pressure (perhaps with a soft reed) & their fine finishing- strokes with the nib-point [comp. forms in fig. 146). Versa Is likewise shew vary- ing, and sometimes uncertain, structures that suggest a form consisting of strokes other than definite pen strokes, xxiii
Figs, a lo n, illustrating Addenda & Corrigenda
p. 64. An ordinary strong nib may be sharpened several times, before it is re-cut, by paring it underneath (fig. a). The extra fine nib (p. 59) which is recommended for all fine and careful work, must be re-cut every time.
P. 99. The plan of a paper scale is shewn in fig. b,
P. 109. The dots for lines were often pricked through the edges of the book-sheets which were cut off after ruling (fig. c).
P. 118. The spread or wedge-shaped thin stroke, sometimes very strongly marked, is common in early forms (fig. d),
P. 144. ]^ & ;^ : better (pen) forms of these are shewn in fig. e.
P. 208. Ornamental Letter forms may consist of flourishes, patterns, leaves, flowers, &c. (see fig./).
Pp. 215-217. Diapering generally means the variegation, figuring, or flowering, of a plain or patterned surface, with a finer pattern (see fig. 191^). Some diagrams of simple patterns (g-g^ from modern cantagalli ware) are shewn in fig. g. Note : the more solid penwork line- fillings in figs. 87, 126, make effective framing borders (see fig. h).
Pp. 219-220. Note: the principle of breaking straight or long lines, mentioned in regard to background edges (p. 190), and illustrated in the line-finishings (fig. 126) and flourishes (fig. 79), is related to branching out and is re-creative, whereas the prolonged line is tiresome (see figs, k^ i^, & comp. k"^).
P. 249. The B & D should be round-shouldered — see note to p. 280 below.
XXV
Pp. 270-275. Pp. 280-288.
Addenda & P. 260. It is sometimes better to make narrow forms Corrigenda than to combine wide ones — example fig. /,
The large types — " Old Face ** (founded on Caslon Type) and "Old French" (modern) respectively — are used in these pages as refer- ,ence or index letters (not as models), P. 280. Generally round-shouldered letters have finer and more stable forms than square- shouldered, and generally emphasis should be laid on the strong^ thick stroke running obliquely down from left to right (\), while the weak, thin stroke (/) is rather to be avoided (see fig. m). The writing used in the diagrams in this book, considered as a formal hand, shews a little too much of the thin stroke (see p. 485). P. 324. Commonly letters are made more slender in proportion as they are made larger, and it is generally not desirable (or possible) in practical work to have exactly similar proportions in large and small lettering. P. 325. g from fig. 173 inaccurate — comp, fig. 173
& see fig. n, P. 331. Ornamentallettersrseenote to p.2o8above. P, 481. A small writing is often the most practical — in the matter of speed in reading and less bulk in the MS., besides speed in the writing of it — but it is more difficult for the beginner to write it well and it is apt to lose some of the virtues of formal penmanship (see Fine-pen writing pp. 59> 86, 311, 324, 482). P. 485. Oblique thin stroke: see note to p. 280 above.
xxvi
CONTENTS
PAGE Contents
Editor's Preface •
Author's Preface Addenda & Corrigenda
* Vll
r xiii . xxiii
PART I WRITING & ILLUMINATING
CHAPTER I the development of writing .
35
CHAPTER II
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (l) TOOLS
Acquiring a Formal Hand : Tools, &c. — The Desk — Paper & Ink— Pens: The Reed: The Quill— Qi Quills generally — Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c. . . 48 xxvii
Contents CHAPTER III
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : (2) METHODS
PAGF
Position of the Desk — The Writing Level — Use of the
Pen— Holding the Pen— Filling the Pen, &c. . . 6i
CHAPTER IV
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : (3) MODELS
Models — Notes on Construction : Script I. — Coupling the Letters — Spacing : Letters, Words, & Lines — Uncial Capitals : Script IL — Numerals & Punctua- tion Marks — Of Copying MSS. Generally ... 70
CHAPTER V
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE
Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a Single Sheet — Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) — Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) — Spacing & Planning Manuscript ...... 85
CHAPTER VI
MANUSCRIPT BOOKS
MS. Books : Tools & Materials — Methods & Propor- tions — The Size & Shape of the Book — The Widths of the Margins— The Size of the Writing, &c. — Ruling— MS. Books : General Remarks . . 98 xxviii
CHAPTER VII
VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS
PAGE
Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals — Notes on Construction of Versals — Spacing & Ar- rangement of Versals .112
CHAPTER VIII
BLACK & RED
Rubricating — Initial Pages or Title Pages — Prefaces & Notes in Colour— Pages with Coloured Headings — Page or Column Heading & Initial — Versals in Column or Marginal Bands — Stanzas or Verses marked by Versals — Music with Red Staves — Tail-Pieces, Colophons, &c. — Rubricating : General Remarks 127
Contents
CHAPTER IX
LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD
Tools & Materials — Laying the Ground — Laying the Gold-Leaf — Burnishing the Gold — Remedying Faults in Gilding— Gold Writing— Other Methods & Re- cipes for Gilding — Appendix on Gilding (by Graily Hewitt)
HS
CHAPTER X
THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL LETTERS & SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment, "Vellum," & Pounce — Colours — Simple Colour Effects — Matt Gold — Burnished Gold — Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines — Background Capitals — Applying the Background — Ornament of Back- grounds 172
xxix
Contents CHAPTER XI
A THEORY OF ILLUMINATION
PAGE
Illumination — " Barbaric, or Colour- Work, Illumination " — " Filigree, or Pen-Work, Illumination " — "Natural, or Limner's, Illumination" . . . 193
CHAPTER XII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
The Development of Illumination — Line-Finishings —
Initial Letters — Borders & Backgrounds , . . 204
CHAPTER XHI
** design" in ILLUMINATION
•'Design" — Elementary Patterns in Decoration— Scale & Scope of Decoration — Of "Designing" Manu- scripts, Generally . . - -. . , .214
PART II
LETTERING
CHAPTER XIV
GOOD LETTERING — SOME METHODS OF CON- STRUCTION & ARRANGEMENT
Good Models — The Qualities of Good Lettering — Sim- plicity— Distinctiveness — Proportion — Beauty of Form — Beauty of Uniformity — Right Arrangement — Set- ting Out & Fitting In — " Massed Writing" & " Fine Writing " — Even Spacing — Theory & Practice . , 237 XXX
CHAPTER XV
Contents
THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES
The Roman Alphabet — Proportions of Letters : Widths — Upper & Lower Parts— Essential or Structural Forms — Characterisation of Forms — Built- Up Forms — Simple- Written Capitals — Uncials— Capitals & Small- Letters — Early, Round, Upright, Formal Hands — Slanted-Pen Small-Letters — Roman Small-Letters — — Italics — Semi-Formal Hands — Of Formal Writing Generally — Decorative Contrasts — Ornamental
Letters ••o»aatao
268
APPENDIX A
CHAPTER XVI
SPECIAL SUBJECTS
Divers Uses of Lettering — MS. Books, &c. — Binding
MSS {with Note by Douglas Cockerell) — Broadsides,
Wall Inscriptions, &c. — Illuminated Addresses, &c. —
Monograms & Devices — Title Pages — Lettering for
Reproduction — Printing — Inscriptions on Metal,
Stone, Wood, «&:c. — Of Inscriptions Generally —
Bibliography, &c. .
xxxi
337
Contents APPENDIX B
CHAPTER XVII
INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE
{By A. E, R. Gill)
PACE
Arrangement — The Three Alphabets — Size & Spacing — The Material— Setting Out— Tools— A Right Use of the Chisel— Incised Letters & Letters in Relief— The Sections of Letters — Working in situ . • 389
Notes on the Collotype Plates o . e . 407 The Collotype Plates , • • « . .431 Index •••»e*«««o 4S9
XXXll
PART I WRITING & ILLUMINATING
llROMAN CAPITALS
ll ROMAN CAPITALS
h
•^ }>cn (A h-iuh)
rtuicU JJK
uwcixLs
lialp unacds
I Small aothic i^romans
SmaUitalus
r
0th£r Ornamental lypes
34 ^^®- «•
PART I
WRITING & ILLUMINATING
CHAPTER I
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING
Nearly every type of letter with which we are The familiar is derived from the Roman Capitals, and has Develop- come to us through the medium, or been modified ment of by the influence, of the pen. And, therefore. Writing in trying to revive good Lettering, v^e cannot do better than make a practical study of the best pen-forms, and learn at the same time to appreciate the forms of their magnificent arche- types as preserved in the monumental Roman inscriptions.
The development and the relations of the prin- cipal types of letters are briefly set out in the accompanying "family tree" — fig. i. When the student has learnt to cut and handle a pen, he can trace this development practically by trying to copy a few words from each example given below.
35
The Develop- ment of Writing
THE ROMAN ALPHABET,— Th^ Alpha- bet, as we know it, begins with the ROMAN CAPITALS ^ (see fig. 2). Their fine monumental forms were evolved by the use of the chisel —
Fig. 2.
probably under the influence of writing — and had reached full development about 2000 years ago (see Plates I., II., and Chapter XV.).
FORMAL WRITING— the ''book-hand'' or professional writing of the scribes — comes of the careful writing of the Roman Capitals (see also footnote^ p. 38, on the beginnings of fine penman- ship). It was the —
^* literary hand, used in the production of exactly written MSS., and therefore a hand of comparatively limited use. By its side, and of course of far more extensive and general use, was the cursive hand of the time "2
^ *«The alphabet which we use at the present day .... is directly derived from the Roman alphabet ; the Roman, from a local fprm of the Greek ; the Greek, from the Phoenician. . . ."
It had been supposed that the Phoenician came from the Egyptian hieratic, but " Recent discoveries prove the existence^ in very remote times, in all quarters of the Mediterranean and in Egypt, of symbols resembling certain alphabetical J'gns and preceding even the Egyptian hieroglyphics. The early origin of our alphabet therefore still remains to be ivorkedout" — Sir Edivard Maunde Thompson, " Greek and Latin Palaography,^ ^rd edition (1906), pp. I, 3x1,
' Ibid., p. 196,
36
In early cursive writing — the running-hand or ordinary writing of the people —
" The Letters are nothing more than the old Roman letters written with speed, and thus undergoing certain modifications in their forms, which eventually developed into the minuscule hand." ^ (See fig. 3.)
|
dps. |
Cursive Writuigr 1. to V ClxA^ |
Minus- |
|
A H |
.Hhhhh |
acta a e % h |
Fig. 3.
Here it is sufficient to trace the history of the formal Latin " hands," but the continual, modifying influence exerted on them by the ordinary cursive writing should be borne in mind. Notable results of this influence are seen in Ha/f- Uncials and Italics,
SQUARE CAPITALS were formal, pen-made Roman Capitals, of the monumental type : they were used (perhaps from the second) till about the
1 *' G. & L. Palseography," p. 204. (Minuscules = " small letters," not capitals : «/»/■. printer's "lower-case." Half-Unciah are tometimes distinguithed as *' round minuscleij' p. 30 Z, ie/ozu.)
37
The Develop- ment of Writing
The end of the fifth century for important books (sec
Develop- Plate III.).
mentof RUSTIC CAPITALS were probably a variety
Writing of the " Square Capitals," and were in use till about
the end of the fifth century (fig. 4 ; see also p. 297).
iCAiAaAVtlOVliO.
OliCVAilVNIAlUAD
ifUVAVAunoiVav
iL5ilMIfA!KJAV0i-r AlNLViAVAGMAaV
Fig. 4.— iEneid, on vellum, third or fourth century.
ROMAN UNCIALS were fully developed by the fourth century, and were used from the fifth till the eighth century for the finest books (fig. 5).
Uncials are true pen-forms^ — more quickly written than the "Square," and clearer than the " Rustic " Capitals — having the characteristic, simple strokes and beautiful, rounded shapes which flow from the rightly handled reed or quill. The
1 It is possible that their forms were influenced by the use of the brush in painting up public notices and the like. The introduction of the use of vellum — a perfect writing material — in the making of books, undoubtedly led to a great advance in the formality and finish of the book-hands (especially of the Uncial character); practically, it may be said to mark the be- ginning oi penmanship as a '* fine " art. This development may be assigned to the time between the first and the third centuries (palxographical dates before the fifth century must generally be regarded as approximate).
38
JNO(T>l
coNpneB
jaSTJTt JUSTIJJCA CCJSTO NONODeC
The Develop- ment of Writing
Fig. 5. — Psalter, fifth century.
39
The typical Uncial letters are the round D, E, H, M, U
Develop- (or V), and A and Q (see p. 300).
ment of ROMAN HALF-UNCIALS— or SemUUnciah
Writing — (f]g, 5^ were mixed Uncial and Cursive forms
adopted by the scribes for ease and quickness in
writing. Their evolution marks the formal change
from Capitals to " Small-Letters''
quir uir 1' eflre^Min dMi ip fcteccLeriVxT beivencicIuiideM trctb er^K^ dc u Li HTl
pOfuerMJKKT.MOMI
Fig. 6. — S. Augustine : probably French sixth century.
They were first used as a book-hand for the less important books about the beginning of the sixth century.
IRISH HALF-UNCIALS were founded on the Roman Half-Uncials (probably brought to Ire- land by Roman missionaries in the sixth century). As a beautiful writing, they attained in the seventh century a degree of perfection since unrivalled (see Plate VL).
They developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a " pointed " writing, which became the Irish national hand.
ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS (fig. 7) were modelled on the Irish Half-Uncials in the seventh
40
century. They also developed in the eighth and The ninth centuries into a " pointed " writing. Develop-
- ^ ment of
IUOjOSCOIJOTOD Writing
necroemoi
y obx&mutujjn,ljo
Fig. 7. — " Durham Book " : Lindisfarne, about A.D. 700. (See also Plate VIL)
CAROLINE {or CARLOVINGIAN) WRIT^ ING. — While English and Irish writing thus came from Roman Half-Uncial, the Continental hands were much influenced by the rougher Roman Cursive, and were comparatively poor till near the end of the eighth century,
" The period of Charlemagne is an epoch in the history of the handwritings of Western Europe. With the revival of learning naturally came a reform of the writing in which the works of literature were to be made known. A decree of the year 789 called for the revision of church books; and this work naturally brought with it a great activity in the writing schools of the chief monastic centres of France. And in none was there greater activity than at Tours, where, under the rule of Alcuin of York, who was abbot of St. Martin's from 796 to 804, was specially developed the exact hand which has received the name of the Caroline Minuscule." ^
I «* Greek and Latin Palseography," p. 233.
41
The
Develop- ment of Writing
11 '^
^ Z
sliil
B 1
t -0
u 0
1 ^
i^
Fig. 8.— British Museum : Harl. MS. 279a
Caroline MS./rx/ half of c/Cis. century.
(See also fig. 171 & p. 305.)
The influence of the Caroline hands (see fig. S) The presently spread throughout Europe. The letters Develop- in our modern copy-books may be regarded as their rnent of direct, though degenerate, descendants. Writing
SLANTED-PEN or TILTED WRITING. — The forms of the letters in early writing indicate an easily held pen — slanted away from the right shoulder. The slanted pen naturally produced oblique thick strokes and thin strokes, and the thick curves were " tilted " (see fig. 9).
In the highly finished hands — used from the sixth to the eighth centuries — such as the later Uncials and the Roman, Irish, and English Half- Uncials, the pen was manipulated or cut so that the thin strokes were approximately horizontal, and the thick strokes vertical (fig. 10). The earlier and easier practice came into fashion again in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the round Irish and English hands became " pointed " as a result of slanting the pen.
The alteration in widths and directions of pen strokes, due to the use of the " slanted pen," had these efiPects on the half-uncial forms (see fig. 11) : —
1. The thin strokes taking an oblique {upward) direction [a] (giving a sharp angle with the ver- ticals (^, a)) led to angularity and narrower forms [a^)j and a marked contrast between thick and thin strokes — due to the abrupt change from one to the other [a'^).
2. The thick strokes becoming oblique (b) caused a thickening of the curves below on the left (i'^), and above on the right [b'^), which gave heavy shoulders and feet.
3. The horizontal strokes becoming thicker {c) gave stronger and less elegant forms.
43
The
Develop- ment of Writing
SQUARE
mm '
UMCIAl
OUnted yen : Civi'n<r oblicjiic
Strokes <^"tiLted"
o
letters.
Fig. 9.
5trai(rht pen crivm<r liorizantal thin Stroked, vertical thicks , dc^'
TX)Tr)aN
UKICZ^
o
round, upright
letters.
Fig. 10.
44
4* ^^'^ vertical strokes becoming thinner [d) (with oblique or pointed ends — not square ended) in- creased the tendency to narrow letters.
J f d . navr(y\^; forms fdue ta A^dci^
Fig. II.
It is to be noted that the Caroline letters — though written with a "slanted pen "—kept the open, round appearance of the earlier forms.
The Develop- ment of Writing
45
The TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH
Develop- CENTVRT WRITING.— Tht easy use of the ment of slanted pen, and the lateral compression of the Writing letters which naturally followed, resulted in a valu- able economy of time and space in the making of books. This lateral compression is strongly marked in the tenth century (see fig. 12), and in the
^n^ltdm dno:h ^WitomfqwiC'
foliUUmx dno "
Fig. 12. — Psalter: English tenth century. (See also Plate VIII.)
eleventh and twelfth centuries it caused curves to give place to angles, and writing to become « Gothic " in character (see Plate XL).
THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND FIFTEENTH CENTURT WRITING.— Th^ tendency to compression continued, and a further economy of space was effected in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the general use of much smaller writing (see fig. 13). In the fifteenth century writing grew larger and taller again, but the letters had steadily become nar-
♦6
rower, more angular, and stIfFer, till the written The
page consisted of rows of perpendicular thick strokes Develop-
with heads and feet connected by oblique hair-lines mcnt of
— which often look as if they had been dashed in Writing after with a fine pen — all made with an almost mechanical precision (see Plate XVII.).
tuagfi) ftomc- xclat^tU; qum uomuir mait{g uaouiftia i»l)tbi>tm taut cmurf
■J^ ftunuixtratttto.a)»cc.l.giutco.abf cammom'Gmim*
Fig. 13. — Colophon of English MS., dated 1254.
ITALIAN WRITING.— In Italy alone the roundness of the earlier hands was preserved, and though in course of time the letters were affected by the "Gothic" tendency, they never lost the curved forms or acquired the extreme angularity which is seen in the writings of Northern Europe (compare Plates X. and XL).
At the time of the Renaissance the Italian scribes remodelled their "hands" on the beautiful Italian writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (see Plates X. and XVIIL, XIX., XX.). The early Italian printers followed after the scribes and modelled their types on these round clear letters. And thus the fifteenth century Italian formal writing became the foundation of the " Roman " small letters^ which have superseded all others for the printing of books,
47
The ITALICS. — The Roman Letters^ together with
Develop- the cursive hand of the time, gave rise to " Italic "
ment of letters (see fig. I, & pp. 311, 316, 483).
Writing ORNAMENTAL LETTERS originated in
the simple written forms, which were developed
for special purposes, and were made larger or
written in colour (see Versals, &c., figs, i, 189).
Their first object was to mark important words,
or the beginnings of verses, chapters, or books.
As Initial Letters they were much modified and
embellished, and so gave rise to the art of Illumina'
tion (see pp. 113, 114).
CHAPTER II
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (l) TOOLS
Acquiring a Formal Hand ; Tools, &c. — The Desk — Paper & Ink— Pens : The Reed: The Quill— Oi Quills generally — Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c.
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND I TOOLS, &C,
Acquiring The simplest way of learning how to make
a Formal letters is to acquire a fine formal hand. To this
Hand : end a legible and beautiful writing (see p. 70)
(i) Tools should be chosen, and be carefully copied with a
properly cut pen.
For learning to write^ the following tools and materials are required : — Desk.
Writing-paper. Ink and filler.
Pens CRced and Quill) with " springs,** 48
Pen-knife, sharpenlng-stone, and cutting'slab. Acquiring
Magnifying glass. a Formal
Two-foot (preferably three-foot) rule, and pencil. Hand :
Linen pen-wiper. (0 Tools
THE DESK
An ordinary desk or drawing-board can be used, but the best desk is made by hinging a drawing-
Fig. 14.
board ("Imperial" size) to the edge of a table. The board may be raised and supported at any desired angle by a hinged support, or by a round tin set under it (fig. 14). For a more portable D 49
Acquiring desk two drawing-boards may be similarly hinged a Formal together and placed
Hand: y^s,^^ on a table (fig. 15).
(i) Tooli / j^ A tape or string is
tightly stretched — horizontally — across the desk to hold the writing-paper (which, as a rule, is not pinned The lower part
on
of the writing-paper is held and protected by a piece of stout paper or vellum fixed tightly, with drawing-pins, across and over it (fig. 16). Under the writing-paper there should
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
be 9 ^^ writlng-pady'' consisting of one or two 50
sheets of blotting-paper, or some other suitable Acquiring substance.^ a Formal
It is a good plan to have the lower, front edge Hand: of the desk bevelled or rounded, so that the tail (0 Tools part of a deep sheet, w^hich may hang below the table, does not become accidentally creased by being pressed against it. A curved piece of card- board fixed on the edge will answer the same purpose.
PAPER & INK
For " practice " any smooth — not glazed — paper will do. For careful work a smooth hand-made paper is best (pp. 103, iii).
A good, prepared, liquid (carbon) ink is best. It should be as black as possible, without being too thick. A jet-black ink will test the quality of the writing by "showing up" all the faults; "pale" or "tinted" inks rather conceal the faults, and lend a false appearance of excellence (p. 322). A thin ink greatly adds to the ease of writing (see Addenda^ p. 23). Waterproof inks^ as a rule^ are too thick or gummy, and do not flow freely enough.
The ink-bottle is kept corked when not in use, to keep the ink clean and prevent evaporation. Thick or muddy ink should be put away : it is not worth while trying to use it.
A small brush is used for filling the pen.
PENS
A Reed or Cane pen is best for very large writing — over half an inch in height — and there-
* Some Eastern scribes use a " pad " oifur. This, or a piece of springy cloth, or other elastic substance, would probably be helpful, and experiments should be made in this direction.
51
Acquiring a Formal
Hand: (i) Tools
fore it is of great use in studying pen strokes and forms.
A Quill is best for smaller writing, and is used for all ordinary MS. work (pp. 54-60).
The REED^ pen should be about 8 inches long.
I. One end is cut off obliquely (fig.
17).
II. The soft in- side part is shaved away by means of a knife laid flat against it, leaving the hard outer shell (fig. 18).
III. The nib is laid, back up, on the slab (p. 61), and — the knife - blade being vertical — the tip is cut off at right angles to the shaft (fig. 19).
IV. A short longitudinal slit {a-h) is made by
* The ordinary *« Reed pen" of the artists' colourman is rather soft and weak for formal writing. The reeds used by the native scribes in India and Egypt, and some of the harder English reeds, are excellent. A fine, hollow cane also makes a very good pen.
52
inserting the knife- blade in the middle of the tip (fig. 20).
V. A pencil or brush - handle is held under the nib, aiid is gently twitbnfed upwards to lengthen the slit (fig. 21). An ordinary reed should have a slit about I inch long. A very stiff pen may have in addi- tion a slit on either side of the centre.
The left thumb nail is pressed against the back of the pen — about I inch from the tip — to prevent it splitting too far up (see also fig. 27).
VI. The nib is laid, back up, on the slab, and — the knife - blade being vertical — the tip is cut off at an angle of about 70° to the shaft, remov- ing the first rough slit a-b (fig. 22).
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(l) Tools
53
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(i) Tools
VII. A strip of thin metal (very thin tin, or clock spring with the "temper" taken out by heating and slowly cooling) is cut the width of
the nib and about 1 ' I 2 inches long. This
is folded into a ''spring'' (fig. 23).
VIII. The spring is inserted into the pen (fig. 24).
The loop abc \% sprung " into place, and holds the spring in the right position. The loop c d^ which should be rather flat, holds the ink in the pen. The point d should be about J inch from the end of the nib.
THE QUILL.— A Turkey's Quill is strong, and suitable for general writing. As supplied by the stationers it consists of a complete wing-feather, about 12 inches long, having the quill part cut for
ordinary use. For careful writing it should be re-made thus : —
I. The quill should be cut down to 7 or 8 inches (fig. 25) ; the long feather if left is apt to be in the way.
II. The " barbs " or filaments of the feather are stripped off the shaft (fig. 26). 54
III. The nib already has a slit usually about Acquiring J inch long. This is sufficient in a fairly pliant a Formal
Hand : (i) Tools
Fig. 26.
Un^hmincr the slit of ike ruh
Fig. 27.
pen ; in a very stiff pen (see p. 60) the slit may be lengthened to f inch. This may be done with care by holding a half-nib between the forefinger
55
Acquiring and thumb of each hand, but the safest way is to a Formal twitch the sh't open (fig. 27), using the end of Hand : another pen (or a brush-handle) as explained under (i) Tools Reed, V. (see p. 53).
IV. The sides of the nib are pared till the width across the tip is rather less than the width desired ^
(fig. 28).
Sha^e of cnxunary nih, j
Sfiape of varecf ni9.. Fig. 28.
V. The nib is laid, back up, on the glass slab, and the extreme tip is cut off" obliquely to the slit, the knife blade being slightly sloped, and its edge forming an angle of about 70° with the line of the shaft (fig. 29 ; for extra sharp nib see fig. 36).
1 The width of the cut nib corresponds exactly with the width of the thickest stroke which the pen will make in writing.
56
The shaft rests lightly in the left hand (not gripped and not pressed down on slab at all), and the knife blade is entered with a steady pressure.
U the nib is then not wide enough it may be cut again ; if too wide, the sides may be pared down.
Cut very little at a time off the tip of the nib ; a heavy cut is apt to force the pen out of shape and spoil the edge of the nib.
VI. The nib should then be examined with the magnifying glass. Hold the pen, back down, over a sheet of white paper, and see that the ends of the two half- nibs are in the same straight line a-b (fig.
30).
The nib should have
an oblique chisel-shaped
tip, very sharply cut
(% 30-
A magnifying glass is
necessary for examining
a fine pen ; a coarse pen
may be held up against
Vnik blade (tnsec] sUM^ sldped
X fide new
(^a— b - the'shouldo'^J
hack \new Fig. 29.
joy
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(i) Tools
Acquiring the light from a window — a finger-tip being held
a Formal just over the nib to direct the eye (fig. 32).
Hand: (i) Tools
encC of marniidd
Fig. 31.
under. under. hack
typical nibs mnurirur ttcuX^auK Fig. 34.
A nib in which the slit does not quite close may be bent down to bring the two parts together (fig. 33).
58
Uneven or blunt nibs (fig. 34) must be carefully Acquiring re-cut. a Formal
VII. The Spring (see Reed, VII.) (about ^ inch Hand :
by I J inch) is placed so that the point is about ^\ inch from the end of the nib. The long loop should be made rather flat to hold plenty of ink (A, fig. 35) — neither too much curved (B : this holds only a drop), nor quite flat (C : this draws the ink up and away from the nib).
OF QUILLS GENERALLY
TOrordmmy U5C. (a).
For very fme Strok^. the nib has a si
For ordinary use the nib may be cut with a fairly steep angle, as shown (magnified) at a, fig. 36. But it is better for all careful work and fine, sharp writing that the angle be made very sharp : the knife blade is laid back (much flatter than is shown in fig. 29) and the quill is cut quite thin ; the knife blade is then held verti- cal and the extreme tip of the nib is cut off sharp and true {b, fig. 36). ^^°- 36. For large writing, the
curved inside of the quifl is pared /^Z {cy dy fig. 36)
59
(M Seavm of ^^"^ ^°^ %arrd"of Pen . hSupwiSicS?**
(i) Tools
Acquiring to give full strokes. If the nib be left curved and a Formal hollow underneath (^), it is apt to make hollow
Hand : strokes, (i) Tools The pen may be made more pliant by scraping it till it is thinner, or by cutting the "shoulder" {a-b^ fig. 29) longer, or stiffer by cutting the nib back until the " shoulder " is short. Goose and Crow Quills (see p. 172). The main advantages of a quill over a metal pen are, that the former may be shaped exactly as the" writer desires, and be re-cut when it becomes blunt. A metal pen may be sharpened on an oilstone, but the process takes so much longer that there is no saving in time : it is not easily cut to the exact shape, and it lacks the pleasant elasticity of the quill. A gold pen is probably the best substitute for a quill, and if it were possible to have a sharp, "chisel-edged" iridium tip on the gold nib, it would be an extremely convenient form of pen. A " fountain pen " might be used with thin ink.
PEN-KNIFE, CUTTING-SLAB, &C.
THE KNIFE. — Qu'iW makers use a special knife. A surgical scalpel makes an excellent pen- knife. The blade should be fairly stout, as the
Fig. 37.
edge of a thin blade is easily damaged. It should be ground only on the right side of the blade and tapered to a point (fig. 37) and be kept very sharp, 60
THE SLAB, — A piece of glass (preferably Acquiring white) may be used for fine quills ; hard wood, a Formal bone, or celluloid for reed and cane pens. Hand:
SHARPENING STONE.— An "India" (coarse) ( i ) Tools 6c a "Turkey" (fine) stone. Use thin lubricating oil.
MAGNIFYING GLASS.— A magnifying glass (about I inch in diameter) is necessary for examin- ing fine pen nibs to see if they are "true." A " pocket " glass is the most suitable for general use, and for the analysis of small writing, &c.
R ULE. — A 2, or 3-foot wood rule having brass strips let in to protect the edges, or a metal rule.
LINEN PEN'WIPER.—A piece of an old linen handkerchief may be used to keep the pen clean.
CHAPTER III
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND I (2) METHODS
Position of the Desk — The Writing Level — Use of the Pen — Holding the Pen — Filling the Pen, &c.
POSITION OF THE DESK
Always write at a slope. This enables you to sit Acquiring up comfortably at your work, and to see the MS. a Formal clearly as though it were on an easel — and, by the Hand : resulting horizontal position of the pen, the ink is (2) Methods kept under control. It may be seen from ancient pictures that this was the method of the scribes (see Frontispiece). Never write on a flat table ; it causes the writer to stoop, the MS. is seen fore- shortened, and the ink flows out of the pen too rapidly.
61
Acquiring The slope of the desk may be about, or rather a Formal less than, 45° to begin with : as the hand becomes
Hand: (2) Method!
accustomed to it, it may- be raised to about 60°
(%. 38).
The "heel" of the right hand may be tired at first, but it soon grows used to the position. A rest for the left arm, if necessary, can be attached to the left side of the board.
Lighting, The desk is placed very near to a win- dow, so that a strong light falls on it from the left. Direct sunlight may be cut off by fixing a sheet of thin white paper in the window. Careful work should be done by daylight. Work done by artificial light always appears faulty and unsatisfactory when viewed by day.
THE WRITING LEVEL
Each penman will find Fig. 39. for himself the writing
level along which his pen will move most naturally and conveni- ently (see figs. 39 and 16). The paper guard should be pinned on about i inch below the 62
Fig. 38.
writing level : the tape is fixed across about 3 Acquiring inches above the guard. In the case of very a Formal large writing the space between the tape and the Hand : guard is greater, and in the case of a very small (2) Methods MS. it is less.
The writing level is kept constant. When one line has been written, the writing paper — which is placed behind the tape and the guard — is pulled up for another line.
USE OF THE PEN
For the practical study of pen-forms use a cane or a reed pen — or a quill cut very broad — giving a broad, firm, thick stroke. It is the chisel edge (P* 57) of the nib which gives the "clean cut" thick and thin strokes and the graduated curved strokes characteristic of good writing (fig. 40).
Fig. 40.
Therefore, let the nib glide about on the surfact with the least possible pressure^ making natural pen-strokes the thickness of which is only varied
63
Acquiring by the different directions in which the nib a Formal moves (see Addenda^ p. 23).
Hand: It is very important that the nib be cut "sharp,"
(2) Methods and as often as its edge wears blunt it must be re- sharpened. It is impossible to make " clean cut " strokes with a blunt pen (see Addenda^ p. 25).
When the nib is cut back, the "shoulder" should be cut back to preserve the elasticity of the pen (p. 60).
HOLDING THE PEN
THE HAND holds the pen lightly and easily, A good method is to loop the thumb and fore- finger over, and slightly gripping, the shaft of the pen, and support the shaft from below with the second finger. The third and fourth fingers are tucked, out of the way, into the palm (figs. 41, 45).
The pen should be so lightly held that the act of writing should draw the edge of the nib into perfect contact with the paper^ both the half-nibs touching the surface, (To make sure that the contact is perfect, make experimental thick strokes on a scrap of paper — pinned at the right-hand side of the desk — and see that they are "true," i.e. that they are of even width, with " clean cut " edges and ends.) The writer should be able to feel what the nib is doing. If the pen be gripped stiffly the edge of the nib cannot be felt on the paper ; and it will inevitably be forced out of shape and prematurely blunted.
A thin slip of bone — a " folder " or the handle of the pen-knife will do — is commonly held in the left hand to keep the paper fiat and steady (see
fig- 40- 64
THE CUSTOMART MANNER, — The Acquiring
ancient scribe probably held his pen in the manner a Formal
most convenient to himself; and we, in order to Hand:
write with freedom, should hold the pen in the (2) Methodi way to which, by long use, we have been accus-
•^ \-fr Q ^ >
ositiomL o^ the
Fig. 41.
tomed ; provided that, for writing an upright round" handy the pen be so manipulated and cut as to make fine horizontal thin strokes and clean vertical thick strokes (see fig. 40, h footnote^ p. 304).
SLANTED SHAFT, esff.— Most people are accustomed to holding a pen slanted away from the right shoulder. The nib therefore is cut at B 65
filB CUT AT OF JO DECREES'
Fig. 42.
ANCLE TO SHAFT
Acquiring an oblique angle ^ to the shaft, so that, while the a Formal shaft is slanted, the edge of the nib is parallel with the Hand : horizontal line of the
(2) Methods n<mzontal line of Paper-" paper^ and will there- fore produce a hori- zontal thin stroke and a vertical thick stroke. For example : if the shaft is held slanted at an angle of 70^ with the horizontal, the nib is cut at an angle of 70° with the shaft (fig. 42). The angle of the nib with the shaft may vary from 90° (at right angles) to about 70°, accord- ing to the slant at which the shaft is held
(fig- 43)-
If the writer pre- fers an extremely slanted shaft, to cut the nib correspond- ingly obliquely would weaken it, so it is better to counteract the slant by slightly tilting the paper (fig. 44).
To produce the horizontal thin stroke^ therefore: The slant at which the shaft is heldy The angle at which the nil is cut, and The tilt which may be given to the paper :
t If the edge of the nib were cut at right angles to the shaft, obviously the horizontal stroke would not be thin, and the true thick and thin strokes would be oblique (see *^ slanted f)en'*
■writing — figS. 9 & I ij.
66
NlB^ CUT AT VARIOUS ANGLES Fig. 43.
must be so adjusted, one to another, that the chisel edge of the nib is parallel to the horizontal line of
the paper. Before writing, make trial strokes on a scrap of paper to see that this is so : the vertical thick strokes should be square ended and the full width of the nib, the horizontal strokes as fine as possible.
HORIZONTAL SHAFT, &c.—The pen shaft is held approximately horizontal. This will
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand ;
(2) Methods
*The desk is shewn here, with a slave of about: ^y.
Fig. 45.
be found the natural position for it when the slope
67
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(2) Methods
of the desk is about 50'
or 60'. It gives complete control of the ink in
pen tUvated.
Ch.)
the
pen,
which can
V.O-' ^ {ink maiUi thickly) \^^^Anc^Z tdo (mat
68
Fig. 47.
be made to run faster or slower by slightly- elevating or depress- ing the shaft (fig. 45).
The writing- board may be slightly lowered or raised with the object of elevating or depressing the pen shaft (fig. 46 & p. 1 1 8).
The pen makes a con- siderable angle with the writing surface^ so that the ink, which is held in the hollow of the nib, comes in contact with the paper at the very extremity of the nib, making very fine strokes (^, fig. 47).
The spring is ad- justed carefully^ the tip being approximately ■j2g. inch from the tip of the nib. The nearer the spring is to the end of the nib, the faster the ink flows. The loop must be kept flattish in order to hold the ink well (see fig. 35).
FILLING THE PEN, &C, Acquiring
It is convenient to stand the ink, &c., beside the Hand : desk on the left, and for this purpose a little cup- /^x Methods shaped bracket or clip may be attached to the edge of the writing-board. The filling-brush stands in the ink-bottle (p. 51) or pot of colour (p. 176), and is taken up in the left hand ; the pen, retained in the right hand, being brought over to the left to be filled.
The back of the nib is kept dry (^, fig. 48). A
(a.)
l-nk liept below can only fol- iow tlu sharp mh and^e sharp strokes
&
^ Ink occurring cm back of rub
■forms a cirop_ vvith ink hdow^ So that yau write with a <i^_ and cannot maJ<e sharp strokes.
Fig. 48.
very convenient and perfectly clean method, when care is taken, of removing any ink on the back of the pen is to draw it across the back of the left fore-finger.
In careful work the pen should* be tried, on a
69
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand :
(2) Methods
scrap of paper, almost every time it is filled (to see that it is not too full and that the ink is flowing rightly).
The nib is kept clean, A carbon ink (p. 51), through gradual evaporation, is apt to clog the nib (especi- ally in hot weather) ; therefore every now and then, while the nib is in use, the spring is taken out and the whole thoroughly cleaned. It is im- possible to write well with a dirty pen.
CHAPTER IV
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND I (3) MODELS
Models — Notes on Construction : Script I. — Coupling the Letters — Spacing : Letters, Words, & Lines — Uncial Capitals: Script XL — Numerals & Punctua- tion Marks — Of Copying MSS. Generally.
MODELS
Acquiring The best training is found in the practice of an
a Formal upright round-hand (p. 302). Having mastered such
Hand : a writing, the penman can acquire any other hands —
(3) Models sloping or angular — with comparative ease (p. 323).
The English Half-Uncial writing in Plate VIL
is an excellent model. Those who have sufficient
time to spare for the careful study of this, or any
other legible and beautiful round-hand, should
obtain access to the MSS. in a museum, or procure
good facsimiles (see Plates at end of Book, & p. 388).
Those who have not sufficient time for a careful
and thorough Study of an early MS. will find it
70
Hand (3) Models
easier to begin with a simplified and modernised Acquiring writing, such as Script I. (fig. 49). a Formal
aj6c5Ddg:^hitm nTJOpqRrlgtxpc
Purha^m Book hand(coj>y).
obcd^jghijklnnL
Moaernizcd Half-UnciaUl.).
Fig. 49.
Before copying a hand it is well to examine care- fully the manuscript from which it is taken : observe its general appearance : note the character and mode of the ruling, and the sizes and relative pro- portions of page, text, margins, and ornaments. With regard to the actual forms of the letters and the mode of their arrangement, such a method of analysis as the following will be found useful, as an aid to accuracy in copying, and definiteness in self- criticism.
Acquiring a Formal
Hand : (3) Models
A METHOD OF ANALTSIS.
I. THE WRITING ^ general character :
(Ruling) Double or single
lines, &c. (see
pp. 304, 305):
Letters round or angular :
upright or sloping:
coupled or separate ;
». THIN STROKES: horizontal or ob- lique (see figs, xo, 9) :
3. THICK STROKES: heavy, medium, or
light (see fig,
183): character (see fig.
145): short, medium, or
long (see fig.
183):
6. SPACING (Letters, close or wide (see
fVordt, fig. 154):
Lines) :
7. ARRANGEMENT: in mass (of equal
lines), or in column (of un- equ il lines) (see fig- 154):
8. MEASUREMENTS width of thick
( to* proportions see stroke(seep, 83): /^. 324, 317) : height of 0 and d (see pp. 8z, 84) : writing lines, dis- tance apart (see p. 82):
9. COMPONENT number and forms
PARTS: (see pp. 75, 81,
H):
4. «« HEADS" &
"FEET":
5. STEMS (ascending
tJ* descending):
73
Example: Analyst*
of Script I. (as
in fig. 50).
Modernised Half- Uncial. Double lines (set
fg'- 59. 65).
round,
upright,
coupled,
horizontal.
medium,
solid, triangular, life, medium.
fairly close (*'* fgt,
54» 55).
in mass of equal Una (seefg. 66).
[// is, hoivever, very suitable for unequal lines : cf PI, vii.'\
I = about -r'w" tvide.
0= d^
„ i"high.
Lines i" apart,
a has 3 strokes,
* » 3 M
* ». 2 „
and so on (seefg. 51).
NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION — SCRIPT 1.
The pen generally is held so as to give approxi- mately horizontal thin strokes (see p. 66), but in making v (w, y), x, parts of z, &c., it may be "slanted." In figs. 51 and 57 these forms are marked with a small diagonal cross x (see also p. 25).
Most of the strokes begin as down-strokes^ but at the end of a down-stroke, when the ink is flowing freely, the stroke may be continued in an upward direction (as in coupling-strokes, 5cc., the feet of letters, the thin stroke of x, and, if preferred, in making the last stroke of g", s, and y).
While the ink is still wet in a down-stroke, the nib may be replaced on it and be pushed «/>ward and outward to form the round arch in b, h, m, n, p, and r. This stroke, reversed, is also used for the top oft (For making these up-strokes, see fig. 51).
The thin finishing-strokes of j (fig. 50), & F, G, J, N (fig. 56), are made with the point of the nib. . — ^ee Addenda, p. xxiii.
Note. — The forms +oinx in fig. 51 contain all the principal strokes in this alphabet, and are therefore useful for early practice.
Acquiring a Formal
Hand: (3) Models
coupling the letters
These letters are joined together by means of their coupling-strokes, which for this purpose may be slightly drawn out, and forward, from the naturally round forms of the letters (see c, e, &c., fig. 52 & fig. 59).
The coupling-strokes are finishing strokes — and as such are akin to serifs (p. 244) — growing out of or added to such stems as need "finishing." Coup- ling enables beginners to write faster and with
73
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand :
(3) Models
abcdjefo' hjukLrnri aporstuL
vujxnz&
Fig. so*
74
I
+oinx
h normal -positioniS^^^h^^ P^] • ra.& n,
cxceLinn
^ ^ /g.y. Ky. Uilstcokcs rmy Vc carried ^
f:9lPHf
UP
Fig. 51.
75
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(3) Models
r-*^/ (I.) join AeWl to^ ff. TCTI/Q/. ~....join above) in front.
ni.fTrmprvwxy %|^^
g 4- \xs\uViy ynxis heloii'^finmrd may ioin <x5<n^ tof >?r-^ ^ ^any in OassBEj thuS &
E..tu,tiij.tuu[ : tnty
^rMt^rt. (dmikhd). YctmissihAe .
specul
fF
COUPLING OF LETTEU5
^forreftpoice ctify'- -* -^
^kmnzur haw the UtXJers at ScnptLhin nwsr
Fig. 52.
more freedom, the concluding or " coupling " stroke not being slowed down^ but written with a dash, which is covered by the first stroke of the succeed- ing letter. It keeps the individual words more
76
distinct, and therefore permits closer spacing of the text. It should be observed, however, that, except- ing the Irish half-uncial forms vv^here coupling is a characteristic, all the most formal manuscripts are structurally uncoupled (see Plates VIII., X., XXL, & comp. opp, tendency in Plate XIL). The freer and more cursive the hand, the greater is the tendency to join and run letters together, as in ordinary writing. It is preferable to couple letters below, if possible. Couplings above are sometimes apt to confuse the reading ; for example, the cross-bar of t (though the most natural coupling for the scribe to use — see petatisy Plate VII.) should generally be made to pass over or fall short of the succeeding letter (fig. 52).
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(3) Models
SPACING : LETTERS, WORDS, & LINES
The letters of a word are fitted together so that there is a general effect of evenness. This evenness is only to be attained by practice : it is characteristic of rapid skilful writing, and cannot be produced satisfactorily by any system of measure- ment while the writer's hand is still slow and uncertain, ^ It js worth noting, however, that the white interspaces vary slightly, while the actual distances between the letters vary considerably, according to whether the adjacent strokes curve (or slant) away or are perpendicular (figs. 53, 152).
It is sufficient for the beginner to take care that two curved letters are made very near each other, and that two straight strokes are spaced well apart.
If the curves are too far apart there will be spots of light, and where several heavy stems are made too close together, " blots " of dark, marring the evenness of the page.
77
Acquiring a Formal
Hand: (3) Models
IVordi are kept as close as is compatible with
|
^ vtiXgsx U$tan(x : Less \ |
TWO STRWOHT II |
|
Id 10 Stmiqlit 1 Stnucht anidid Wiiciavcd, ■U> curved. n^ccupUi' |
5rRAlGHr K CURVED. |
|
^^\^ Uh} oaves. |
Kl |
|
THE SPACWG OF SMAIL LETTtR^ fyr rejhxnce only : Sfiex^nncr fiow the SmalL Letters '^ are svaeecf most natumlly . |
Fig. 53.
legibility. The average space between two words is less than the width of the letter o (fig. 54). 78
this:xindnthat
Fig. 54.
The Lines in massed writing (see p. 262) are kept as close together as is compatible with legibility. The usual distance apart of the writing-lines is about three times the height of the letter o (see also p. 327).
The descending strokes of the upper line must "clear" the ascending strokes of the lower line.
"/si
distixnce apart cfwnUrurlwxS.
Fig. 55.
Interlocking of these strokes may be avoided by the experimental placing of p over d (fig. 55).
UNCIAL CAPITALS : SCRIPT II.
These modernised Uncials (see fig. 56, & p. 300) are intended to go with Script I., and their analysis and mode of construction are almost identical with those of Script I. (see pp. 72, 73).
79
Acquiring a Formal
Hand: (3) Modcli
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(3) Models
Kbijk
RST
(yvxvz
CMIV. Uncilu, ^ K / "^ ^
MCMl
80 Fio. 56.
.4cBGO
CD Kip Ul'tDE
-^ / ;t ♦ ♦ ♦ i^^ X jLf ^
ana^^Anmc
Acquiring a Formal
Hand: (3) Models
Grouping : Uncials have no coupling'Strokes ; when several are used together, they are not joined, but evenly grouped, allow^ing as before for curves and straight strokes (see p. 77).
Spacing : (a) When used with Script /., Uncials are
written on the same lines, and
have to follow the same spacing
(in spite of their longer stems).
(b) IVhen Uncials are used by themselves^
their spacing may be wider (p. 297).
Note. — The height of Uncial o is about equal to
the height of the Half- Uncial d.
NUMERALS & PUNCTUATION MARKS
(See fig. 57.)
These are best made with a " slanted '* pen (fig. 9).
When writing " Arabfc numerals," I and 0 may be made on the line^ 2468 ascending^ and 3579 de- scending,
OF COPYING MSS. GENERALLY
When copying a MS. it is best to choose a complete page — or part of a page — to be copied in facsimile.
Two or three lines are copied to begin with ; then the composition of the individual letters and words is studied by means of a large pen ; and finally the whole page is copied in facsimile. (Of practising^ see pp. 85, 86).
Make a general examination and analysis as suggested at p. 71. Accurate measurements will be found helpful.
Take the heights of the o and the d, and the distance apart of the writing-lines with dividers,
82
The width of the thick stroke is best found by making experimental thick strokes — th^ full width of the pen nib — on a scrap of paper : cut the paper in half across the thick strokes, and place the cut edge on the thickest strokes in the original MS., you will then find whether the pen nib should be cut wider or narrower.
The direction of the thickest strokes is approxi- mately at right angles to the direction of the thin strokes ; which commonly approaches the horizontal in early round hands, and is oblique in other hands (see figs. 9 and 10). The positions both of these strokes in the model, and of your pen, determine the angle of the nib. Therefore, cut the nib across at such an angle to the shaft of the pen that, when you hold the pen naturally, the direction of the thin strokes which it makes on the writing paper will coincide with the direC" tion of the thin strokes in the model ; but
{a) The way in which the shaft is held, {b) The angle at which the nib is cut, {c) The position of the writing paper, may all be slightly varied, so that the direction of the thin strokes can be followed exactly (see p. 66). The writing paper is cut and ruled exactly in accordance with the model ; and the heights of the letters and the widths of the thick strokes in the copy agree as nearly as possible with those in the original. It is therefore a good test for accuracy — when a few lines of writing have been copied — to measure and compare their lengths. If they corre- spond with their originals, it goes far to prove the copy a good one.
Before copying more of the page, the construc- tion of the letters should be carefully studied. The number and the forms of pen-strokes in each letter
83
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(3) Models
Acquiring a Formal
Hand: (3) Models
are found by examination — with a magnifying glass if necessary — and by the experimental putting to- gether of strokes, to form a similar letter. For this a large pen, such as a reed, is useful, and it is a good plan to write Individual letters and words exactly two, three, or four times their height in the model : both the pen nib and the individual letters are made correspondingly two, three, or four times as wide as in the original.
It is particularly important, in copying, to pre- serve accurately the proportion of the thick stroke to the height and width of a letter (see p. 324). These are conveniently measured by the pen nib itself, or by the estimated width of the thick stroke ; thus, in the writing shown in fig. 50, the width of the o is approximately y?^'^, and the height approximately four^ times the width of the thick stroke.
Not only must the copier ascertain what the forms are like and wliat are their proportions, but he must try to find out how they were made. This is of the greatest importance, for the manner of making a letter, or even a single stroke, affects its form and character with a definite tendency (see p. 416 & fig. 172). And this becomes more marked the faster the writing. An apparently right form may yet be wrongly — If slowly — made ; but in rapid writing, a wrong manner of handling the pen will Inevitably produce wrong forms. As the real virtue of penmanship is attained only when we can write quickly. It is well worth training the hand from the beginning In the proper manner.
Patient and careful examination should be made of the changing pen-strokes, and of the mode in which they join — to form letters — and begin and end — to form " heads " and " feet." This, accompanied
84
by practical experiments in cutting and handling the Acquiring pen, will bring out details of the utmost technical a Formal value. A certain amount of legitimate " faking " Hand : (p. 246), play of the pen, and sleight of hand (p. 311), (3) Models may be found, but, in the main, the regular, natural, thick and thin strokes of the pen, and the orderly arrangement of the writing, give to a manuscript its beauty and character.
Then having cut the nib rightly, you may, in a sense, let the pen do the writings while you merely follow the strokes of the model, and you will, in course of time, have the pleasure of seeing the same beautiful writing — in the very manner of the ancient scribes — growing under your own hand.
CHAPTER V
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE
Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a Single Sheet — Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) — Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) — Spacing & Planning Manuscript.
PRACTICE
In acquiring a formal writing the penman should Acquiring have two paper books constantly in hand : one for a Formal the study of the forms of letters, the other for both Hand : the letters and their arrangement. The first should (4) Practice contain large and very carefully made writing — with perhaps only one word to the line ; the second
8s
Acquiring should have smaller and quicker writing, neatly
a Formal arranged on the pages, with four or five words to
Hand : the line. (See MS. Books, Chap. VI.)
(4) Practice A broad nib is used in preference to a narrow
one, so that the characteristics of true pen-work
are brought out and the faults made clear. A fine,
light handwriting is often very pretty, but it is
certain to mislead the novice in penmanship (sec
P- 324).
Having acquired a formal hand the penman may modify and alter it, taking care that the changes are compatible, and that they do not impair its legibility or beauty. Such letters as are obsolete he replaces by legible forms akin to them in feeling, and, the style of the selected type becoming very naturally and almost unconsciously modified by personal use, he at length attains an appropriate and modern Formal-Handwriting. The process of " forming " a hand requires time and practice : it
resembles the passage of "Copy-book" into "Run- ning " hand, familiar to us all (see p. 323).
b b
SCRIPTS I. & II,
Having cut the nib of a
Fig. 58.
reed or large
quill to the
exact width required for the thick stroke, copy the
component strokes of the letter (X (Script 1.), and
86
immediately make the complete letter : go through Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(4) Practice
f ^T\
9
i
the whole alphabet in this way several times (fig. 58). Next join the letters together (see p. 73)
87
Acquiring to form words — wrftfng always between ruled lines a Formal (fig. 59 & p. 414).
Hand : Script II. is similarly practised : the letters are
(4) Practice grouped (p. 82) to form words (fig. 60).
Next make a neat page of large writing, and, if possible, write such a page every day. The more definite and methodical practice is, the better. "Practising" anyhow^ on scraps of paper, does more harm than good.
TO the TxUdxmaL ajriijTiaL the sorne ojct Is ajGoording^ to TiaXxxTQ. (xxvdu ac coTxUjich to reason.
Fig. 61.
ARRANGING & RULING A SINGLE SHEET
The sixe of an inscription is commonly settled before the arrangement of the text is planned out, being determined by considerations of its future position and office, or by custom and use (see pp. 100-103 & 351).
88
The proportions of the writing, spacing, and Acquiring margins will likewise properly settle themselves (see a Formal pp. 265, 103, 107), but where the size of the sheet Hand: only is fixed, we have, broadly speaking, to decide (4) Practice between " large " writing with " small " margins (fig. 61), and "small" writing with "large" margins (fig. 62).
TO iJie nilicTnalcinirriaL the same act is aorarcUng tx) nature ojuL orxxntJUng^ to naosoiuM. Ant£miiui$«
Fig. 62.
Generally a compromise is arrived at and the proportions are more evenly balanced (fig. 63).
Ruling {SGC also pp. 258, 99). — The mode of ruling marginal lines and writing lines is shown in fig. 65. The ruling should be light, but firm and accurate. A fine pen, or hard pencil, or a blunt point may be used. Where the writing lines are double (as for round hands, p. 304), it is best to have a double
ruling point (see fig. 77).
Two hard pencils firmly
89
Acquiring lashed together make a convenient tool for large
a Formal work : the distance between the points is easily
Hand : adjusted by means of a small wedge, (4) Practice
TO tKe TTitixjTiaL cDiiiTijaLL tiie scoTie
act is acccnrdinq^ to nature andouC' coTxlina tD reosort
Fig. 63.
PROBLEM I. (a sheet OF PROSE)
To write out the Pater noster (50 words) in a formal round-hand {arranged in " mass " of equal lines) on a sheet of ^*' foolscap^' (i.e. 17 inches high and 13 J inches wide).
If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, a icw words are written out in a script chosen to suit the subject, the space, &c., and these are measured to find the area which the whole text so written would occupy (fig. 64). The size of the script is then modified, if necessary, to suit the available area.
90
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(4) Practice
indies: tfUtzforc die ccmpl£te(sd) words of test wd ta/ce ak:AOO. S^^fsa^ a space Si ''^ tthj^f^l
Fig. 64-
91
Acquiring ' a Formal Hand: (4) Practice
Tcp tTnargin
^2^'^
(Scale
T
Ik
A. (T) C ,M
^;=i)
A
1
^2i-?
A sheet ly-indvis hioh & 151 inches wicie.tfap) ]^uZ«d wifli dvirfcemfimiblc) lines -^"^«i«^-
5uicmajWL^25t""^)= Foot mmw^^-in^f^^-
9J
Fio. 65.
aJbernDstenquL es in__U : soorictLpcetiJLrnoTnjS . Adveniadt regnunrU .puadtvolunijCLS tua
ijcut in-codo et irt tEircL M anera nostruin ouuotidi-l anajuTL do. nobis hodieij iGt dimittje m)bis ddbiteo InDStrcL^sicut etTiosdimiti jtijTUis cLebitimbuB nostrM i6t n£ nos InduLcas iatjeni tatuonrienrL. SecL litera nos
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand: (4)
Practice
aTnolD. A CD 6 N
J^— te,
93
Acquiring Frequently it is desirable first to determine the
a Formal sizes of the margins. These depend on various
Hand : considerations of the position and office of the MS.,
(4) Practice but more particularly on the size of the sheet and
the character of its future environment ^(see p. 351).
The top and side margins may be of equal w^idth — or the ^(7^ may be a little less (see ^, fig. 70). Ample space should be allowed for the foot margin^ which is generally about twice the width of the top^ but may vary in different cases, according as the text falls short of or encroaches upon it (see pp. 352, 342). For a plain foolscap sheet : sides (each) i\ inches, top (approx.) 2 inches, and foot (approx.) 4 inches, may be taken as suitable margins (fig. 65).
The width of the sheet (13 J inches) less the two side margins (2J inches each) gives the length of the writing lines (i 31 — 5 = 8^ inches). One or two such lines are written experimentally in a suitable script (say, -^ inch), and the average number of words ter line (four) is found.
The number of words in the complete text (fifty) will determine the number of lines : an extra
line or so may be allowed for safety ( — = 12 J, say,
thirteen^ The spacing of these is calculated —
^ in. writing requires about \ in. (close) spacing (p. 79)1
Thirteen lines at \ in. gives iif \n.z=depth of text :
iif in. from 17 in. leaves 5I in.2 for head zx\d foot margins
— and if the space is not sufficient, the writing is made a little smaller. If, on the other hand, the
1 For example, a /ra»»<r</ sheet does not require such wide margins as a similar sheet j/wframed.
2 Really about 6 inches, because the top line of writing will not occupy its full ^ inch, the unused part of which adds to the top margin (see fig. 65).
94
marginal depth left over were excessive, the w^riting Acquiring might be made a little larger in order to fill up the a Formal space. Hand :
(4) Practice
PROBLEM II. (a sheet OF POETRY)
To write out " He that is down, needs fear no f ally"* in a formal round-hand on a sheet of foolscap (i.e. 17 inches high X 13J inches wide).
Here there are three verses of four lines each : these with two space lines, left between the verses, give a total of fourteen lines (fig. 67).
A poem has a given number of lines of various lengths, and only very strong reason or necessity can justify our altering its proper form {e.g, by breaking up the lines) in order to make a mass of equal lines. Such theoretical margins as are pos- sible in the treatment of prose can therefore seldom be observed in writing out a poem, and, unless the height or the width of the sheet can be altered, there is apt to be an excess of margin in one or the other direction. When such excess margin is obviously unavoidable, no objection can be made to its appear- ance. Poetry may conveniently be treated as ^^ fine writing'''' (see p. 263).
If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, several of the longer lines {e,g, the first and the eleventh in the poem given) are written on a piece of paper in the size of writing preferred (say, \ inch). By laying this paper on the given sheet, it is seen whether such lines would allow of sufficient side margins, (If they would not, the writing may be made smaller.)
The height of the writing (J inch) must allow of the full number of lines (fourteen) being properly
95
k
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand: (4)
Practice
He that Is louj;, no midc. : He that is himible, ever sholL Hove Cjod tx) be his ^uidLe ,
JI oin content uiUKuihotl huve^ iLUtle be it or mueh. : Jcrayc>
JAiKl^LaTxl^ contentment stilL I Beoiiise thoa socvest such.*
jnilneGS to siixK o^burcLax is , iThat ^ cm. pUgrinume : Here little^ ancL hereafter bUss, |ls best irorrt ane to cLoe
96 Fig. 67.
spaced on the sheet (17 inches) with sufficient head and foot margins. This is calculated —
J in. writing requires approximately | in. spacing (p. 79) :
Fourteen lines at f in. gives 10^ in. = depth of text :
xo\ in. from 17 in. leaves 6^ in. for head dind foot margins
^and if the space were not sufficient, the lines might be made a little closer, or the writing a little smaller (or, if necessary, the blank lines might be left out between the verses ; p. 123).
The Sizes of the Margins. — It will be seen that the above method is primarily for settling a length of line which will allow of sufficient side margins. The process can be reversed ; if necessary, the side margins are made of a given width, thus deter- mining the exact length of the line, the size of writing which this line allows being found experi- mentally.
Note. — The extra long lines may slightly en- croach on the right-hand margin : the effect of this is balanced by the falling short of other lines.
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(4) Practice
SPACING & PLANNING MANUSCRIPT
In penmanship great nicety of spacing and arrangement is possible. The ascending and de- scending strokes may be shortened or drawn out, the spaces between letters and words may be slightly increased or decreased, the lines may be written near or far apart, and the letters may be written with a broader or narrower nib.
Elaborate spacing and planning, however, should
not be attempted at first, and straightforward,
undesigned work is often the best. The student
is apt to waste time writing out an elaborate draft
G 97
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(4) Practice
in order to ascertain how to space the matter. This is a mistake, because if written well, it is a waste of good writing on a mere draft ; if written ill, it is bad practice. The briefer experiments and calculations are, the better, though the simplest problem always requires for its solution a calcula- tion or process of guess and trial (such as suggested in the preceding pages). Practice will make people very good guessersy and the best work of all is done when the worker guesses rightly, and follows his guesses with the actual work, itself the trial and proof of accuracy.
CHAPTER VI
MANUSCRIPT BOOKS
MS, Books: Tools & Materials— Methods & Propor- tions— The Size & Shape of the Book — The Widths of the Margins — The Size of the Writing, &c. — Ruling — MS. Books: General Remarks.
MS. BOOKS : TOOLS & MATERIALS
Manuscript The making of manuscript hooks, based on a study Books of the early MSS., offers the best training to the scribe and illuminator in writing, lettering, rubricat- ing, gilding, illuminating initials and borders, and miniature painting, and is the best means of mas- tering the foundations of Book Typography and Decoration.
Materials, ^c, for MS, Books ; Paper (see pp. 51, 103, III, 317) ; Vellum and Parchment and Pounce
98
1 MS. Books are further considered in Chap. XVL
(sec pp. no, 167, 173-5). — Cut a small sheet the size of a page of the book, and clip the long edge between two flat pieces of wood (holding it as it would be if bound). If the page will bend over and stay down by its own weight, it is thin enough (R) fig. 68) i if it stands up (W), it is too stiff.
R.
Manuscript Books
Fig. 68.
Cutting Sheets, — A frame or template (the size of the sheet desired) is used by parchment makers. It is useful for cutting out the sheets for a common size of parchment book. They are cut on the end- grain of wood, or on card or glass.
Folding. — A Folder^ as used by bookbinders (or a bone paper-knife), is useful, and also a Set or T-Square for testing right angles, &c. The fold and the top edge of each book-sheet are commonly squared by proper folding.
Ruling^ ^c. (see p. 343). — For marking distances of lines, a carefully prepared paper ^ scale (p. 25) or a pattern & an awl (p. 109), or a ^^ star-wheel" —
1 The direct use of a thick wood or metal scale may lead to inaccuracy.
99
Manuscript having regular intervals between the spikes — may Books be used. Or the ruling — of the writing lines — may be simplified by using a stout card frame (internally the size of the text-column) with strips glued across it : for a common size of book this might be made in stout tin or other metal. The lines are commonly ruled with a ruling stylus (see figs. 72, 77), or a sort of "r^^^" may be made to rule six lines at once.
Writing^ Colourings Gildings Binding (Chaps. II., X., IX., XVI.).
METHODS & PROPORTIONS
Having to make a manuscript book for a specific purpose, the scribe formulates in his mind a general plan of the work, and decides approximately the respective sizes of page and of writing which seem most suitable.
He endeavours to fashion the book in accord with its use, and therefore allows the (most suitable) material, the subject-matter and the office of the , book, and the way in which it will be read and handled, to determine as far as is possible the pro- portions of its parts, and its treatment as a whole.
Its material may be vellum, parchment, or paper, on which a variety of pens, brushes, and other tools, with inks, colours, and metal foils, may be employed. Its office may be " useful " or " ornamental " ; its contents may be long or short, weighty or light, and of greater or less worth ; it may be for public or for private use ; and the book may be intended to be placed on a lectern, to be held in the hand, or to be carried in a coat pocket.
In following out such natural indications, the
100
practised craftsman relies greatly on his working Manuscript
methods, preferring a direct mode of treatment to Books
one which is too ingenious or subtle. In deciding
a doubtful point, a common-sense of proportion is
a sufficient guide, and one may generally assume
that great works are best " writ large," and that
large letters read best on an ample page, and vice
versd.
The main proportions which have to be con- sidered are interdependent, and follow one another in their natural order (see p. 256), thus —
1. The size and shape of the hook,
2. The widths of the margins,
3. The size of the writing, &c.
And the methodical scribe makes his books of certain definite and regular sizes, each size having corresponding and regular proportions of margins and writing. Though these may greatly depend on individual taste and experience, it is suggested that — like all good designs — they should be allowed as far as possible to settle and arrange themselves,
THE SIZE & SHAPE OF THE BOOK
A book is thought of by the scribe chiefly as an open book, and the width and height of its pages are chosen with a view to its convenient shape and pleasant appearance when open. The most economical sizes into which a suitable sheet of paper can be folded (or a skin of parchment can be cut) may commonly be allowed to decide these proportions.
When a printer is about to print a book lie chooses a sheet of paper which will fold into a suitable shape and size. If the sheet be folded
lOI
Manuscript once to form two leaves, the book is called a folio Books (fig. 69); folded again to form a ''section'' of "four
folio johimc: Qxiarto foUim Octavo (vUiiiir.
Q 0
Tolw (sectlcm). Qunrto section. Octavo sectwu^-
_ ^^ Quortp
JvUo 'ovcriuuK "aveniruy
Fig. 69.
Octavo 'opening,
leaves — a ytt^r/<? (4to) ; or folded a third time to form a j^f//^« of eight leaves — an octavo (8vo),^
* The two, four, eight (or more) pages are printed on both •ides of the sheet before it is folded. Two or more sheets are generally folded and put together to form a folio ^^lectiom." 102
The book is made up of a number of sections Manuscript sewn on to strings or tapes (see p. 347). Books
The penman will find that, besides saving time and labour, it conduces to good work if he keep to certain regular sizes for "large," "medium," and " small " books ; and, if the ordinary sheets of paper which he uses will fold in convenient folio^ quarto^ and octavo sizes, it is well that he make these his standards for paper books.
Paper being made in sheets of various dimen- sions, by folding a large or a small sheet, a "large" or " small " folio — 4to, 8vo — can be obtained.
It may be noted that the length and the width of sheets of paper ^ are very commonly about as 9 h to 7. And therefore, when the sheet is folded for folio or octavo^ the proportions are roughly about 7 : 4J, which are very good proportions for a page of a book. It is obvious that a narrow (" upright ") book is easier to handle and more pleasant in appear- ance (when open) than an album or " oblong " shape of book {b and c, fig. 70).
THE WIDTHS OF THE MARGINS
Margins are necessary in order to isolate and frame a text : thus they contribute to its legibility and beauty. It is better that they be wide rather than narrow (see p. 106, & Note, p. 265) ; but excessively wide margins are often neither convenient nor pleasing (see p. 222).
The "page" or column of text should be in such proportion to the page of the book, and be placed on it in such a way as to leave adequate
^ Such as Foolscap (i7"xi3i"), Croivn (2o"xi5")> Demy (i2i" X i7i"), Royal (ts" X 20"), &c.
103
Manuscript margins on every side. A narrow column of text
Books is generally best, for short lines are easiest to write
and to read, and do not tire the hand, or the eye, m
passing from one line to the next. For this reason
the text is often divided into two or more columns
SindzShm (a.) **UWit"<fhiycaf IBook (^6.) Intcrproportum^ of WIT>£ MARGINS &c.
Shapcaf Book (C); douhk col- umns: sec
Fig. 70.
when the page is wide, or the writing is very small in comparison.
The exact proportion of margin to text in a
given page depends on circumstances, and is largely
a matter of taste (ex. fig. 7 1 & note 2, ^, p. 256). But
just as it is advantageous generally to keep to certain
104
Inner margin 6 inch.
Top margin approximately | inch {measured to the top of the -writing on the first line — see also fig. 65).
Side margin i^ inch.
Fig. 71.— Diagram showing the ruling of a {Recto) page 4} inches X ^\ inches as for a manuscript book (allowing five or SIX words to the Writing- line). There are fifteen Writing- lines, the Line-space being -fg inch.
The proportions of large CAPITALS, shown above, are set by the Line-space ( footnote, p. aai).
The Foot margin is i} inch.
J105
Manuscript sizes or pages, it is well to keep to certain — corre^ Books spond'mg — sizes of margins for regular use.
The proportions of the margins to each other follow a sort of tradition (see fig. 70), the foot margin (4) usually being twice as wide as that at the top (2), the side margins generally greater than the top and less than the foot. The two pages of an opening may be viewed as one sheet having two columns of text ; and the two inner margins, which combine to form an interspace, are therefore made narrow (about I J each), so that together they are about equal to one side margin (fig. 70). These propor- tions (1^:2:3:4) approximate to the proportions common in early MSS.
Sufficient and proportional margins add greatly to the usefulness and beauty of a book. That the writers and illuminators used them when books were read and valued in a way we can scarcely realise now, shows that such things are not, as some might suppose, a matter of affectation. Be- sides the natural fitness of the common proportions commends them : a deep foot margin is a founda- tion to the whole, and gives a spare piece for the reader to hold/ and wide side margins rest the eyes and keep the text from " running off the page " at the end of each line ; and (the two) narrow inner margins combine to separate the pages sufficiently, but not too far, so that they form two " columns " together, framed by the outer margins of the open book.
When books are meant to be bound, from yV ^"^h to J inch extra margin should be allowed all round the page for the cutting down and binding. The
1 In Oriental books, which are sometimes held by their top margins, the tof is deepest. 106
binding is apt to encroach on the inner margins, Manuscript especially in vellum books, which do not open Books fully; in order, therefore^ that the inner margins may keep their proper width, an extra width of ■J to J inch (according to the stiffness of the material) is allowed.
THE SIZE OF THE WRITING, &C.
The shape, size, and margins of the page (already settled) together determine the length of the writing- line (see fig. 71) ; and the size of the writing should be such as will allow a reasonable number of words to that line.^
Eight or nine words to the line is a common proportion in ordinary printed books, and may be taken by the scribe as his ordinary maximum. Lines having very many words are difficult to read. *
On the other hand, lines of only two or three words each are generally tiresome, though they may be allowed in special cases of fine writing (see p. 262), where it is less necessary to economise space or time, and the effect of an even mass is not desired. But in any case where there is an attempt to make the right-hand edge of the text approxi- mately even, at least four or five words to the line are necessary ; the scribe may therefore take four words per line as his ordinary minimum.
We may say generally, then, that an ordinary manuscript book should contain between four and eight words [or between 25 and 50 letter-spaces) to the line,
* If the average number of words be previously fixed — as in a poem (see p. 95) — that will practically determine the size of the writing
107
Manuscript The exact size of the writing allowed in a given Books case may be found by a process of guess and trial, but this is seldom necessary for the practical scribe who uses regular sizes for regular occasions.
The line spacing. — The size of the letter deter- mines approximately the distance apart of the writing-lines (see pp. 79, 327). Much depends on whether the ascending and descending letters are long or short (see fig. 154).
The number of writing-lines to the page equals the number of times that the line-space is contained in the text-column [i.e. the height of the page less the top and foot margins) — allowing for the top line not requiring a full space (see fig. 71). Any frac- tional space left over may be added to the foot margin, or, if nearly equal to one line-space, a little may be taken from the margins to complete it.
The Large Capitals are commonly one^ two^ or more of the line-spaces in height (fig. 71, & p. 128).
RULING
Having folded and cut the large sheet of paper into small (book) sheets of the size determined on, take one of these as a pattern and rule it through- out as if it were to be used in the book.
The ruling stylus has a blunt point, which in- dents the paper, but does not scratch it. A stout pin bent to a claw shape and held in a piece of wood does very well
(fig. 72). 108
Under the writing paper there should be a " pad " Manuscript of ordinary paper (or blotting paper). Books
The marginal lines are ruled from head to foot of each leaf {a, fig. 73). Besides being a guide for the writing, they give an appearance of straightness and strength to the written page.^
I I
(«•)
(69
Fig. 73.
The writing lines are ruled across, between the marginal lines, their places having been indicated by equidistant dots (i*, fig. 73).
A dozen or more of the small sheets of the book are piled together on a board with their top edges exactly coinciding, and the pattern sheet is accurately placed on the top of the pile. The pile of sheets may be fixed by a narrow piece of wood placed across and screwed down (fig. 74). (See Addenda, p. 25.)
The writing line dots are
Fig. 74.
^ They are often ruled double (see p. 343), and sometimes the top and foot lines are ruled from edge to edge of the sheet.
109
Manuscript pricked through all the sheets by means of a fine Books awl or needle set in a wooden handle (fig. 75).
See also meihods of ruling WITHOUT PRICK IN Gy pp. 99-100.
Fig. 75-
•6.
Fig. 1*].
Fig. 76.
The writing lines are ruled as in fig. 76 (sometimes across the narrow inner margins).
For double writing lines a double-ruling stylus may be made of two pins fixed in a wooden handle at the exact width of the writing gauge
(% 77)-
MS. BOOKS — GENERAL REMARKS
Sections (p. 102). — A section, or ^^ gathering," com- monly consists of four book-sheets, folded in half into eight leaves (i.e. sixteen pages), but three or even two sheets are sufficient when they are extra thick, and Jive or six may be used when extra thin. Parchment sheets should have their smooth sides so placed together that each "opening" of the book has both its pages rough or both smooth and the pages are pounced after they are ruled (see p. 1 74).
Before the writing is begun the pages of the section are numbered on the inner marginal line,
no
about J inch or so below the footline. This will Manuscript prevent mistakes. Books
Fly-leaves, — One oi more leaves of the first and last sections in a book are left blank (besides the extra sheet or section (p. 346) which is used in the binding — attached to the cover). A book of any size or importance ought to have at least three fly-leaves at the beginning, and three or four at the end. These extra leaves protect the manuscript, and, in a sense, constitute mar' gins for the whole body of the text. They may also be used to make thin books thicker, for the sake of the binding. At the end of Service books, or other books likely to be of per- manent interest, additional fly-leaves should be pro- vided for notes and annotations (see pp. 344, 346).
Rough or Smooth Edges, — The rough ''^ Deckle^'* edges of hand-made paper are inconvenient in a book of any thickness, and should be trimmed off after folding, though they may be left in the case of very thin books. The deckle edge should not occur at the top of the page, as it would there be a trap for dust, and because it is important that the tops of pages should all be level. The top edge or head of a book is often cut and gilt in order to keep out the dust — this is called " Library gilt." It is more suitable, however, that all the edges be gilt.
The Top Margins throughout the book are kept quite level. Any irregularity at the top of a page catches the eye at once, while slight differences at the side, or considerable diflferences at the foot, may occur without spoiling the appearance of the margins. All measurements for marginal and writing lines, &c., are therefore made from the
III
Manuscript fold of the booTc-sheet and from the top edge, Books which is cut at right angles to the fold.
Regular Writing. — In writing one page it is a good plan to have its fellow page, or a similarly written one, fixed on the desk beside it as a pattern. This will save the beginner from a very common error — writing larger or smaller (which of course spoils the look of the pages).
Initial Page. — The text of a book commonly begins on a recto, or right hand, page (see p. 365).
CHAPTER VII
VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS
Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals — Notes on Construction of Versals — Spacing & Ar- rangement of Versals.
DEVELOPMENT OF VERSALS
Versa! The earliest books consisted of a number of lines Letters & of continuous writing in capital letters. There Coloured were seldom any divisions of the text — into para- Capitals graphs, chapters, or the like — or even of one word from another ; nor were important words distin- guished by larger initials. The first division of paragraphs was made by a slight break in the text and a mark ; later, the first letter of the first com- plete line of the new paragraph was placed in the margin and written larger. When " small-letters " were evolved, capitals ceased to be used for the body of the text, and became distinguishing letters for headings and important words. 112
The capitals written at the beginnings of books, chapters, and paragraphs grew larger and more ornamental, and at length were made in colour and decorated with pen flourishes. Such letters, used to mark the beginnings of verses, paragraphs, &c., have been called " Versals." ^
In modern printing and ordinary writing the first line of a paragraph is generally indented (^, fig. 78),
Versal
Letters &
Coloured
Capitals
V
|
a, |
|
h |
|
\ ATI r |
c.
Fig. 78.
but the earlier method of employing a special mark or letter (b or c) is more eiFective, and it might very well be used, even in modern printed books, for fine editions. Affording a legitimate opening for illumination and book-ornament, it was (and is) the natural method for the penman, who, starting with these useful capitals, by flourishing them — in their
* Though Versals may generally be regarded as marking letters, it is convenient to apply the term to the Versal type of letter (the early Illuminator's Fen-eapital) — e.g. "a head- ing in Versal letters " (see fig. 91).
H 113
Versal
Letters &
Coloured
Capitals
tnanuniielncg;at« jie> prnniiTifai
tt4futic.*i^<Udun' tuudfubftatirui tntncnfUt^becdu
ctcmiimciTMntTic 0coficitriiTMe(len iinitf<mTp5-nnuf< ^igiifiinuftnlilttO ^ c^uo^eflc:^lm
tnniwCpatett^ingc tmicinn.miooitjm 1 4hii (imtUa/ Spin nvafilio-nliocniM Inewftingimttttvf 'xran.cfTeingiefuti gmttum ajmiT*^
fumlu-nCpffatiAi ~ rmrni^
femgmtmC^
Fig. 79 (13M century), 114
own colour, or by dotting, outlining, or ornamenting them, with a contrasting colour (see fig. 79, from an old MS.), evolved the Illumi" nated Initial.
Types of Versal Letters (examples : Plates IX., X., XL, XIL, and figs, i, 78 to 94, 150, 161, 165, 166, 189). — The earlier Versals had very simple and beautiful pen shapes, and are the best modelsforthemodern penman to follow. After the fourteenth century they were often fattened and vulgarised and over- done with ornament. In this way they not only lost their typical forms ; but their "essential forms " — as letters derived from the Roman Alphabet — became much dis- guised and confound- ed (see fig. 128).
GENERAL ANALYSIS OF VERSALS I. THE LETTERS:
». HORIZONTALS— STRAIGHT:
CURVED:
Versal
(Pen -made), Built-up, Orna- Letters &
mental (coloured), Roman Coloured
Capitals with a " Gothic " char- Capitals acter (Round and Square forms).
Medium — commonly the width of the nib.
Thin — the thin stroke of the pen
3. PERPENDICULARS: Built-up, slightly curved in on either side.
4, SERIFS:
5. LONG STEMS
Thin, short or long, tend to curve.
Various (see p. 119, & figs. 84, 90).
6. SPACING—
Letters Ist Words,
7. ARRANGEMENT;
8. MEASUREMENTS
Various (see figs. 89, 92, 166). Usually one or more of the line- spaces apart (see pp. 126, 128).
Singly: set in text or margin, or
part in both (fig. 86). Grouped: after large initials (fig.
92). In Lines : wide or close, often one
word to the line (fig. 89).
Stem width : commonly two or three widths-of-nib across thin- nest part (fig. 165).
O height: commonly one, two, or more of the line-spaces.
9. COMPONENT PARTS : A has approx. 10 strokes & filling. B „ 8 „ „
^ i> 7 j> >>
and so on (see fig. 81).
Versal
Letters &
Coloured
Capitals
MMTsropp
.cawxxvvz;
Jredy copied -frpm XI-Xl XanlTLW I Cen^. J Kxa^WYy ore made io rmxtdi *K fin* (rxaimxixs see plates IX,X^,& Xlt
ll6 Fio. So.
Versal Letters &
TXsinrialL pen 6C c^
Q omponait parts or pen strokes (Jb^J
posvtxon vfpen in « inaJcing-' t
hornontxLi'^ Stto_
(c)p.
T P
topoK/ ion: to be
rmk\
talj ciuves.
iiJM Hiese^Hieihiffiai/
Fig. 8i.
1.
%.
W
i:f) (X) (h)
'.
orMer ofmaJui Stems anb seri^
&c. In makincr hiffit may prvject htif-^ Cfi) Strifs frstJ < ' haLaziccJ(^S^^^) Serifs acUUo,
ttur
117
Versal NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION OF VERSALS
Coloured ^^" ^^'^ ^°' ^'' ^5' '^^^
Capitals Versal Letters are properly built-up (p. 291) with
true pen-strokes (^, fig. 81). Drawn or painted, they acquire a different character (p. 292). Their office being to mark important parts of the text, they are generally distinguished by colour and freedom of form — tending to curves and flourishes. The pen has an extra long slit (^ inch to f inch), and the writing-board may be lowered (see fig. 46, b) to permit of the thick, liquid colour running out freely. The nib is of the ordinary shape (but not too oblique), and generally rather less in width than the nib used for the accompanying text (^,
fig. 81).
The outlining strokes are quickly written and immediately filled in, each letter being loaded well with the colour, which thereafter dries evenly, with a slightly raised " flat " surface. The liquid colour should be fairly thick (see colour^ p. 176).
''^ Gothic lettering" is a term used for "Black- letter " and related types, as distinguished from " Roman " types. " Gothic " capitals tend to roundness, the small-letters to angularity, but in each the abrupt change from thick to thin strokes, and the resulting contrast of stroke, are character- istics— the outcome of pen work.^ Versals, though primarily Roman letters,^ have this contrast strongly marked ; the ends of the thinner strokes spread (see p. 25), and the heavy parts are crossed by thin serifs.
The early Versals approachihg the "Roman
* The pen, in direct proportion to the breadth of the nib, tends to give a " Gothic " character to all letter forms.
* See Plate 5 in « Manuscript & Inscription Letters,"
118
Letter " (p. 294) make excellent models, the later ornate "Lombardic" type (p. 34) is not so safe.
Versals « round "
are or
I
capable of great variety, and the "square" D, E, H, M, and W may be used at pleasure.
The Stems curve in slightly on either side. When they are very tall the mid part may be quite straight, imperceptibly curving out towards the ends (/>, fig. 82). This gives an effect of curvature through- out the length, w^hile keeping the letter graceful and straight. The head of a stem (especially of an ascender) may with advantage be made slightly wider than the foot (fig. 83). This applies generally to all kinds of built-up capitals.
Versal Letters & Coloured
Capitals
Fig. 83.
The stem width may be nearly Fig. 82. the same in Versals of different
heights {ay fig. 84) : generally the letters tend to become more slender in proportion as the letters grow taller [b). Very large Versals (or initials) are often made with a hollow stem to avoid a heavy appearance (L, fig. 84).
119
Vcrsal Letters & Coloured Capitals
Fio. 84
The Serifs are long and slightly curved in orna< mental forms (fig. 79) : shorter, and nearly straight in stifFer forms (fig. 166). In many cases the serifs appear to have been written first^ the stems being added between them (/, fig. 81) — in old MSS. the stems often show ragged ends crossing the serifs. Sometimes the serif appears to have been added to the stem in two pieces^ half on either side springing from the corners of the stem [g). The safest way seems to be the complete finishing stroke added tOy and forming sharp angles with^ the stem {h).
Arms or Branches. — Width of nib at start, and built-up at free end. (Pen horizontal, figs. 81, 165).
120
The Bows or Curves ofVersals (and of built-up let- Versal ters generally) are best begun with the inside stroke Letters &
Coloured Capitals
fiat curve
9}}
CcmstrucUan of haws "" (a.) ttmindm flat \ cmv^k
J V >^
oo
(Complete) Awiy oh Mma/ano;
Fig. 85. —a rather flat curve : and finished with the outer stroke — a pronounced curve (^, fig. 85). This pre-
121
Versal serves the continuity of the interior curve, together
Letters & with the clean contrast of the thick and thin strokes
Coloured (see inside shapes^ p. 253). The normal form may be
Capitals flattened or curved a little {b\ but exaggeration in
either direction produces a degraded form. Part
round letters, as D, P, and Q, may be begun with
a complete inner ovaly or a nearly completed O (to which the stem is added) ; this preserves their interior symmetry (r).
The beauty and quality of Versal letters depends very much on their freedom ; touching-up or trim- ming after they are made is apt to spoil them; and when good letters are made with a free hand, minute roughnesses, which are due to their quick construction, may be regarded as shewing a good rather than a bad form of care-less workmanship (sec [c) fig. 164).
SPACING & ARRANGEMENT OF VERSALS
(Allowing for the special treatment of Versals called for by the extreme freedom and elasticity of their pen forms, the fol- lowing remarks apply generally to the spacing and arrangement of coloured capitals in tvritten pages)
Versals accompanying Small Text are generally dropped below the writing-line, so that their tops are level with the tops of the small letters (fig. 86).
Sizes of Versals, — Letters which are of the same importance — i.e. serve the same purpose — are usually of like size and form throughout ; and the more important a letter, the more it tends to be elaborated and decorated (see figs, 90, 92).
Special words in Text marked by Versals, — Where coloured capitals are used throughout the text (fig. 92), the colours are usually varied (pp. 134, 185).
122
Line beginnings marked by Versah. — Where every line on a page begins with a coloured capital, the majority of the forms are kept rather plain (see (5) p. 136). They may be effectively treated as a band of simple or variegated colour (p. 136). This is a common treatment for a list of names or a poem ; sometimes, especially if there are many lines, simple- written capitals (p. 297) may be used instead of Versals.
Verses or Paragraphs may be marked by Versals let in the text {a)y or part in margin^ part in text {b\ or wholly in the margin (<:, fig. 86). The marginal capital is the simplest, and it has the advantage of leaving the page of text entire ; it may, how- ever, sometimes be desirable to break the continuity by an inset capital, especially in cases of closely written text, or of stanzas not spaced apart (see
p. 138).
The first word of a paragraph, which is begun with a Versal, is often completed in simple- written capitals of the same colour as the text (a, fig. 86).
Various ways of marking Paragraphs, — [a) The paragraph marks ![> ^j preferably coloured, may be used instead of (or even with) Versals {comp. fig. 95) ; [b) by one word or line (or several words or lines) of simple-written (or built-up) capitals in black or colour (see fig. 93) ; (c) by some suitable ornament (see fig. 87) ; [d] in many cases it is well to have spaces between the paragraphs or verses (see p. 138).
Line - Finishings at the ends of Verses^ &c. (pp. 205, 425), may be made with the Versal pens and colours.
Versal Letters & Coloured
Capitals
123
lI""'* jVcrsab 9cr in the fe^vt
Coloured Capitals
:/^ SPECIALLY wKgiii I ^ versals are larqe ;.' :V^ 6^ dtreeLinr^ : ispaccs cyf mot^inhe^W
jVb^al set pardx' in tect;' ^aj^aqrapKe l5r-* — •' — ^ witKuikd
iUithis rru4inin-^
Oversale* in nunnn'. imn used vv^ica mc fvcrsals are sirall;' uldd?Le ft patutive^
^JJl' uit:d?Le for cam-!
capit2Usj
124 Fig. S6,
tKe end of one paiarrrapli. ^^""'^ THE NEXT PAkAGRAPH ^ may be rruxrlceAby a linc-^ of wrWxn c^upiidJos in black cr colour (on or hdcwUmX^l
'^~■■^*-^^CC0SX>—^*—<S3XCi>--» — CWVOv
Or a band ofeuxX^icr' (uSiuUy pm-rrade) oni3c rrient nuy be iriterpo5cb(^.)
h'^^!^^i^^M^.^^^.'^^•'•^k^^^M^^-^k'^^^;-^^3l
Fig. 87.
To mark Chapters (or even Books), extra large Versals (fig. 88) may be used, in lieu of more elabor- ate initials. Smaller Versals may be grouped round about, beside or inside initials (p. 208 & fig. 92).
Headings and Pages in Capitals (see also pp. 128, 132). — Each line of capitals is generally kept uni- form throughout its length,^ though different lines vary in size and colour (see fig. 89). If it be possible it is w^ell to keep the individual word entire
1 The mediaeval scribes often made the first line of a chapter or book in uniform capitals (excepting the initial letter). The succeeding line generally was smaller, and of a different colour and type — even when a divided word was carried over into it.
125
Versal and to let the heading or page contain the complete
Letters & initial phrase or sentence (see fig. 91).
Coloured Generally the greater the number of capitals the
Capitals plainer their forms are kept, and the closer their
spacing. It is best to keep to the regular method
of spacing the lines of Fersals one of the writing-line
spaces [or more) apart — though in special cases the
Versals may be independent of the writing-lines.
EGlKNINGSof
books are marked hy an initial letter. A.
1^
..^X^x rrunreUne -spaceship- is cjuite ^S[Zi:)o^Q. 6C simptL
Fig. 88.
Spacing Out. — Coloured letters and ornaments are usually put in after the plain MS. has been written. A very little practice enables the scribe accurately to guess the amount of space which he should leave for the Versals, &c., whether it is designed to have several lines of them, or a single letter only on the page. A few pencil marks may be used to settle a doubtful point, but an elaborate sketching or setting out in pencil spoils the freedom of the work.
126
CHAPTER VIII
BLACK & RED
Rubricating — Initial Pages or Title Pages — Prefaces flt Notes in Colour — Pages with Coloured Headings — Page or Column Heading & Initial — Versals in Column or Marginal Bands — Stanzas or Verses marked by Versals — Music with Red Staves — Tail-Pieces, Colophons, &c. — Rubricating : General Remarks.
RUBRICATING
** Redy either in the form of a pigment or fluid ink, is of very Black ancient and common use. It is seen on the early Egyptian & Red papyri ; and it appears in the earliest extant vellum MSS., either in titles or the first lines of columns or chapters. 7 he Greek term nvas /xcAavtov kokkivov ; Latin minium,^ rubrica." — (Thompson's " G. & L . Palaeography," p. 5 1 .)
Rubricating^ or the adding of Red, or other coloured^ letters, line-finishings, or signs, to a MS. or Book, in which the main body of the text is already completed in black, constitutes in itself a very use- ful and effective form of decoration. It is, moreover, a connecting link betw^een plain writing and illumi- nation proper ; and we may safely assume that the artists who made the beautiful illuminations of the Middle Ages were trained as scribes and rubricators,
INITIAL PAGES OR TITLE PAGES
Fig. 89 represents an Initial Page in Red Capitals. (The same arrangement may of course be used
1 Minium = red-lead, used in early times for " rubrics " and drawings, hence is derived the word ^* Miniature.*'
127
Black with a variety of colours and with gold : see Note (4) & Red below). Such a page is, as it were, an " illumina- tion " to all the pages, following it in black text.
Title Pages came into fashion after printing was introduced. Early MSS. commonly began with the opening words written in large, decorated capitals, the title sometimes being written quite small, near the top of the page : other details were commonly put in the colophon in early books (see p. 142).
When the title is more important, in a literary sense, than the opening sentence, it may be well to follow the modern fashion. But when there is a finely worded opening sentence — perhaps the key-note to the rest of the text — while the title is merely for reference, it seems reasonable to magnify and illuminate the actual beginning of the book rather than the mere name of it (see p. 365).
Note (i). — In fig. 89 the title — (/J55U CHRIST!) Evangelium Secundum Joannem — is written in as a decoration of the initial word ; the old form «IHV XPl" is used for "Jesu Christi " (these letters, it will be noticed, are here employed to lighten the large capitals, see p. 208).
(2) Where IN is an initial word, to enforce narrow initial I, both letters may be magnified,
(3) The scale of the lettering corresponds with that of the ruled lines (these do not show in the figure) : the letters and the interlinear spaces are each one line high ; the initial word is four lines high. Such a mode of spacing is very simple and effective, and will save the rubricator much unnecessary trouble and fruitless planning {?>tt footnote^ p. 221).
(4) Other Colour Schemes. — AH Burnished Gold (or with Title in red)-, or IN gold, with smaller capitals Red (or in Blue and Red lines alternately — or Blue^ Redy Greeny Red: see p. 181).
128
Black &Red
CIPIO eRAT^
Verbum
Fig. 89.
I
129
gj^^j^ PREFACES «fe NOTES IN COLOUR
& Red Yig. 90 represents a preface, or note, written in
red.
It was a frequent practice in old MSS., where there were prefaces, or prologues, or notes — not actually part of the text — to keep these distinct by- writing them in red. A somewhat similar usage still exists in modern typography, where such parts are sometimes distinguished by Italic type (see p.
315).
The distinction of a preface, " rubric," or note from the main body of the text makes a book more readable, and, as a page of red (or blue) writing is very pleasant and effective, we may certainly take advantage of such a reasonable excuse for intro- ducing it. Entire books have been written in red, but this is a questionable mode, as too much red text would tire the eye.
Note (i). — The writing is founded on the tenth- century English hand given in Plate VIII.
(2) The flourishes on s and e fill gaps at the ends of the lines, and the spread out AMEN fills the last line.
(3) The Headline is in simple written capitals.
(4) The effect of colour contrast of the built-up Ps with the simple writing : the solid Ps (though really the same colour) appear to be a much deeper red than the writing, which is lightened by the in- termingled white of the paper.
(5) Other Colour Schemes.— The Versah (PP) in burnished gold ; the rest in red or blue.
130
EATER U05TER ^^S
ctiftcctur norricn. LiTL. Advauat re^ iiurrttuura.J^Ut vo- luntas tux, sCcut in coeb ctm1xrr2L4'^"t' J)anan nos-ttimv<^ ttdiainuni dx tiobis" hodk . 6t dunittsr^ noHs ddntx noetrxy Sicut ct nos dimlr'- tixnus debitorvbus^ nostris. 6t ne no5 in ducas in teritatioa-'
cm. ScdUbcmno^a milo. A CD e TsT
Fio. 90.
13?
Black PAGES WITH COLOURED HEADINGS
Fig. 91 represents the first page of a chapter (or a book) with a Heading in red capitals.
It is convenient in practice clearly to distinguish between the two modes of beginning — (^) with an illuminated Initial-P^^^ (see fig. 89), or, [b] with an illuminated Heading (see fig. 91). The former may be treated as though it were a decoration to the whole book. The latter is in- tended more particularly to decorate its own page.
The Heading should therefore be proportionate to the body of the text below it. About one-third Heading and two-thirds text make a good pro- portion. A " Heading " occupying half, or more than half, of the page is apt to look disproportionate, and it would be preferable to this to have a com- plete, or nearly complete,^ P^g^ of coloured capitals. Note (i). — The full effect of black and red is obtained by an arrangement of the two colours in marked contrast.
(2) The lines are used as a scale for the Head- ing, the red capitals and interspaces each being one line high. If a Heading so spaced appear too close to the first line of black writing, another line space may be left.
(3) The round Es are used to fill out the second line, and the square, narrow E to relieve the crowded third line.
(4) Other Colour Schemes. — The entire heading^ or the letters W, H, B, O, R, in burnished gold ; or the whole variegated (see p. 180).
1 An illuminated Page will allow of a few lines of black text at the foot (an arrangement very common in the elaborate Initial Pages of the fifteenth century), but these should be quite subordinate to the *• Illumination.**
»32
WTrlO HATH OUR REPORT
2ixui to whom VatK tJie arnx op tKe Lxrrd be£n TXVcaUcl ? porKe qrew up before liira as a. tender TpUnt^ <5i as aTOot out of a dry qround : liekaitiv tio fonrt nor- comelmess; <3C wKen we seeKim^ tkerc is no hodxty tKad: wesKoul^ desire Kim. He was despiscii^d^ rdect^ oPrrien; a. man of sor- rows^ <Sd accpauxted wilK cnieP: <^as one ftxnri wKommenKiele tJicir fece Ke was despised, <sl we esteemed Kira not-: '
Fig. 91.
Black &Rcd
133
Black PAGE OR COLUMN HEADING &> INITIAL
&Rcd
Fig. 92 represents the first page of a book or chapter in two columns, beginning with a rather ornate Heading, in which the Initial is made the principal feature, and having coloured Versals and line-finishings throughout the text.
It is more difficult to get a good effect in this way than by means of a marked colour contrast (see p. 144), or variegated colour^ and gold (see Note 7).
Note (i). — The lines bounding the text would naturally be indented, or pale (not black as in the block), and ruled from head to foot of the page (see Note (2) on the next figure).
(2) The red ornamental line-finishings (see p. 205) would be more effective if variegated.
(3) The Versals in the text are made about a line high, but are dropped below the line (p. 122).
(4) The Versals in the Heading are made # one line high, with one-line spacing — between O
and D increased to two lines (partly filled by a flourish from the D), in order to fit the U, O, and D in evenly beside the Initial.
(5) The Initial Q should project slightly up and out — beyond the bounding lines — to mark the top, left corner more strongly [%qq footnote^ p. 211).
(6) All the rubricating on this page is done with the same pen (see pp. 205, 218).
(7) Other Colour Schemes. " QUOD FUIT AB INITIO," the filigree ornament and the V V in burnished gold (or the Q and VV in gold), the rest of the Versals and line-finishings in Red and Blue, or Red and Green, or Red, Blue, and Green (see pp. 181, 185).
JFUIT AB XNTTTO,
1+ + + + -1- + I
QjaoD AuDivicnus Qliod vxvicr>us
pCuLlS >lOSTR15 QjJOD peRSp€XI
cnu9^ er cdanus
HOSTKA6 CO>I-
tr€ctxv€ru>jt^ |Vrb^9WaP^
t^T Vitx rrxxxuizetsAx )iSt^ et vldUmu^^ct tcsj (tantur et annxuiciaimi^ jvoHs vit2un aetXTru^mi -,<jiue craX apuA patixm[_
ct appanut nobisr-*.
Quod vuUmuserj
axl^^viraus, annuncix rrai5 vobis^ ut ct vos Sodctxton hxbcatis no biscum^ ct 5ocict\5 ru>5 tra sit cum paG^^et"^ curritiUo cjii5J65U
^Thaec ecrvbimusl aaxuliura vcatrurri sit
gT h\ec esT"^
ANMUKCIATIO ovuun ^udivuntis ib eo^ct aniuuicianxus vobis :(]JuoTvULTn
letr tcxiebrSiZ in co rum $imt uUxe.av--<mx>^ ^1 Auccrunus cnxo- /niXm sodctaitcm Kab etnuS cum (io^<tt vix tCtiebrte arobuUrrui^ rruntimur, etycrvtaf cm rum facurui6.0D.
Fig. 92.
'35
Black VERSALS IN COLUMN OR MARGINAL BANDS
Fig. 93 represents two columns of black text, consisting of short verses, &c., which are marked by coloured capitals — forming bands of colour — in the margins.
Note (i). — The coloured capitals in the figure are made rather larger than usual, to enforce the effect of the two lines of red and mark their con- trast with the columns of black text. In practice, however, they would be better and more distinct if rather smaller.
(2) The lines bounding the text would natur- ally be faint, or grooved (p. 343) ; but, ruled from head to foot of the page, they would be suffi- ciently apparent to add materially to the general effect of orderly arrangement. (Lines are printed here to show clearly the way the two columns are ruled and to suggest this effect, though the process block necessarily gives a false impression in making them appear too short and too heavy).
(3) Extra width between the columns (and also in the margin) may be allowed for the coloured capitals (compare fig. 92).
(4) Words in simple written capitals are used to mark slight divisions, or changes of sense, in the text.
(5) A stiff Versal of a rather " Roman " type is used, partly because of the number of the capitals (see p. 126).
(6) Other Colour Schemes. — The larger capitals might be in burnished gold, the rest in red (or in red^ blue^ and green) ; or all might be in red^ hluey and green.
136
SURELy THERE] ^ S FOR TV* EARTH, IS A MINE fOp; A out of it Cometh
L V E I^i ^bread
AtidapUceforgpli ji ad underneath irj wKlch they ref^l /\is turned up as it
S I
Black &Rcd
ran 15 tal of die earth.
1
And brass is nvol ten out of tke ^tonc
ken ouxr were by hre
The stones dvereof are die place of-^ sappKircs^
Man settetK an oxxd I ^ nd tt hath dust- to darfuiess, y\of gold. And searched! outi ^^HAT PATH ijO to the fturthe^rl | BIRD OP PREY bound I 1 KNOWETH,
The Stones of tliich-^T either hath the daricness and of I {^ falcons eye seen ttr the shadow of dath/-!-' he pn?ud beasts |
HE BREAKETH | | have not trodden it open a shaft ^w-^"i\^T or hath the Rence ftom where men 1 >| lion passed thenij'
bE PUTTETH FOrTT Ivls Ixand upon j the flm^ rocK^;
HE OVERrURNETH th^ mountains the roots. CUTTETHout
Soj
oum
T^,
are torm>tten die foot thar passedi by;
They hang^ afar frDml 1 tin men; diey Swincr ij "by L_to and fro 5_f) E^
Fig. 93-
137
Black STANZAS OR VERSES MARKED BY VERSALS
& Red ,.. , . ^
rig. 94 represents a poem in two verses which
are distinguished by interspaces and by coloured capitals — a brief introductory line also being in colour. (It is supposed that the poem occurs in a book — mainly in prose — written in Roman small-letters.)
It is generally best to distinguish the verses of poems by one-line interspaces. When this is done, coloured initials are not so necessary, and their value become chiefly decorative (see 123).
Note (i). — The writing is founded on "Italic" (see Plate XXL), and (it is supposed that) it would be used here wherever the songs occurred ; firstly, to distinguish them from the rest of the text, and secondly, to keep the lines of the poem entire — Italics occupying less room than ordinary^ round Small- Letters (see p. 315).
(2) The story opens with the first line, which may in this case be regarded either as a Title or as a prefatory note in red.
(3) The two red capitals are made of a rather " Roman " type to match the Italic (and the small Roman text of the book). The difference in height made between the W and the S is intended to balance the difference in width, and to give them an appearance of equal weight. This may be permitted where there are only a few capitals ; where there are many, their heights are generally kept more uniform.
(4) Another Colour Scheme, — W and S would look better in burnished gold.
138
' Tis of Aucassin. and Tvlicolete
VV/'HO wmU list to ^Qood laP G Udness ^tkt cavtiremy ? T is haw two yaun^ unlets nut^ A,ucassvn and Isiicplete^ Of tlu poms tJu \^overharx J^ndtke scn^vws he outwore, Tor the (wodness and die ^^^tw^ O-Tjiis 'Love , So jair of face .
X WEE Tdu soyi^.du story swed:^ Then is no man Jie^<ens it^ TnI^ man livino neatli diestai^ jf^ ontwcajfih^ so jvredone ; jick^and wojul^ warn and Sa6^ Biif iskeahd^ hut v$ dad Tis so sweet*
SosM^,Jveak^iizV;tdltii€y^
Fig. 94. 139
Black &Red
Black MUSIC WITH RED STAVES
& Red ^. . , . . ^ . ., , .
Fig. 95 IS a reproduction, in facsimile, showing
quarter of a page of a folio Service Book (probably
French, early sixteenth century). The page consists
of two columns of ten staves each, and is headed
C In vigi (lia), natiuitatis dm. The book is printed
on vellum in red and black ; the columns of music
have faint red bounding lines ruled by hand (not
shown in the figure).
The red stave is very effective, and it was com- monly used in early MSS. and printed books. There appears to be some doubt, however, as to its practical value, and I have been advised that it is not so legible as the black line stave, and also that, in Church Service Books (see p. 345), in order to make an absolutely clear distinction, red should be reserved entirely for the rubrics.
The " plain-song " chant, with its four-line stave, has a simpler and finer appearance than the more modern and elaborate five-lined stave and tailed notes. The latter, however, may yet be treated very effectively.
Note i. — The mark H and the capitals ^, )15, and !^ were blotted — it can scarcely be called " painted " — with yellow. Yellow or red were often used in this way to mark the small black capitals in printed books (& in MSS. — especially in the small Bibles of the 13th century — p. 428, & comp. p. 302). It is a questionable method. (These blots have been removed from the figure — except, by an oversight, in the case of »)).
(2) Other Co/our Schemes. — {a) The title, or {b) the text and the notes, might be in burnished gold (the other parts in either case remaining in red and black),
140
- m i
^ i^-a ^_
antem ^tmtt taimon* Mau
; ' /■' ■
mon mttm genutt boo?
r — s B — -n
tit ra ab. 25003 atttem ge^
^« ■ —
J ' /
«-«-
^ obetl) antem $ennrt
Fig. 95. j^,
Black &Rcd
Black TAIL-PIECES, COLOPHONS, &C.
Fig. 96 represents a coloured Tail -piece or decorative finish at the end of a book (or chapter).
The Colophon (see p. 128 & figs. 13, 191), generally- distinguished from the text by a smaller or different hand, and — especially in early printed books — by colour or other decorative treatment, occurs at the end of a book, where it is the traditional right of the penman and the printer to add a statement or a symbolical device. The Name (of craftsman and assistants), T'nne^ and Place are commonly stated — preferably quite simply — e.g. ^^ This book^ written out by me^ A.B.^ in LONDON^ was finished on the 2,1st day of DECEMBER 1900." Any reasonable matter of interest concerning the text^ the materials^ methods^ lettering^ or ornament^ and an account of the number of leaves and their size, &c., may be added. But the craftsman, properly and modestly keeping his name off the title-page, is at liberty to exercise his right, marking the end of, and signing his work in any way he chooses — even in a speech or a sentiment — provided the form of the colophon be unobtrusive and its language natural. Printer^s devices or book-marks, consisting of symbols, mono- grams, &c. (p. 362), were likewise used.
The opportunity generally provided by the final
margin, and the natural wish to close the book
with a fitting ornament, also led to the use of colour
or capitals in the concluding lines ; and sometimes
the " tail " of the text was given a triangular form,
the lines becoming shorter and shorter
till they ended in a single
word, or even one
letter.
142
&Red
But L Have not ^misKed ]i^^'^^^ •dxe five acts^ but ovib/-^ dircjz. of tWa'' — ' Thcot safest wdi^ btit in lifer ti\e tKrec acts arc die wkole dramx; for vvh^it sKxlL be X compute dra- rnx is <lcttrrruncb by Kirn wKo was ox\jol iKe ^use of its composvtxon, arul now of its dissoUittort:
btit tKoit artr tlie cause of neitKei — —^ •
Depart tiicn satisfted^ for he also wlxo rc-^ bases tkeeis satisfteb.
Fig. 96.
Black RUBRICATING I GENERAL REMARKS
Contrast of Red and Black. — The most effective arrangement of red lettering with black text involves a sharp contrast, and, as a rule, the con- centration of the red in a line or mass (see figs. 91, 93, and 96, where the red lettering is massed at the head, side, and foot of the black). Too many- red capitals scattered through a page lose their effect, and appear as though they were brown-rt^ rather than bright red (see pp. 134, 185). Printed title-pages, &c., may be seen with promiscuous lines of black and red, in which the fine effects obtainable by the use of bright colour is dispersed and lost ; while the same, or even a less, amount of red, massed in one or two places in the page, would show to great advantage.
Notes in Red in Margins, — Red lettering, and particularly small red writing, may be used freely in the margins ; being much lighter than black, it appears there as a marginal decoration^ not inter- fering with the regular look of the page. Indeed, red may be used more freely, and I think its decora- tive effect is greater, in the form of rubrics, than in any other simple form of ornament (see Red in Church Service Books (pp. 140, 345) and Red sub- stituted for Italics (p. 315)).
Paragraph and other Marks, — Various symbols, numerals, and marks (such as ^^ IT C * "^ t § ►J< ^ '^ — Addenda^ P- 25) may be made in red.
Red Lines. — Lines made to divide, or outline, pages (" rules " or " rule borders ") should be spar- ingly used, and then rather in black than in red (see p. 364). If in red, particularly between lines of writing, these should be "ruled feint" with diluted colour.
144
Red for Ornaments. — Red may be used pretty Black freely with other colours (blue, green, and gold), & Red but by itself more sparingly.
OTHER COLOURS.— The foregoing remarks refer mainly to contrasts of black and red, but apply, to a certain extent, to black with any bright colour (or gold) (see ^^ Other Co/our Schemes" given above, and p. i8o).
CHAPTER IX
LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD
Tools & Materials — Laying the Ground — Laying the Gold-Leaf — Burnishing the Gold — Remedying Faults in Gilding — Gold Writing — Other Methods & Recipes for Gilding — Appendix on Gilding (by G rally Hewitt^.
TOOLS & MATERIALS
These should be kept together in a convenient box. Laying & as it is important that the process should not be Burnishing interrupted by a search for a missing tool. Gold
Tools and JMaterialt. Summary of Process.
HARD LEAD PENCIL. For drawing forms if necessary.
POUNCE. For preparing surface :
" pouncing."
« SIZE " OR RAISING PRE- For raising and backing leaf.
PARATION.
SMALL SAUCER. For mixing size in.
NEEDLE SET IN HANDLE. For bursting bubbles, &c.
QUILL PEN. For " laying" the size.
KNIFE. For trimming size, &c.
GOLD-LEAF. For gilding.
145
Laving & Tools and Materiah, Summary of Proeest.
Burnishing SCISSORS. For cutting gold-leaf.
QqI^j " BURNISHING-SLAB. For backing the parchment of
paper while under pressure.
BREATHING-TUBE. For damping size.
RUBBING-PAPER. For pressing leaf on to size.
CHALK OR SOFT LEAD For marking form on rubbing-
PENCIL. paper.
BURNISHER, TOOTH For (i) pressing down, and (2)
SHAPE. burnishing gold-leaf.
FEATHER (Brush, &c.). For dusting ofT the pounce.
BRUSH. For brushing off waste leaf.
(HARD INDIARUBBER. ) (For removing gold from parch-
ment.)
(POWDER GOLD & FINE (For "mending" in certain BRUSH.) cases.)
LAYING THE GROUND
Drawing the Form, — Elaborate letters or orna- ments may be drawn with a hard pencil, which will leave slight indentations in the surface of the page when the marks of the lead have been removed with indiarubber. In the case of free lettering or gold writing, however, the forms should be made directly with the pen (see pp. 148, 164).
Preparing the Surface: Pouncing. — The surface is thoroughly cleaned and prepared with powdered pumice stone, or other suitable " pounce " (see pp. 167, 174). This being rubbed well into the actual part which is to take the size absorbs grease and slightly roughens^ the surface. The surrounding parts are also pounced to prevent the gold-leaf from sticking to them later.
Composition of the Ground or Size, The chief
* The surface of horny or greasy parchment may be slightly roughened with a pen-knife till little hairs are raised which will hold the size, care being taken that this roughening does not- extend beyond the actual parts which are to be covered with size. (Oxgall: see footnote, p. 175.) 146
size" or raising preparation is generally some kind of earthy matter, to give it body — such as chalky Armenian bole^ slaked plaster of Paris (this is very good : see p. i66).^ Other substances, having toughness and stickiness (such as glue and gelatin^ and sugary treacle and honey), are used to bind the earthy matter and prevent its breaking w^hen the page is turned over or bent, and also to make the size adhere to the page and the gold-leaf stick to the size. Yellow or red colour- ing matter is often added. A preservative, such as oil of cloves — in a minute quantity — may be present : this will permit of the size being kept in a semi-liquid condition, in a closed jar.
Mixing the Size with Water. — The size, if kept semi-liquid, must be stirred very carefully and well, and a little taken out of the jar is rubbed down in a saucer — great care being taken to avoid making bubbles. The right consistency is judged by experience — it should be thick rather than thin, but it should be thin enough to flow easily.
It is essential that all the ingredients be present in their right proportions, and the mixture should be stirred every now and then. Otherwise the earthy
1 Good results have been obtained from a mixture consisting approximately oi Slaked Plaster of Paris 10 -\-JVhitelead ^-{-Fish- glue ^-{-Treacle I : — by weight.
Another recipe (given to me by Mr. G. Loumyer) is:— «' Chalk [Whitina).
Oxide of Iron — ^ grain. Glue {Car/>enier's) — ^grains Gum Arabic — 2 grains. Water — 50 grains. Melt the gum and the glue together in the ivater^ then add the oxide of iron, and lastly put in enough chalk to make the ivhole a rather liquid paste. Apply to the parchment, ivhich you have previously 'well rubbed with zvhiting, and, ivhen dry, apply the gold-leaf with alcohol, "
Laying & matter settles down, and the sticky parts, remaining
Burnishing in solution above, are liable to be used up. What
Gold is left in the saucer after use is apt to be deficient
in its sticky parts, and it is best thrown away.
Take out of the jar only what is required at the
time, and mix a fresh lot the next time.
Bubbles^ formed in the mixture, may be burst by a needle, or by adding a minute drop of oil of cloves.
Methods of Laying the Size. — The parchment or paper is laid Jiat on a table ; if on a slope, the size would run down and lie unevenly. A quill pen with a finely cut nib and an extra long slit (about f inch) is used for laying the size. It is filled pretty full by means of a quill or a brush ; if by the latter, special care must be taken to avoid bubbles.
Experiments should be made in various methods.
I. Perhaps the best way of sizing small forms, so that the size may set properly and the burnish retain its brilliance, is to put on a thin coat with a pen — in the direct manner in which coloured Versals are made {q.v») — and afterwards add two or three thin coats, allowing each coat to dry thoroughly. This requires considerable patience and skill, as it takes a long time, and there is a danger, in adding several coats, of spoiling the form by going over the edges {For extra coatSy or for large forms ^ a brush may be used).
II. The simplest method for ordinary gold letters is to make them with one extra thick coat'^ of size, exactly like coloured Versals — first a natural pen outline, and then the filling in (see fig. 8i). This requires some practice to do well, as the thicker size is more difficult to manage than the
1 If this, as is not unlikely, will require twenty-four hours to dry, make sure, before laying the size, that you will be able to lay the gold-leaf on it at or near the same time on the next day (see p. 1 5 1), 148
colour.* Very narrow parts — such as the thin strokes — are apt to be deficient in size, and there- fore, while they are still wet, the pen — held nearly vertical with the nib in contact with the surface of the size — is moved slowly along it until the stroke has received sufficient size and is properly filled out.
III. A method that may be found more con- venient for heavy forms, is to hold the pen across the form to be gilded (which has previously been marked on the parchment) with its nib resting on the further outline {a, fig. 97). The nib being
Laying &
Burnishing
Gold
Fig. 97.
moved along that line, by contact with the parch- ment restrains the size from passing beyond it, while allowing it to flow out freely behind and below {a, 2). The opposite side is similarly treated, and, if the form be narrow, the size as it flows out blends with that already laid {b). The ends of the form are finished in like manner {c).
1 Should a drop fall on the page it can be removed quickly with the knife, but it is safer to allow it to dry and then to pick it off carefully. Size which has flowed beyond the bounds of the form may be trimmed away when it has set.
149
Laying & The angle of the pen with the parchment is less Burnishing for a wider form (^, fig. 98). Gold
onAcofyan CaO Oxy^ of pen 1
{cf ncuro^^^ farm f<^ ^^ ^^ ^ '^
Fig. 98.
As a general rule the size should stand pretty high when wet ; it shrinks in drying, and, if it forms too thin a coat, it will neither hold the gold-leaf fast nor burnish well. While the size is still wet it is easy to raise it to any height desired by running more size into the form in the manner described above. It is well, however, not to raise the size too high, as burnished gold too much raised looks out of place on a page and has a heavy and vulgar appearance (p. 1 84). Very high raising also does not dry so well, and when dry it is more liable to chip.
The work of laying the size should be carried out as quickly as possible. If one part of the form is left any appreciable time before the remaining parts are sized, the first part will begin to settle and dry, and the different layings will not blend or lie evenly. Though the size is thick and awkward to use at first, a little skill will coax it quickly and evenly out of the pen, and it will all blend and dry with an even surface.
When it is sized, put the work away to dry in a
150
drawer or safe place where it cannot be smudged Laving & or get dusty. Bavnis ing
Drying the Size. — The time that the size is Gold, allowed to dry varies very much with the weather and the temperature ; damp weather may make a longer time necessary, and dry^ weather or heat will shorten the time. The thickness of the raising affects the time very much ; a very thin coat will dry in an hour or two, while an extra thick coat may take several days. Size not dry enough is too sticky to burnish ; if too dry, it is so absorbent that it sucks up all the moisture which is breathed on it. To ensure the gold-leaPs sticking thoroughly, it is safer on the whole to gild the size while it is still slightly damp, and delay the burnishing till it is drier.
The time to allow and the right condition of the size for gilding can only be accurately judged by
experience.^
LAYING THE GOLD-LEAF
Note. — In illuminated MSS.y the simplest and best method to follow is to lay and finish the gold before ap- plying the colours {the gold may be laid last of all if there should be a special risk of injury — pp, 170-1).
The process of gold-laying must be carried out steadily and quickly ; all the necessary tools, &c., should be ready to hand (see p. 145).
The Gold-Leaf. — This is sold in books of twenty- five leaves. The ordinary leaf, about 3 J inches square, consisting of gold and alloy, is said to be beaten out to less than — i— inch in thickness. As
V00,000
gold sticks readily to gold, especially when very thin and liable to wrinkle and fold over, or to paper, red
1 The dryness of east wind or frost makes gold-laying and burnishing very difficult (see p. 163).
Laying & bole or ochre is scattered between the leaves of Burnishing the ordinary book. This powder will come off on Gold the work and give it an ugly colour, when burnish- ing, unless it is dusted off very carefully.
It is better to get gold specially prepared for fine work such as illuminating quite pure, and put up in white books (without bole). " Double " gold- leaf may be used for a final coat.
Cutting the Leaf. — With the scissors, which must be quite clean and sharp — and not breathed upon — (or else the gold will stick to them and tear), cut a whole or half leaf of gold, together with the paper leaf on which it lies, out of the book.
The gold is cut on one paper (fig. 99) (not
Fig. 99.
between papers, for then it would stick to both), and the cut edges of the paper and the gold stick together slightly. If the edge of the gold is any- where loose and apt to flap about, it and the corre- sponding paper edge can be nicked together with the scissors (fig. 100). The gold-leaf being lightly held to the paper in this way is easily handled.
A piece of gold, about \ inch larger all round than the form to be gilded, is cut from the leaf in the manner described above (^, b, fig. lOo). Except in the case of a very large form, it is not worth trying
152
to save gold by cutting it out in the same shape. Square, oblong, and triangular shaped pieces are suitable for ordinary- use ; these are laid in a convenient place — the edge of a book cover will do very well (fig. lOi) — ready to be picked up at the right moment.
The burnishing slab (a flat piece of vul- canite, celluloid, or metal) is placed under the page to give it a hard, firm back, which ^jlJ^M will make the pushing J"^*^ (^-^ and rubbing of the fig. igo.
burnisher effective.
Preparing the Size. — If the size has dried rough, it may be lightly scraped with the pen-knife —
Laying &
Burnishing
Gold
Fig. ioi.
removing as little as possible of the surface, m which the essential stickiness frequently seems to be concentrated.
153
Laying & Ordinarily a form should not require trimming,
Burnishing though if its edges have accidental roughnesses,
Gold these may be trimmed a little with the pen-knife.
Damping the Size, — The breathing tube is about
^ inch (or less) in diameter, and 6 inches or more
in length ; it may be made of paper or cane. One
end of the tube being lightly held between the lips,
the other is moved about over the size, which is
gently breathed upon (fig. 102). The breath con-
^^Uai- placed an the sizi immedi- ately 3L^cr breathing
Fig. 102.
densing on the surface of the size, moistens it and renders it sticky. The amount of moistening re- quired depends on the condition of the size.
Care has to be taken that the breath does not condense in the tube and drop on to the work.
Laying the Gold-Leaf, — Immediately that the size has been sufficiently breathed upon, the piece of paper with gold-leaf adhering (held ready in the right
154
hand) is placed upon it, gold-leaf downwards, care Laying & being taken to place it steadily down, and not drag Burnishing it across the size (fig. 103). Gold
Fig. 103.
The Rubbing Paper — a convenient piece of thin but tough paper (held ready in the left hand) — is immediately laid above the gold-leaf paper, and is then rubbed over firmly with the finger-tip, in order at once to attach the leaf to the size (fig. 104). It is then quickly rubbed with the soft pencil
next ovemtion , See Fios.io6.Sc \on.
Fig. 104.
Laying & or chalk till the raised form underneath is indicated Burnishing on the surface of the paper (fig. 105).
Gold These two operations may be combined by
having a little blue chalk either on the finger-tip or on the upper surface of the rubbing paper.
Round the outline of this form the point of the burnisher 1 is worked, pressing the gold-leaf firmly —through both the papers — against the size, in the angle formed by the size and the surface of the parchment (fig. 106).
The fore part of the burnisher is then passed rapidly all over the rub- bing paper with a firm pressure (fig. 107).
The rubbing paper and the other paper are picked off, and an experienced eye can usually tell if the gold is sticking properly by a peculiar, smooth appear- ance which it then has. Fig. 105. Several Letters or Forms
which are close together may be gilded simultaneously — with one piece of gold-leaf — as if they were one complex form. This saves time, but if too many forms are gilded to- gether, some of them are liable to be less thoroughly and effectually treated.
Small Scattered Forms (dots, &c.). — For these the gold-leaf may be cut into a sufficient number of little pieces, which are allowed to fall {gold side downwards) on a sheet placed to receive them.
156
^ A finer metal or ivory point may alto be used.
They arc picked up separately by means of a needle stuck into their backing-paper.
Additional Coats of Gold-Leaf. — A second leaf of gold may be laid on immediately on the top of the first ; this will ensure richness and facilitate bur- nishing. Additional leaves may be laid after bur- nishing, but, unless the first gilding is absolutely clean, there is a risk of the second leaf peeling off when re-burnished.
Laying &
Burnishing
Gold
T
the
(h^ Enlamed diaamm of above
ressvfu^ tne ovld leaf uuro iitc ande ivrmed hv die sizk, S6 pazxJiment.
id leaf.
\parchment &&. wearing 'i^'Hyurrushx
Size.} Slab.
Fig. io6.
Note. — Heavy pressure with a cotton wool pad on the back of the gold-leaf book paper (when that is sufficiently thin) may with advantage be used instead of the " rubbing- paper '^ and burnisher-point method here shown.
Laying 9l ffiiKhing Gold
ISlcU : The rMincr- yaver is heU steadily by tlu left hand and riot al- lowed to shift durin the time^
Fig. 107
BURNISHING THE GOLD
The Burnisher, — A tooth-shaped agate burnisher (fig. 108) is commonly used.
The point is used for pushing the leaf into angles and for burnishing angles (a).
T^he fore-part for general burnishing (h).
The bend for cross-burnishing and for angles (r).
The side for very gentle and light burnishing (d).
The burnisher is kept scrupulously clean, and to ensure this it is frequently rubbed on a cloth.
Dusting off the Pounce. — The edge of the parch- ment may be tapped smartly on the desk to shake off the pounce, and a feather or a soft handkerchief may be used, care being taken not to brush the pounce over the gold.
158
Brushing off Waste Leaf. — The superfluous gold Laying & round the edge of the gilded form may be lightly Burnishing brushed off with the brush, either after or before Gold the burnishing — preferably after (see p. 170).
Any gold which may have stuck to the sur- roundlngparchmentjin spite of the pouncing, may be removed with the knife or with the hard indiarubber point, care being taken not to touch the gilded size.
For removing gold, ordinary baker's bread is very useful, and safe.
Burnishing the Gold. — The gold-leaf may be burnished immedi- ately after laying when the size is very dry^ but it is safer to wait for a quarter of an hour — or longer, if the size is at all damp (see Drying^ p. 151).
The slab is again put under the work, and the burnishing is be- -p^^ j^g
gun very gently and
cautiously : should the burnisher stick in the very least, it is instantly stopped (or else the gold will be scratched off"), examined, and cleaned.
The first strokes of the burnisher are generally carried all over the work, very lightly and with a
159
a^
Laying & circular movement (fig. 109), till the gold begins to Burnishing feel smooth^ and the matt surface gives place to a Gold dull polish.
As the gold gets smoother a little more pressure is used, and the burnisher is moved in straight lines in every direction across the gold (fig. no). At
Fig. 109.
Fig. iia
this point the gold should have a peculiar and agree- able feeling of smoothness under the burnisher, an unmistakable sign that all is going well.
A rapid light polish v^^ith the bend of the bur- nisher across a gold stem will give a very good finish
(.,fig. 108).
Properly burnished gold in a right light is at first as bright as a mirror, and in some lights may look 160
quite dark by reason of its smoothness. A piece of white paper may be held at such an angle that the white light from it is reflected by the gold ; this will show the quality of the burnish, and also show up any brown spots which the leaf may have failed to cover. It is helpful, moreover, during the actual process of burnishing to have a reflecting paper folded and standing beside the work (fig.
III).
Laying &
Burnishing
Gold
Fig. Ill*
At first the size under the burnished gold is not thoroughly hardened, and great care should be taken of it (not to breathe on nor finger the gold in any way, nor allow it to lie about and get dusty). It is best to put it away safely in a drawer for a week or two.
After a week or fortnight, when the size has set a little more, it may be very gently re-burnished, and this may be done again at the end of another L l6l
Laying & fortnight. This final burnishing, when the size is Burnishing nearly hard, will give it a very lasting polish. It is Gold well, however, to take every care of burnished gold, and to secure it from risk of damage as soon as may be. Illuminated miniatures were often protected by a piece of silk between the leaves — and this should be done now, in the case of fine work. That a bound volume protects the burnished gold within it is proved by the large number of MSS. in which the gold, laid and burnished 500 years ago, is in perfect and brilliant preservation.
REMEDYING FAULTS IN GILDING
To lay and burnish gold satisfactorily requires considerable experience. Careful practice with a good " size " (a " home-made " size for preference — try recipes on pp. 166 and 147) will overcome the chief difficulties : these, and their probable causes, are here summarised : —
T0 make the Size stick to the Surface,
Probable Causes of Size not sticking to Parchment or Paper,
Clean and pounce thoroughly: roughen if necessary (pp. 146, 167).
Dirty Greasy Horny or Non-porous
Surface.
Procure or make a proper com- position, mix thoroughly always, and stir frequently when in use. If composition is at fault, add —
a. Sticky matter.
b. Toughening matter (pp. 147, 166, and Appendix)
162
Size not sticky ''
enough Size not tough
enough (and
crumbling
off)
due to faulty composition, or mixing.
To make the Gold-leaf stick to
the Size.
Breathe on thoroughly and
avoid delay in laying the
gold (p. 154). Do not dry too long (p. 151). A fire with a steaming kettle
having a long tube or spout
will make gilding possible. More careful pressure (p. 156) :
use thin gold leaf.
(See above, p. 162.)
Raise the size sufficiently (p. 150). If not enough when dry, roughen surface and add another coat.
Try re-gilding (p. 157), or, if spots persist, scrape them gently and try again : failing that, gently scrape off all the gold and try white of Q^g (dilute), or a slight re-sizing.
If the spots are very small and there is not time to spare for re-gilding, they may be touched with powder gold and dilute white of egg, and burnished when dry (p. 183).
Probable Causes of Gold-leaf not sticking to Size. /- due to being insuffici- ently breathed on, or Size the too absorbent nat- too -l ure or condition of, size, dry, The dryness of frost or east wind makesthe size ^ dry, hard, and ''difficult." Not sufficient rubbing and pressing on of gold.
Size not sticky enough.
Not enough size, particularly in thin lines and edges.
The gold may refuse to stick in sfotswitb no apparent reason, but probably from one or other of the above causes. Or the size may have been touched accidentally and have become greasy or dirty.
Laying &
Burnishing
Gold
|
To make the Gold-leaf smooth |
Probable Causes of Gold-leafs not |
||
|
and bright. |
burnishing properly. |
||
|
a. \ Allow longer time (p. b. ] 151). |
r Due to — |
||
|
a. Damp weather. |
|||
|
c. Remove size and re-size with |
Size |
b. Insufficient time |
|
|
proper composition. |
too |
allowed for dry- |
|
|
Sometimes this difficulty may |
sticky |
ing. |
|
|
be overcome by using several |
c. Too much sticky |
||
|
coats of gold-leaf (p. 157). |
^ matter in size. |
Scrapesmooth with sharp knife. (Sometimes the size itself is burnished before the gold- leaf is laid.)
Clean burnisher frequently.
Size rough surfaced.
Burnisher becoming dirty,
163
Laying & Both paper and parchment when much wet with Burnishing size are apt to cockle. Generally it is not possible, Gold or desirable (see p. 174), to guard against this by first stretching the material, but the size may be used with less water, so that it will dry sooner. In cases where there is a gold background it may often be divided into small parts (to be sized at different times) by the pattern (see p. 191). For large un- broken patches of gold several thin coats may be put on, one after the other, with a brush.
Some sizes have a tendency to crack : this is difficult to guard against. But, if the cracks are very minute — such as may be seen in many in- stances in the best early MSS. — they do not constitute a serious blemish.
Burnished gold is often damaged by careless handling or insufficient protection.
GOLD WRITING
The page (having been ruled as for ordinary writing) is thoroughly pounced all over.
The pen has an extra long slit, and the size is made a little more fluid than usual to allow of its flowing freely and making true pen-strokes
(p. 63).
The desk is lowered (ng. 46, ^), or flat, so that the size may flow freely.
The nib sometimes makes only a wet down- stroke on the parchment, but, by lightly pushing the pen up again, the stroke will be filled by the size which flows out from under the nib. Simple pen-strokes in small writing hold but little, and so ought to be filled as full of size as possible (pp. 150, 184). They will be found to dry much more
164
quickly than larger forms, and may be gilded Laying & within a few hours of writing. Half-a-dozen or Burnishing more letters are gilded together (see p. 156). Gold
OTHER METHODS & RECIPES FOR GILDING
Gold-leaf may be cut with a ^^ gilder s knife'*'* on a ^^ gilder's cushiony* and picked up with a ^^ gilder* s
tip."
Water, white of egg, or alcohol may be used to make the gold-leaf adhere to the size.
" Transfer gold-leaf** is convenient, but the greasiness of the transfer paper is apt to dim the gilding.
Gold-leaf is made in many shades, from " red " (gold -f copper) to "green" (gold -f- silver) ; though these may be used very effectively, they are liable to tarnish, and it is best to begin with pure gold (see pp. 152, 169).
Stiver-leaf oxidises and turns black ; platinum (a good substitute) costs about 5s., and aluminium (not so good) about 6d, per book.
" Gold Ink** has been made with powdered gold: its effect is inferior to raised and burnished writing.
The following is from " The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini " (written about the beginning of the fifteenth Century) : Translated by Christiana J. Herringham, 1899 : —
**Chap. 157. — Hoiv you must do miniature-painting and put gold on parchment.
" First, if you would paint miniatures you must draw with a leaden style figures, foliage, letters, or whatever you please, on parchment, that is to say, in books : then with a pen you must make the delicate permanent
16s
Laying & outline of what you have designed. Then you must have Burnishing a paint that is a sort of gesso, called asiso, and it is made Gold in this manner ; namely, a little gesso sottile [see chap.
1 1 6, below], and a little biacca [whitelead], nevermore of this than equals a third part of the gesso ; then take a little candy, less than the biacca ; grind these ingredients very finely with clear water, collect them together, and let them dry without sun. When you wish to use some to put on gold, cut off a piece as large as you have need of, and temper it with the white of an egg, well beaten, as I have taught you. [The froth is allowed to stand for one night to clear itself] Temper this mixture with it ; let it dry ; then take your gold, and either breathing on it or not, as you please, you can put it on ; and the gold being laid on, take the tooth or burnishing-stone and burnish it, but hold under the parchment a firm tablet of good wood, very smooth. And you must know that you may write letters with a pen and this asiso, or lay a ground of it, or whatever you please — it is most excellent. But before you lay the gold on it, see whether it is needful to scrape or level it with the point of a knife, or clean it in any way, for your brush sometimes puts more on in one place than in another. Always beware of this."
"Chap. 1 1 6. — How to prepare gesso sottile {^slaked plaster of Paris^j for grounding panels,
" You must now prepare a plaster for fine grounds, called gesso sottile. This is made from the same plaster [plaster of Paris] as the last, but it must be well purified (pur- gata), and kept moist in a large tub for at least a month ; renew the water every day until it almost rots, and is completely slaked, and all fiery heat goes out of it, and it becomes as soft as silk. Throw away the water, make it into cakes, and let it dry ; and this gesso is sold by the druggists to our painters. It is used for grounding, for gilding, for working in relief, and other fine works.**
i66
APPENDIX: ON GILDING (By Graily Hewitt)
Success with raised gilding can only be expected when Laying & practice has rendered attention to the details of the process Burnishing automatic and there is no need to pause and think. Even Gold
then the results must be somewhat uncertain and experi- mental. For our own preparations of size are usually unsatisfactory, and the ingredients of the best we can buy are unknown to us. And our vellum is certainly not of the quality we find in the old books. Some one is badly wanted to investigate the chemistry of the one and an ap- propriate preparation of the other. But we can take as much care as our time allows, passing nothing as " good enough" which we have not well examined, and bringing to the business all the patience and deftness available.
Vellum is too stiff, or too dry, or too greasy. When stiff, it is too thick for books ; when dry, too apt to crack or cockle ; when too greasy, exasperating. And yet the soft and rather greasy sort can be rendered more agreeable than the rest with labour. It should be rubbed by the flat of the hand with powdered pumice (or even fine sand- paper on the rough side) and French chalk, especially on its split (or rougher) side, until it is serviceable. A few trials will teach how long to give to this. Five minutes for one side of a lamb's skin would not be too much. It can then be beaten with a silk handkerchief, but not rubbed with this until the size has been laid It may be rubbed cleaner between the laying of the size and the gilding. Especially must those parts of pages be thoroughly rubbed clean which in the book, when made up, will lie upon and be pressed against gold letters on the page opposite ; or the pumice left behind will scratch them. On the other hand, if the vellum has not been thoroughly pumiced on both pages, the greasiness in
167
Laying & ^^ will dim the gold in time, both from above and below; Burnishing or even make the size flake oflF altogether. The size Gold ^s often blamed for faults of the vellum and its want of
preparation.
Again size, or " raising preparation," is too sticky or too dry. If the former, the gold will not burnish well ; if the latter, it will burnish, but will not stick at the edges, and will crack sooner or later. And though the essential quality of gilding is brightness, one may be content to fail of this rather than have letters ragged in outline or broken on the surface.
The size in use should be just liquid enough to flow evenly from the pen. More water makes it dry too brittle, and tends to cockle the vellum also ; less tends to blobbi- ness and unevenness. Even when it is put on fairly an uncomfortable groove is apt to form as it dries down the centre of letters ; but this can be either filled up as soon as the first layer is dryish, or the sides of the groove can be scraped (when the letter is quite dry) down to the level of the groove itself with a sharp knife. The knife must be sharp. As this scraping does not aifect the ex- treme edges the power of the size there to hold the leaf is not impaired by it ; and certainly a well-scraped surface is extremely even and pleasant to gild. If the surface, however, be burnished and not scraped before laying the leaf, it will not hold the leaf well, and remains lumpy also where lumps were there originally ; while scraping gets rid of these. During use the size should be kept thoroughly mixed ; and a small sable brush serves well for this purpose, as soon as it can be used so carefully as not to cause bubbles.
To know the exact time to allow between laying and gilding one had need to be a meteorologist, so much "depends on the weather." Very dry and very wet weather are equally unkind. Generally an interval of about twenty-four hours is right ; but it is better to gild too soon than too late, provided one can be content, on testing the naked surface of the gilded letter with a
i68
burnisher, and noting that the glitter is reluctant to come, Laying & to leave the burnishing for a while, and only lay the leaf. Burnishing pressing it >A'ell home to the outline of the letters. The Gold
burnishing can then be done in a few more hours. But if the size be too dry, the difficulty will be to make the leaf stick to it at all. In this case the leaf adhering can be scraped off, the size scraped down further, and another thin coat added and gilded after a shorter interval. If the letter be so fouled that such repairs are difficult, it should be entirely scraped away and the size relaid alto- gether. In doing this care is needed that the vellum be not injured round the letter.
The best gold-leaf for ordinary work costs about 38. for twenty-five pages. More expensive leaf, being thicker, does not stick so well to the edges ; cheaper is too thin to burnish well. Two kinds may be used together with good results, the finer leaf being put on next the size, and the thicker at once on to the top of that. The letter is then pressed and outlined as usual through paper, and the thin leaf will be found of con- siderable assistance towards the making of a clean cut edge. Generally, however, the piling on of several leaves is inadvisable, as bits are liable to flake away as the letter goes on drying, leaving dim specks where they have been. Yet if, after the outlining through the paper, the leaf is seen to be very dull or speckled with the colour of the size, this means that the size has been partly pressed through the leaf; and another laid im- mediately will have enough to stick to, and will burnish well. The best result comes of one moderately thick leaf laid and burnished at the right time as quickly as possible. Thicker leaves need only be used for large surfaces, where the edge can be scraped even and clean, or where a black outline is to be added.
As soon as the leaf is laid, and from that point onward, the breath must be kept from the letter with a shield (of cardboard or tin) held in the left hand or otherwise. Inattention to this is responsible for many failures. Not
169
Laying & only should the actual letters under operation be so pro- Burnishing tected, but where a quantity are sized ready for gilding Gold on the page these should be protected also, as well as
any parts already finished ; for breath not only moistens but warms, and on warm size moisture condenses less easily. If the work to be done presently is so warmed, it will be found more difficult to deal with when its time comes. The first work done in the day is often the best, and for this reason, that the size for it is cool ; but in gilding this portion one almost necessarily warms that to be done later. Two pages, where possible, should there- fore be gilded alternately, one cooling while a portion of the other is gilded. Or thin plates of metal, or even cardboard, may be placed about as shields to protect all surfaces not under actual operation.
Superfluous gold is best removed by dusting lightly with an old and very clean and dry silk handkerchief. Indiarubber will certainly remove gold from the vellum, but it will as certainly dim any part of the gilding it touches. If the vellum was properly pounced to start with the silk will easily remove all the leaf unstuck, except little odds and ends, and these are safeliest taken away with the point of a knife.
As the pressure of burnishing helps the leaf to stick, it is best to wait till the letter, has been burnished before this dusting. Such spots as are visible ungilded may be afterwards treated with a slight breath and transfer gold- leaf, or gold dust, may be painted on them. In the latter case the spots must be most carefully burnished, if burnished at all, or their surroundings will be scratched. > When a gold letter is to be set on a coloured back-
ground, or in the neighbourhood of colour, it is best put on after the colour ; as may be observed was the method occasionally with the old books. If the gold is put on first, it will certainly be dimmed by warmth and breath during the colouring. On the other hand, if it is put on last, great care must be taken that the gold-leaf shall not stick to the coloured portions. Where possible, a stencil
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pattern of the parts to be gilded should be cut out of Laying & paper. This is easily made from a pencil rubbing taken Burnishing after the size is laid, the raised pattern being of course Gold
cut out carefully a trifle larger than the outline so obtained. The paper is then laid over all the work, and the sized portions showing through the cuttings can be gilded without injury to the colour.
All gilded work should be retained, if possible, for a week or more, and then re-burnished. And in burnishing generally the burnisher should not be used, even when the size is hard, with any great force or pressure at first. For the size in drying sets as if moulded, and this mould cannot be squeezed about or actually crushed without being loosened or cracked. Throughout the whole pro- cess a gentle and vigilant alacrity is required. Success will come easily if it means to come. It cannot be forced to come.
The binder of a book with gilding in it should be warned to press the sheets as little as possible, and to use all his care in handling it, so as to keep moisture, warmth, and fingering from the gold. The folding of the sheets, when left to him, should also be done rather differently from usual, for all gilded pages need to be kept as flat as possible. None of the sizes in use seem capable of resisting bending of their surfaces without crimping or cracking. Where there is much gilding, the book will be the better for being sewn with a zigzag^ through the sections, as this helps to " guard " the gilded work.
1 Fide D. Cockerell, " Bookbinding and the Care of Books,"
171
CHAPTER X
The Use of
Gold& Colours in
Initial
Letters &
Simple
Illumination
THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL LETTERS & SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment, "Vellum/' & Pounce — Colours — Simple Colour- Effects — Matt Gold — Burnished Gold — Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines — Background Capitals — Applying the Background — Ornament of Back- grounds.
TOOLS & MATERIALS FOR SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
TOOLS, ^c, FOR GILDING.— Ste Chapter IX. (pp. 145-6).
Ip-ORr TRACING POINT,— This is useful for various purposes, and for indenting patterns in burnished gold (see p. 191).
BRUSHES.— Red Sables are very good. A separate brush should be kept for each colour — or at least one brush each for Reds, Blues, Greens, fVhite, znd go /d ^^ paint" — and it is convenient to have a medium and a fine brush for each.
PENS FOR COLOt/i?.— Quill pens are used: " Turkey " or " Goose." The latter is softer, and is sometimes preferred for colour work. For very fine vi^ork (real) Crow Quills may be tried. A separate pen should be used for each colour.
COLOURED INKS.— Brown ink (tempered with black if desired) may be used for fine out- lines : if the outlined forms are to be coloured afterwards, it is convenient if the ink be waterproof,
172
Coloured inks seldom have as good a colour as the
best paint colours (see Colours for Penwork^ p. 176).
COLOURS. — (p. 175). MATT GOLD (see p. 183).
PJINT-BOX,— The little chests of drawers, sold by stationers for 2s. 6d., make very convenient " paint-boxes " : pens, &c., may be kept in one drav^er ; gilding, tools, &c., in another ; and colours and brushes in another.
PAPER (see pp. 51,98, 10^).— PARCHMENT, FELLUM. bJ* POUNCE (see below).
The Use of
Gold&
Colours in
Initial Letters &
Simple Illumination
PARCHMENT, " VELLUM," & POUNCE
{See also Appendix on Gilding^ p, 167 and pp. 98, 356)
The name "Vellum" (strictly applicable only to calf-skin) is generally given to any moderately good skin prepared for writing or printing on. All the modern skins are apt to be too stiff and horny : chemical action (substituted for patient handling), followed by liberal sizing and " dressing," is perhaps responsible. The old skins have much more life and character, and are commonly much softer. Their surface is generally very smooth — not neces- sarily glazed — often with a delicate velvety napy which forms a perfect writing surface.
Parchment (sheep - skin), as supplied by law- stationers, though rather hard, still retains the character of a skin, and is in every way preferable to the Vellum 1 which is specially prepared for illu- minators. A piece of parchment about 26 inches by 22 inches costs about 2s. 6d. Lambskin is still better.
" Roman Vellum " is a fine quality of sheep or
^ The very costly, specially prepared calf-skin is too highly " f