REESE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Class
r
R2PORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDIES * WITH THE REPORTS OF THE CONFERENCES ARRANGED BY THE COMMITTEE
,
PUBLISHED FOR THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL
ASSOCIATION BY THE AMERICAN BOOK
COMPANY {» NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, CHICAGO
M D CCC XC IV
COPYRIGHT, 1894, BY THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION
Rep. Com. 10 M. 2
>N
(UNIVERSITY)
PEEFATOEY NOTE.
The Eeport of the Committee -of Ten on Secondary School Studies is now generally known among the leading educators of the country, and, while there is much diversity of opinion respecting many of its recommendations, there is substantial agreement that it is the most important educational document ever issued in the United States.
Prepared under the auspices of the National Educational As- sociation, this Eeport was first published by the Bureau of Educa- tion, at Washington, and distributed at public expense to the extent of the funds available for that purpose. In spite of this liberal distribution, many thousands of instructors and educators could not receive a copy from that source.
In view of the importance of the Eeport, and the increasing demand for copies, the National Educational Association has arranged with the American Book Company to print and publish another edition, and to furnish it at a nominal price, that its beneficial influence may be extended still more widely.
In issuing the new edition, it has been thought best to make certain improvements in the make-up of the book, and to insert an Analytical and Topical Index, by which convenient and in- stant reference may be had to any subject mentioned in the Eeport of the Committee, or in those of the nine conferences.
IV PEEFATOEY NOTE.
Friends of the Association may be interested to know that any profit which may be derived from the sale of the Eeport in this form, will accrue to the benefit of the Association, and re- imburse, in part, the very considerable expense involved in its preparation.
K A CALKINS,
Chairman of Board of Trustees, of National Educational Association.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page. Eeport of the Committee of Ten 3
Origin of the Conferences 3
Members of the Committee 'of Ten 4
Subjects of the Conferences 5
List of Eleven Questions 6
Places of holding Conferences 7
Members of the Nine Conferences . .. 8
Composition of Conferences 11
Program for Twelve Years' Course 34-
Program for High Schools 37 -
Classical Program for High Schools 41
Minority Report of President Baker 56
Report of Latin Conference 60
Report of Greek Conference 70
^ Report of English Conference (Sy
"-Report of .Other Modern Languages Conference 96
Report of Mathematics Conference 104
Report of Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy Conference 117 «
Minority Report of W. J. Waggoner 123
Minority Report of Alfred P. Gage 123
Report of the Committee on Experiments 124
Report of Natural History Conference 138
Nature Study for Grades below the High School 142
V
VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page. Botany for Common Schools 151
Zoology for Secondary Schools 154
Physiology in Primary and Secondary Schools 158
Report of History, Civil Government, and Political Economy Con- ference 162.
Appendix to Report of History, Civil Government, and Political Econ- omy Conference 202
Report of Geography Conference 204
Minority Report of Edwin J. Houston 237
ANALYTICAL INDEX.
I. AIMS OF EDUCATION.
BOTANY, result of first four years' work, 148— of first six years' work, 150. ENGLISH, objects of teaching, 86— formal grammar, 89. GEOGRAPHY, as mental discipline, 214 — observational purpose of, 211. GEOMETRY, pur- pose of, 115. GERMAN AND FRENCH in grammar schools, 99 — German or French in high schools, 99. GREEK, grammatical knowledge not an end, 82 —purpose of study, 83. HISTORY, aim of teaching, 164, 168, 169, 170— examinations in, for college entrance, 165. LATIN, purpose of study, 61, 62. MATHEMATICS, discipline of, 114. MODERN LANGUAGES, educational value of, 96. NATURAL HISTORY, object of, in lowest grades, 139— nature study in primary schools, objects of, 142— results of first two years' work, 146. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY, rediscovery of laws not the aim, 118. PHYSIOLOGY as personal help, 159. PRODUCTIVE ABILITY, the great end of education is to create, 213. ZOOLOGY as means of discipline, intellectual growth, broad culture, 158.
II. BOOKS, TEXT-BOOKS, REFERENCE-BOOKS, AND MATERIALS.
ARITHMETIC, abuse of text-books, 108. BOTANY, text-books in, defec- tive in certain respects, 205. ENGLISH, Trench " On the Study of Words" recommended, 92. GEOGRAPHY, libraries for, 217 — photographs and lan- tern slides, 218 — simply memorizing from text-books should be avoided, 219— illustrative material, 223, 224— maps, 213, 217— relief maps, 219. GREEK, recommendations as to text-books, 77. HISTORY, text-books used in third year, 164 — collection of reference-books, 165 — text-books, dry and lifeless instruction by, 167, 184— libraries for teaching, 184— text-books, 188— criteria of a good text-book, 189— parallel text-books: sets of books, 189 — material for reading: school libraries, reference-books, 193 — historical novels, 194— wall-maps and atlases, 199. LATIN, Cato Major, 63 — man- uals of composition discouraged, 63 — Gradatim, Eutropius, and the Viri Romas recommended as easy reading, 64 —Bucolics not recommended, 64 — Froude's Caesar, Forsyth's Cicero, Trollope's Cicero, Sellar's Virgil, and AVilkins's Primer of Roman Literature recommended, 73. NATURE STUDY,
VII
VIII ANALYTICAL INDEX.
materials, 143 — physical science, study of books and phenomena compared, 119. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY, one-half time to text-book, 118 — chemistry and physics, study of text-books without laboratory work of little value, 119— physics and chemistry, more abundant material for former, 122— chemistry, text-books in, 137. READING-BOOK may be discarded at the be- ginning of the seventh year, 89. WEATHER-MAPS, 207. ZOOLOGY, text-books in, defective in certain respects, 205.
III. CLASS EDUCATION.
Seventh Question : ' ' Should the subject be treated differently for pu- pils who are going to college, for those who are going to a scientific school, and for those who, presumably, are going to neither ? "
ANSWERED UNANIMOUSLY in the negative by all the conferences, 17. BAD FOR ALL classes of pupils, 173. ENGLISH conference, specific answer to seventh question, 93. HISTORY, instruction precisely the same for all pupils, 165, 167, 203. MODERN LANGUAGES, conference on, 98. NATURAL HISTORY conference, differentiation unwise, 141. PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND ASTRONOMY, no difference in treatment for those not going to college, 118.
IV. COLLEGES.
AVERAGE AGE of admission lowered, 14. ASTRONOMY not required, 118. C)LOSE ARTICULATION with high schools, 53. ENGLISH, requirements in, should be made uniform in kind, 93 — recommendations for admission, 93 — admission, essays to be on the main subjects, 94 — English should be a "final" subject, 95. GEOGRAPHY, examinations in, for admission, 234 — field-work in geography, 236. GEOMETRY, admission to solid and plane, 116. GREEK, admission sight examinations, 80 — examinations in grammar upon text, 80— Greek composition, 81. HISTORY, examinations for en- trance, 165 — work done in preparatory school taken as evidence, 165 — colleges, relations with lower schools, 167 — cram for entrance, 171 — " Whatever improves the schools must improve the college," 174 — regular written tests accepted as evidence, 184 — a "final" subject, 185. LATIN, standard of admission raised in point of quality, 60 — translation at sight, 74. MODERN LANGUAGES, admission to, 99, 102. NATURAL HISTORY, en- trance and final examinations, 141 — superiority of laboratory test to written examination, 140— natural science and history, habits of study painfully acquired by students, 15. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY required, 118 — admission, laboratory work as a test, 118 — certificates from approved schools the ideal method, 118.
V. CONCENTRATION OF STUDIES.
ARITHMETIC AND PHYSICS, 109, 111 — mathematical knowledge necessary to physics, 119. BOTANY, careful examination of, specimens best secured by careful sketching, 152. ENGLISH, relation of, to all studies, 87— formal grammar not a necessity to the use of good English, 89 — English, history,
ANALYTICAL INDEX. IX
and geography, 91— and other languages, 92— every subject should help every other, 16. GEOGRAPHY, relations of history and natural sciences to, 205, 219— geography, meteorology, and geology, relations of, 205, 206, 207^ 208— relation to all modes of expression, 219— geography and drawing, 220 — elementary geography identical with elementary science, 239. GEOM- ETRY, drawing and modeling, 111— concrete geometry, relation to draw- ing, modeling, and arithmetic, 24. GREEK, geography, history, my- thology, antiquities, 80. HISTORY, intimately connected with English, ancient and modern languages, topography, political, historical, and com- mercial geography, and the drawing of historical maps, 164— history and civil government, 165— history and English, 172, 195— inter-relation of sub- jects, 176— history and ethics, 180, 186— history and literature, 190, 193— history and geography, 199. MODERN LANGUAGES and English, 96. NA- TURE STUDY correlated with language,- literature, drawing, and all other modes of expression, 139— natural history, careful, drawings and good language in, 140— nature study, coordination with modes of expression, 144— relation to geography and arithmetic, 145— plant study related to geography, meteorology, zoology, anthropology, 143— nature studies the best means of teaching reading and writing, 221 — natural science as means of teaching language, 240— natural sciences, geography and drawing, 49 — physical science introduced by the study of geography, 240. POLITICAL ECONOMY related to U. S. history, civil government, and commercial geog- raphy, 165. SPELLING learned incidentally in combination with the subject studied, and not from a spelling-book, 88. SUBJECTS, interlacing of, 24.
VI. COURSES OF STUDY.
ALGEBRA, systematic study of, in high schools, 106— special report on, 111. ARITHMETIC, course to be abridged and enriched, 105— commercial arithmetic discussed, 107. BOTANY preferred to zoology in high schools, 139 — botany and zoology, suggestions for courses of study, 140 — plants, study to be continued throughout the year, 145 — botany, course of study in first and second grades, 145 — third and fourth grades, 146 — fifth and sixth grades, 148— seventh and eighth grades, 150 — for common schools, dis- cussion and course of work, 151 — year of work in, should be continuous, 153. CHEMISTRY, experiments in, 127. ENGLISH, elementary course of study, 87, 88— formal grammar, 88— English in high schools, 90— rhetoric in high schools, 90 — English language, history of, not recommended for high schools, 91 — phonetics, 91. FRENCH OR GERMAN in 'grammar schools, 96 — modern languages, 97 — German or French in grammar schools, 99 — Ger- man and French in high schools, 99. GEOGRAPHY, order of subjects, 241 — physical geography, arrangement of topics, 242 — physical geography analyzed, 246— geographic subjects, natural order of, 209. GEOMETRY, concrete, in grammar schools, 106— demonstrative geometry, 112. GREEK, time of study, 77. HISTORY, subjects included in an eight years' course, 162— courses of study suggested, 162— oral instruction in biography and mythology, 164— uniform programs not recommended, 167— time to begin:
X ANALYTICAL INDEX.
question of consecutive study, 170 — topics for intensive study, 177. LATIN, age of beginning, 60, 61— time of study, 61. PHYSICAL SCIENCE, natural phenomena, study of, in elementary schools, 117 — in elementary schools, one period per day, 117 — nature studies, one-quarter of the time in high schools given to, 123 — natural history in primary schools should begin in kindergarten and lowest grades, 138, 139 — nature studies one hour per week throughout the whole course below high school, 139 — one-fourth of time in high school devoted to, 141 — experiments in physics in high schools, 125 — chemistry to precede physics, 200 hours to each, 117, 118 — minority report, physics before chemistry, 121. POLITICAL ECONOMY discussed, 181. PHYSIOLOGY in later years of high school course, 138. ZOOLOGY for sec- ondary schools, 154— dissection should be postponed, 154.
VII. EXAMINATIONS.
GREEK, sight examinations, 80 — examinations in grammar upon text- books, 80. HISTORY, purpose of examinations in, 183. NATURAL HISTORY, entrance and final examinations for college, 141. ORAL OR WRITTEN, 120. TRANSLATIONS at sight, 62.
VIII. HIGH SCHOOLS.
ALGEBRA, systematic study of, in, 106. BOTANY preferred to zoology in, 139— morphology, comparative, in, 140— botany and zoology suggestions for courses of study, 140. CHEMISTRY to precede physics, 200 hours to each, 117, 118 — physical science, secondary education that ignores the study of nature highly objectionable, 119 — minority report, physics before chem- istry, 120 — experiments in physics, 125 — experiments in chemistry, 127— nature studies, one-quarter of the time to, 123— three-fifths of the time employed in laboratory work, 139 — one-fourth of the time devoted to, 141. ENGLISH, 90 — rhetoric, 90. HISTORY, course of study, 163 — topics for in- tensive study, 163. METEOROLOGY, high school course in, 231. MODERN LANGUAGES, 97. PHYSIOLOGY in later years of high school course, 138. POLITICAL ECONOMY, no formal instruction in, 165. No PREPARATION for high school in botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics, out- side of arithmetic, 15. SECONDARY SCHOOLS do not exist for college prepa- ration, 51. ZOOLOGY, coursToTstudy in, 154— time for study, 154.
IX. LABORATORY AND FIELD-WORK.
CHEMISTRY, experiments in, 127 — physics and chemistry, one-half time to laboratory work, 118— importance of laboratory work : loose work harm- ful, 119 — value of keeping records, 119— physical experiments in elementary schools, 116 — physics and chemistry, more abundant material for former, 122— experiments in physics in high school, 125. Civics, .field studies in, 181. GEOGRAPHY, excursions, 212 — materials for, 215. GEOLOGICAL field-work, 223. HISTORY, as a laboratory science, 169— field excursions, 181, 198. NATURE STUDIES, three-fifths of time employed in laboratory
ANALYTICAL INDEX. XI
work, 139— materials, 143 — natural science and geography, field-work, 59 — natural history must consist largely of laboratory work, 139 — laboratory tests, superiority of, over written examinations, 140.
X. METHODS OF TEACHING.
ARITHMETIC, radical change in the teaching of, 23, 105 — metric system to be taught by actual measurements, 105 — method of teaching, should be, throughout, objective, 105 — text-books subordinate to the living teacher, 105— rules should be taught inductively at the end of the subject, 105. ASTRONOMY by observation, 118. ENGLISH, elementary study, 87— composi- tion writing criticised, 88 — bad English, correction of, not recommended, 94. GERMAN AND FRENCH, methods of teaching, translation at sight, 100 — modern languages, method of instruction, 100, 101, 102. GEOGRAPHY, methods of presentation, 216 — topical recitation, 219— methods in lowest grades, 220— map drawing, 221— geography, methods in grammar grades, 222. GEOMETRY, demonstrative, 113— oral exercises in, 24— in grammar grades, 110. GREEK, inductive method criticised, 82 — translation at sight, 83 — first translation in the order of the original, 84 — translation at sight, 19, 62. HISTORY, topical method recommended, 164— lectures, 188 — written work in, 194 — debates as a means of teaching, 198— illustrative methods, pictures, 197— devices for teaching, 191 — better omit, than teach in the old-fashioned way, 189— historical teaching, methods of, 185. LATIN, com- position limited to text read, 63— sounds, 66, 67 — reading aloud, 68— under- standing at sight, 71 — caution as to inductive method, 75. METEOROLOGY, 227. NATURAL HISTORY, observational study with specimens in the hands of each pupil, 141 — children must study the plant as a whole, and as a liv- ing organism, 142, 143— nature study, 143— guide to, 144. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY, re-discovery of laws not the aim, 118— scientific method im- portant, 119. PHYSIOGRAPHY, methods in, 223.
XI. PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING.
BOTANY for primary schools, central thought, care and protection, 145. ENGLISH, purpose of, 87. FRENCH AND GERMAN, reason for introducing, into grammar schools, 96. GEOGRAPHY, general elementary, applied, physical geography and physiography, meteorology, geology, 204-209 — physiog- raphy defined, 206 — geography, order of observational and representative, descriptive, and rational, 211-214— as mental discipline, 214. GREEK COMPOSITION, 79— Homer, 78. HISTORY, 175— intensive study of eight years' course, 176— glib recitations devoid of thought, 190. LATIN, quality versus quantity, 62— cramming mode useless, 62— writing of, 62— undue prominence of rules, 65. YOUNG CHILDREN cannot generalize, 143.
XII. RELATIVE VALUES OF STUDIES.
CHEMISTRY to precede physics, 117. GEOGRAPHY, relations of, 204— physiography, objections to the term in minority report, 244. GREEK, Latin
XII ANALYTICAL INDEX.
should precede, 77. HISTORY, relative value, 168. PHYSICAL SCIENCE, secondary education that ignores the study of nature highly objectionable, 119 — relations of science, history, and geography to Latin, Greek, and mathematics, 13. PHYSIOLOGY, relation to other studies, 158.
XIII. SUPERVISION.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE, special teachers of, 117 — special science superin- tendents, 119. SUPERINTENDENTS and principals should be teachers of teachers, 54.
XIV. TEACHERS, TRAINING OF TEACHERS, AND NORMAL
SCHOOLS.
ENGLISH, special teachers of, 90. GEOGRAPHY, selection of new teachers, 217. GREEK, poor teaching of, 78. HISTORY, teachers of, 164 — teaching by rote from text-books in grammar schools, 185— training of teachers, 186, 187 — special teachers, 187. LATIN, teaching of, by untrained teachers, 64. MODERN LANGUAGES, preparation of teachers, 103. NORMAL SCHOOLS and colleges should supply better trained teachers, 18— normal schools should be better equipped, 54. PHYSICAL SCIENCE, necessity for intelligent teachers in, 119. PHYSIOLOGY, qualifications of teachers for, 161. SUMMER SCHOOLS, 54. TRAINED TEACHERS necessary, 18 — teachers in elementary schools ill- prepared, 25 — need of more highly trained teachers, 53 — attitude of teacher's mind, 70— colleges and universities should assist in training teachers, 54— universities should establish training courses, 187.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN
EEPOKT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN.
To THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION :
The Committee of Ten appointed at the meeting of the National Educational Association at Saratoga on the 9th of July, 1892, have the honor to present the following report : —
At the meeting of the Na^onal Council of Education in 1891, a Committee appointed at a previous meeting made a valuable report through their Chairman, Mr. James H. Baker, then Principal of the Denver High School, ^n the general subject of uniformity in school programmes and in requirements for admission to college.) The Committee was continued, and was authorized to procure a Conference on the subject of uni- formity during the meeting of the National Council in 1892, the Conference to consist of representatives of leading colleges and secondary schools in different parts of the country. This Conference was duly summoned, and held meetings at Saratoga on July 7th, 8th, and 9th, 1892. There were present between twenty and thirty delegates. Their discussions took a wide range, but resulted in the following specific recommendations, which the Conference sent to the National Council of Education then in session.
1. That it is expedient to hold a conference of schopl and college teachers of each principal subject which enters into the programmes of secondary schools in the United States and into the requirements for admission to college — as, for example, of Latin, of geometry, or of American history — each confer- ence to consider the proper limits of its subject, the best niethods_ of instruction , the most desirable aTl^tmentof_time for the subject, and the best methods of testing the pupils' attainmeiits_Jherein, and each conference to represent fairly the different parts of the country.
2. That a Committee be appointed with authority to select the members of these conferences and to arrange their meetings, ',he results^ of all the conferences to be reported to this Com- mittee for such action as it may deem appropriate, and to form
4 THE COMMITTEE OF TEN.
the basis of a report to be presented to the Council by this Committee.
3. That this Committee consist of the following gentlemen :
CHARLES W. ELIOT, President of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.,
Chairman.
WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. JAMES B. ANGELL, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich. JOHN TETLOW, Head Master of the Girls1 High School and the Girls'
Latin School, Boston, Mass.
JAMES M. TAYLOR, President of Vassar' College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. OSCAR D. ROBINSON, Principal of the High School, Albany, N. Y. JAMES II. BAKER, President of the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. RICHARD H. JESSE, President of the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. JAMES C. MACKENZIE, Head Master of the Lawrenceville School, Law-
renceville, N. J. HENRY C. KING, Professor in Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio.
These recommendations of the Conference were adopted by the National Council of Education on the 9th of July , and the Council communicated the recommendations to the Directors ox the National Educational Association, with the further recom- mendation that an appropriation not exceeding $2500 be made by the Association towards the expenses of these conferences. On the 12th of July the Directors adopted a series of resolutions under which a sum not exceeding $2500 was made available for this undertaking during the academic year 1892—93.
Every gentleman named on the above Committee of Ten accepted his appointment ; and the Committee met, with every member present, at Columbia College, New York City, from the 9th to the llth of November, 1892, inclusive.
In preparation for this meeting, a table had beon prepared by means of a prolonged correspondence with the principals of selected secondary schools in various parts of the country, which showed the subjects taught in forty leading secondary schools in the United States, and the total number of recita- tions, or exercises, allotted to each subject. Nearly two hundred schools were applied to for this information ; but it did not prove practicable to obtain within three months verified state- jments from more than forty schools. This table proved con- |clusively, first, that the totaJ number of subjects taught in theso
THE NINE CONFERENCES. 5
secondary schools was nearly forty, thirteen of which, however, were found in only a few schools ; secondly, that many of these subjects were taught for such short periods that little training could be derived from them ; and thirdly, that the time allotted to the same subject in the different schools varied widely. Even for the older subjects, like Latin and algebra, there appeared to be a wide diversity of practice with regard to the time allotted to them. Since this table was comparative in its nature, — that is, permitted comparisons to be made between different schools, — and could be easily misunderstood and misapplied by persons who had small acquaintance with school programmes, it was treated as a - confidential document; and was issued at first only to the members of the Committee of Ten and the principals of the schools mentioned in the table. Later, it was sent — still as a confidential paper — to the mem- bers of the several conferences organized by the Committee of Ten.
The Committee of Ten, after a preliminary discussion on November 9th, decided on November 10th to organize confer- ences on the following subjects: — 1. Latin; 2. Greek; 3. English; 4. Other Modern Languages; 5. Mathematics; 6. Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry; 7. Natural History (Biology, including Botany, Zoology, and Physiology) ;
8. History, Civil Government, and Political Economy;
9. Geography (Physical Geography, Geology, and Meteorol- ogy). They also decided that each Conference should consist of ten members. They then proceeded to select the members of each of these Conferences, having regard in the selection to the scholarship and experience of the gentlemen named, to the fair division of the members between colleges on the one hand and schools on the other, and to the proper geo- graphical distribution of the total membership. After select- ing ninety members for the nine Conferences, the Committee decided on an additional number of names to be used as sub- stitutes for persons originally chosen who should decline to serve, from two to four substitutes being selected for each Conference. In the selection of substitutes the Committee found it difficult to regard the geographical distribution of the persons selected with as much strictness as in the original
6 QUESTIONS FOR THE CONFERENCES.
selection ; and, accordingly, when it became necessary to call on a considerable number of substitutes, the accurate geo- graphical distribution of membership was somewhat impaired. The lists of the members of the several Conferences were finally adopted at a meeting of the Committee on November llth; and the Chairman and Secretary of the Committee were then empowered to fill any vacancies which might occur.
The Committee next adopted the following list of questions as a guide for the discussions of all the Conferences, and directed that the Conferences be called together on the 28th of December : —
1. In the school course of study extending approximately from the age of six years to eighteen years — a course including the periods of both elementary and secondary instruction — at what age should the study which is the subject of the Conference be first introduced?
2. After it is introduced, how many hours a week for how many years should be devoted to it?
3. How many hours a week for how many years should be devoted to it during the last four years of the complete course ; that is, during the ordinary high school period?
4. What topics, or parts, of the subject may reasonably be covered during the whole course?
5. What topics, or parts, of the subject may best be reserved for the last four years ?
G. In what form and to what extent should the subject enter into college requirements for admission ? Such questions as the sufficiency of translation at sight as a test of knowledge of a language, or the superiority of a laboratory examination in a scientific subject to a written examination on a text-book, are intended to be suggested under this head by the phrase "in what form."
7. Should the subject be treated differently for pupils who are going to college, for those who are going to a scientific school, and for those who, presumably, are going to neither?
8. At what stage should this differentiation begin, if any be recom- mended?
9. Can any description be given of the best method of teaching this subject throughout the school course ?
10. Can any description be given of the best mode of testing attair ments in this subject at college admission examinations?
COMPOSITION OF THE CONFERENCES. 7
11. For those cases in which colleges and universities permit a division of the admission examination into a preliminary and a final examination, separated by at least a year, can the best limit between the preliminary and final examinations be approximately defined?
The Committee further voted that it was expedient that the Conferences on Latin and Greek meet at the same place. Finally, all further questions of detail with regard to the calling and the instruction of the Conferences were referred to the Chairman with full power.
During the ensuing six weeks, the composition of the nine Conferences was determined in accordance with the measures adopted by the Committee of Ten. Seventy persons originally selected by the Committee accepted the invitation of the Comnlittee, and sixty-nine of these persons were present at the meetings of their respective Conferences on the 28th of December. Twenty substitutes accepted service, of whom twelve were persons selected by the Committee of Ten, and eight were selected under the authority granted to the Chair- man and Secretary of the Committee in emergencies. One of these eight gentlemen was selected by a Conference at its first meeting. Two gentlemen who accepted service — one of the original members and one substitute — absented themselves from the meetings of their respective Conferences without giving any notice to the Chairman of the Committee of Ten, who was therefore unable to fill their places. With these two exceptions, all the Conferences met on December 28th with full membership.
The places of meeting wrere as follows : — for the Latin and Greek Conferences, the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.; for the English Conference, Vassar College, Pough- keepsie, N. Y». ; for the Conference on Other Modern Lan- guages, the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. ; for the Conference on Mathematics, Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Mass. ; for the Conferences on Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry, and on Natural History, the University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. ; for the Conference on History, Civil Govern- ment, and Political Economy, the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. ; for the Conference on Geography, the Cook
O MEMBERS OF THE CONFERENCES.
County Normal School, Englewood, 111. The Committee of Ten and all the Conferences enjoyed the hospitality of the several institutions at which they met, and the members were made welcome at private houses during the sessions. Through the exertions of Mr. N. A. Calkins, Chairman of the Trustees of the National Educational Association, important reductions of railroad fares were procured for some members of the Commit- tee and of the Conferences ; but the reductions obtainable were less numerous and considerable than the National Council of Education had hoped. In filling a few vacancies of which notice was received shortly before December 28th, it was necessary to regard as one qualification nearness of residence to the appointed places of meeting ; but on the whole the weight and effectiveness of the several Conferences were not impaired by the necessary replacement of twenty of the mem- bers originally selected by the Committee of Ten. The list of the members of the Conferences on the 28th of December was as follows : —
1. LATIN.
Professor CHARLES E. BENNETT, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. FREDERICK L. BLISS, Principal of the Detroit High School, Detroit, Mich. JNO. T. BUCHANAN, Principal of the Kansas City High School, Kansas
City, Mo. WILLIAM .C. COLLAR, Head Master of the Roxbury Latin School, Rox-
bury, Mass.
JOHN S. CROMBIE, Principal of the Adelphi Academy, Brooklyn, N. Y. Professor JAMES H. DILLARD, Tulane University, New Orleans, La. Rev. WILLIAM GALLAGHER, Principal of Williston Seminary, East-
hampton, Mass.
Professor WILLIAM G. HALE, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Professor JOHN C. ROLFE, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. JULIUS SACHS, Principal of the Collegiate Institute for Boys, 38 West 59th
Street, New York City.
2. GREEK.
E. W. COY, Principal of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O. Professor MARTIN L. D'OoGE, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. A. F. FLEET, Superintendent of the Missouri Military Academy, Mexico,
Mo. ASHLEY D. HURT, Head Master of. the High School, Tulane University,
New Orleans, La.
MEMBERS OF THE CONFERENCES. 9
ROBERT D. KEEP, Principal of the Free Academy, Norwich, Conn. Professor ABBY LEACH, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. CLIFFORD H. MOORE, Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. WILLIAM H. SMILEY, Principal of the High School, Denver, Colo. Professor CHARLES F. SMITH, Vanderbilt University. Nashville, Tenn. Professor BENJAMIN I. WHEELER, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
3. ENGLISH.
Professor EDWARD A. ALLEN, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. F. A. BARBOUR, Michigan State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. Professor FRANK A. BLACKBURN, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Professor CORNELIUS B. BRADLEY, University of California, Berkeley,
Calif.
Professor FRANCIS B. GUMMERE, Haverford College, Pa. Professor EDWARD E. HALE, Jr., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. Professor GEORGE L. KITTREDGE, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass, CHARLES L. Loos, Jr., High School, Dayton, Ohio. W. H. MAXWELL, Superintendent of Schools, Brooklyn, N. Y. SAMUEL TIIURBER, Master in the Girls' High School, Boston, Mass.
4. OTHER MODERN LANGUAGES.
Professor JOSEPH L. ARMSTRONG, Trinity College, Durham, N. C.
THOMAS B. BRONSON, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, N. J.
Professor ALPHONSE N. VAN DAELL, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass.
CHARLES II . GRANDGENT, Director of Modern Language Instruction in the Public Schools, Boston, Mass.
Professor CHARLES HARRIS, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio.
WILLIAM T. PECK, High School, Providence, R. I.
Professor SYLVESTER PRIMER, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
JOHN J. SCHOBINGER, Principal of a Private School for Boys, Chicago, 111.
ISIDORE H. B. SPIERS, William Penn Charter School, Philadelphia, Pa.
Professor WALTER D. TOY, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.
5. MATHEMATICS.
Professor WILLIAM E. BYERLY, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Professor FLORIAN CAJORI, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. ARTHUR H. CUTLER, Principal of a Private School for Boys, New York
City.
Professor HENRY B. FINE, College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. W. A. GREESON, Principal of the High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. ANDREW INGRAHAM, Swain Free School, New Bedford, Mass. Professor SIMON NEWCOMB, Johns Hopkins University, and Washington,
D. C.
10 MEMBERS OF THE CONFERENCES.
Professor GEORGE D. OLDS, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. JAMES L. PATTERSON, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, N. J. Professor T. H. S AFFORD, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.
6. PHYSICS, ASTRONOMY, AND CHEMISTRY.
Professor BROWN AYERS, Tulane University, New Orleans, La.
IRVING W. FAY, The Belmont School, Belmont, Calif.
ALFRED P. GAGE, English High School, Boston, Mass.
GEORGE WARREN KRALL, Manual Training School, Washington Uni- versity, St. Louis, Mo.
Professor WILLIAM W. PAYNE, Carleton College, Northfield, Minn.
WILLIAM MCPHERSON, Jr,, 2901 Collinwood Avenue, Toledo, Ohio.
Professor IRA REMSEN, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
Professor JAMES H. SHEPARD, South Dakota Agricultural College, Brook- ings, So. Dak. '
Professor WILLIAM J. WAGGENER, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.
GEORGE R. WHITE, Phillips Exeter Academy, Exeter, N. H.
7. NATURAL HISTORY (BIOLOGY, INCLUDING BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, AND PHYSIOLOGY).
Professor CHARLES E. BESSEY, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. ARTHUR C. BOYDEN, Normal School, Bridge water, Mass. < Professor SAMUEL F. CLARKE, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. Professor DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Palo
Alto, Calif.
President JOHN M. COULTER, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Principal S. A. MERRITT, Helena, Montana. W. B. POWELL, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. CHARLES B. SCOTT, High School, St. Paul, Minn.
Professor ALBERT H. TUTTLE, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. O. S. WESTCOTT, Principal of the North Division High School, Chicago, 111.
8. HISTORY, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY.
President CHARLES K. ADAMS, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Professor EDWARD G. BOURNE, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio. ABRAM BROWN, Principal of the Central High School, Columbus, Ohio. Professor A. B. HART, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. RAY GREENE HULING, Principal of the High School, New Bedford, Mass. Professor JESSE MACY, Iowa College, Grinnell, Iowa. Professor JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON, University of Pennsylvania, Phila- delphia, Pa.
Professor WILLIAM A. SCOTT, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. HENRY P. WARREN, Head Master of the Albany Academy, Albany, N. Y. Professor WOODROW WILSON, College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J.
COMPOSITION OF THE CONFERENCES. 11
9. GEOGRAPHY (PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, AND METEOROLOGY).
Professor THOMAS C. CIIAMBERLIN, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Professor GEORGE L. COLLIE, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. Professor )V. M. D^VTS. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. DELWIN A. HAMLIN, Master of the Rice Training School, Boston, Mass. Professor^Emvix J. HOUSTON, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa. Professor MARKjV\L_-HAK&tNOTON, The Weather Bureau, Washington,
D. C.
CHARLES F. KING, Dearborn School, Boston, Mass. FRANCIS W. PARKER, Principal of the Cook County Normal School,
Englewood, 111.
G. M. PHILIPS, Principal of the State Normal School, West Chester, Pa. Professor ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
The ninety members of the Conferences were divided as follows, — forty-seven were in the service of colleges or univer- sities, forty-two in the service of schools, and one was a government official formerly in the service of a university. A considerable number of the college men, however, had also had experience in schools. Each Conference, in accordance with a recommendation of the Committee of Ten, chose its own Chairman and Secretary ; and these two officers prepared the report of each Conference. Six of the Chairmen were college men, and three were school men ; while of the Secretaries, two were college men and seven school men. The Committee, of
o
Ten requested that the reports of the Conferences should be sent to their Chairman by the 1st of April, 18(J3 — three months being thus allowed for the preparation of the reports. Seven Conferences substantially conformed to this request of the Committee ; but the reports from the Conferences on Natural History and Geography were delayed until the second week in July. The Committee of Ten, being of course unable to prepare their own report until all the reports of the December Conferences had been received, were prevented from presenting their report, as they had intended, at the Education Congress which met at Chicago July 27th-29th.
All the Conferences sat for three days ; their discussions were frank, earnest, and thorough ; but in every Conference an extraordinary unity of opinion was arrived at. The nine reports are characterized by an amount, of agreement which
12 UNANIMITY OF THE CONFERENCES.
quite surpasses the most sanguine anticipations. Only two Conferences present minority reports, namely, the Conference on Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry, and the Conference on Geography ; and in the first case, the dissenting opinions touch only two points in the report of the majority, one of which is unimportant. In the great majority of matters brought before each Conference, the decision of the Conference was unanimous. When one considers the different localities, insti- tutions, professional experiences, and personalities represented in each of the Conferences, the unanimity developed is very striking, and should carry great weight.
Before the 1st of October, 1893, the reports of the Confer- ences had all been printed, after revision in proof by the chair- men of the Conferences respectively, and had been distributed to the members of the Committee of Ten, together with a preliminary draft of a report for the Committee. With the aid of comments and suggestions received from members of the Committee a second draft of this report was made ready in print to serve as the ground- work of the deliberations of the Committee at their final meeting. This meeting was held at Columbia College from the 8th to the llth of November, 1893, inclusive, every member being present except Professor King, who is spending the current academic year in Europe. The points of view and the fields of work of the different members of the Committee being fortunately various, the discussions at this prolonged meeting were vigorous and comprehensive, and resulted in a thorough revision of the preliminary report. This third revise having been submitted to the members of the Committee, a cordial agreement on both the form and the sub- stance of the present report, with the exceptions stated in the minority report of President Baker, was arrived at after a correspondence which extended over three weeks. The report itself embodies the numerous votes and resolutions adopted by the Committee.
Professor King, having received in Europe the Conference reports, the two preliminary drafts of the Committee's report, and the third revise, desired to have his name signed to the final report.
NUMBER AND VARIETY OF CHANGES UKGED. 13
The Council and the public will doubtless be impressed, at first sight, with the great number and variety of important changes urged by the Conferences ; but on a careful reading of the appended reports it will appear that the spirit of the Con- ferences was distinctly consj^vjiive and moderate, although many of their recommendations are of a radical nature. The Conferences which found their tasks the most difficult were the Conferences on Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry ; Natural History ; History, Civil Government, and Political Economy ; and Geography ; and these four Conferences make the longest and most elaborate reports, for the reason that these subjects are to-day more imperfectly dealt with in primary and second- ary schools than are the subjects of the first five Conferences. The experts who met to confer together concerning the teaching of the last four subjects in the list of Conferences all felt the - need of setting forth in an ample way what ought to be taught, in what order, and by what method. They ardently desired to have their respective subjects made equal to Latin, Greek, and Mathematics in weight and influence in the schools ; but they knew that educational tradition was adverse to this desire, and that many teachers and directors of education felt no confi- dence in these subjects as disciplinary material. Hence the length and elaboration of these reports. In less degree, the Conferences on English and Other Modern Languages felt the same difficulties, these subjects being relatively new as sub- stantial elements in school programmes.
The Committee of Ten requested the Conferences to make their reports and recommendations as specific as possible. This request was generally complied with ; but, very naturally, the reports and recommendations are more specific concerning the selection of topics in each subject, the best methods of instruction, and the desirable appliances or apparatus, than concerning the allotment of time to each subject. The allot- ment of time is a very important matter of administrative detail ; but it presents great difficulties, requires a comprehensive sur- vey of the comparative claims of many subjects, and in different parts of the country is necessarily affected by the various local conditions and historical developments. Nevertheless, there will be found in the Conference reports recommendations of a
14 TIME- ALLOTMENT BY SUBJECT.
fundamental and far-reaching character concerning the allotment of programme time to each subject.
It might have been expected that every Conference would have demanded for its subject a larger proportion of time than is now commonly assigned to it in primary and secondary schools ; but, as a matter of fact, the reports are noteworthy for their moderation in this respect, — especially the reports on the old and well-established subjects. The Latin Conference declares that, — "In view of the just demand for more and better work in several other subjects of the preparatory course, it seemed clear to the Conference that no increase in the quantity of the preparation in Latin should be asked for." Among the votes passed by the Greek Conference will be noticed the following : — " That in making the following recommendations, this Conference desires that the average age ,/at which pupils now enter college should be lowered rather than raised ; and the Conference urges that no addition be made in the advanced requirements in Greek for admission to • college." The Mathematical Conference recommends that the course in arithmetic in elementary schools should be abridged, and recommends only a moderate assignment of time to algebra and geometry. The Conference on Geography says of the present assignment of time to geography in primary and md secondary .schools that "it is the judgment of the Conference that too much time is given to the subject in proportion to the results secured. It is not their judgment that more time is given to the subject than it merits, but that either more should be accomplished, or less time taken to attain it."
Anyone who reads these nine reports consecutively will be struck with the fact that all these bodies of experts desire to have the elements of their several subjects taught earlier than they now are ; and that the Conferences on all the subjects except the languages desire to have given in the elementary schools what may be called perspective views, or broad surveys, of their respective subjects — expecting that in later years of the school course parts of these same subjects will be taken up with more amplitude and detail. The Conferences on Latin, Greek, and the Modern Languages agree in desiring to have
EAKLIER INTRODUCTION OF SUBJECTS. 15
the study of foreign languageabegin at a much ^arlier age than now, — theT^atnTConlerence suggesting by a reference European usage that Latin be begun from three to five yeai earlier than it commonly is now. The Conference on Mathe- matics wish to have given in elementary schools not only a general survey of arithmetic, but also the elements of algebra, and concrete geometry in connection with drawing. The Conference on Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy urge that nature studies should constitute an important part of the elementary school course from ^ the very beginning. The Conference on Natural History wish the elements of botany and zoology to be taught in the primary schools. The Conference on History wish the systematic study of history to begin as early as the tenth year of age, and the first two years of study to be devoted to mythology and to biography for the .illustration of general history as well as of American history. Finally, the Conference on Geography recommend that the v'earlier course treat broadly of the earth, its environment and inhabitants, extending freely into fields which in later years of study are recognized as belonging to separate sciences.
In thus claiming entrance for their subjects into the earlier years of school attendance, the Conferences on the newer subjects are only seeking an advantage which the oldest subjects have long possessed. The elements of language, number, and geography have long been imparted to young children. As things now are, the high school teacher finds in the pupils fresh from the grammar schools no foundation of elementary mathematical conceptions outside of arithmetic ; no acquaintance with algebraic language ; and no accurate knowledge of geometrical forms. As to botany, zoology, chemistry, and physics, the minds of pupils entering the high school are ordinarily blank on these subjects. When college professors endeavor to teach chemistry, physics, botany, zoology, meteorology, or geology to persons of eighteen or twenty years of age, they discover that in most instances new habits of observing, reflecting, and recording have to be painfully acquired by the students, —habits which they should have acquired in early childhood. The college teacher of history finds in like manner that his subject has never taken
16 CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS.
any serious hold on the minds of pupils fresh from the secondary schools. He finds that they have devoted astonishingly little time to the subject ; and that they have acquired no habit of historical investigation, or of the comparative examination of different historical narratives concerning the same periods or events. It is inevitable, therefore, that specialists in any one of the subjects which are pursued in the high schools or colleges should earnestly desire that the minds of young children be stored with some of the elementary facts and principles of their subject ; and that all the mental habits, which the adult student will surely need, begin to be formed in the child's mind before the age of fourteen. It follows, as a matter of course, that all the Conferences except the Conference on Greek, make strong suggestions concerning the programmes of primary and^rammar schools, — generally with some reference to the subsequent programmes of secondary schools. They desire important changes in the elementary grades ; and the changes recommended are all in the direction of increasing simultaneously the interest and the substantial training quality of primary and grammar school studies.
If anyone feels dismayed at the number and variety of the subjects to be opened to children of tender age, let him observe
i that while these nine Conferences desire each their own subject to be brought into the courses of elementary schools, they all
/agree that these different subjects should be correlated and associated one with another by the programme and by the actual teaching. If the nine Conferences had sat all together as a single body, instead of sitting as detached and even isolated bodies, they could not have more forcibly expressed their conviction that every subject recommended for intro- duction into elementary and secondary schools should help every other ; and that the teacher of each single subject should feel responsible for the advancement of the pupils in all subjects, and should distinctly contribute to this advancement. On one very important question of general policy which affects profoundly the preparation of all school programmes, the Committee of Ten and all the Conferences are absolutely unanimous. Among the questions suggested for discussion in each Conference were the following : —
A SIMPLIFICATION OF PROGRAMMES. 17
7. Should the subject be treated differently for pupils who are going to college, for those who are going to a scientific school, and for those who, presumably, are going to neither?
8. At what age should this differentiation begin, if any be recommended?
The 7th question is answered unanimously in the negative by
the Conferences, and the 8th therefore needs no answer. The
Committee of Ten unanimously agree with the Conferences.
Ninety-eight teachers, intimately concerned either with the
actual work of American secondary schools, or with the results
of that work as they appear in students who come to college,
/unanimously declare that every subject which is taught at all
I in a secondary school should be taxight in the same way and
1 to the same extent to every pupil so long as he pursues it, no
j matter what the probable destination of the pupil may be, or
at what point his education is to cease. Thus, for all pupils
who study Latin, or history, or algebra, for example, the
allotment of time and the method of instruction in a given
o
school should be the same year by year. Not that all the pupils should pursue every subject for the same number of years; but so long as they do pursue it, they should all be treated alike. It has been a very general custom in American high schools and academies to make up separate courses of study for pupils of supposed different destinations, the propor- tions of the several studies in the different courses being various. The principle laid down by the Conferences will, if logically carried out, make a great simplification in secondary sc*hool programmes. It will lead to each subject's being treated by. the school in the same way by the year for all pupils, and this, whether the individual pupil be required to choose between courses which run through several years, or be allowed some . choice among subjects year by year.
Persons who read all the appended reports will observe the frequent occurrence of the statement that, in order to introduce the changes recommended, teachers_more big]ily__tmiiied will be needed in both the elementary and the secondary schools. There are frequent expressions to the effect that a higher grade of scholarship is needed in teachers of the lower classes, or that the general adoption of some method urged by a Conference 2
18 TEACHERS MORE HIGHLY TRAINED.
must depend upon the better preparation of teachers in the high schools, model schools, normal schools, or colleges in which they are trained. The experienced principal or superin- tendent in reading the reports will be apt to say to himself, - "This recommendation is sound, but cannot be carried out without teachers who have received a training superior to that of the teachers now at my command." It must be remembered, in connection with these admissions, or expressions of anxiety, that the Conferences were urged by the Committee of Ten to advise the Committee concerning the best possible — almost the ideal — treatment of each subject taught in a secondary school course, without, however, losing sight of the actual condition of American schools, or pushing their recommendations beyond what might reasonably be considered attainable in a moderate number of years. The Committee believe that the Conferences have carried out wisely the desire of the Committee, in that they have recommended improvements, which, though great and seldom to be made at once and simultaneously, are by no means unattainable. The existing agencies for giving instruc- tion to teachers already in service are numerous ; and the normal schools and the colleges are capable of making prompt and successful efforts to supply the better trained and equipped teachers for whom the reports of the Conferences call.
Many recommendations will be found to be made by more' than one Conference. Thus, all the Conferences on foreign languages seem to agree that the introduction of two foreign languages in the same year is inexpedient ; and all of them insist on practice in reading the foreign language aloud, on the use of good English in translating, and on practice in translating the foreign language at sight, and in writing it. Again, all the Conferences on scientific subjects dwell on > laboratory work by the pupils as the best means of instruction, and on the great utility of the genuine laboratory note-book ; and they all protest that teachers of science need at least as thorough a special training as teachers of languages or mathe- matics receive. In reading the reports, many instances will be noticed in which different Conferences have reached similar conclusions without any consultation, or have followed a common line of thought.
LATIN. GREEK. 19
Your Committee now proceed to give summaries of the most important recommendations made by the Conferences as regards topics and methods, reserving the subject of time-allotment. But in so doing, they desire to say that the reading of these summaries should not absolve anyone interested in the general subject from reading with care the entire report of every Con- ference. The several reports are so full of suggestions and recommendations concisely and cogently stated that it is im- possible to present adequate abstracts of them.
1. LATIN.
An important recommendation of the Latin Conference is the recommendation that the study of Latin be introduced into American schools earlier, .than it now is. They recommend that trajiglatianjit sight form a constant and increasing part of the examinations for admission to college and of the work of preparation. They next urge that practice in writing Latin should not be dissociated from practice in rejadinj£_and Vanslat- ing ; but, on the contrary, that the two should be carried on with equal steps. The Conference desire the schools to adopt a greater variety of Latin authors for beginners, and they give good reasons against the exclusive use of Caesar's Gallic War. They object to the common practice of putting the teaching of beginners into the hands of the youngfest teachers, who have the slenderest equipment of knowledge and experience. They dwell on the importance of attending to pronunciation and reading aloud, to fproja, vocabulary, syntax, and order, and to the means of learning to understand the Latin before translating it ; and they describe and urge the importance of a higher ideal in translation than now prevails in secondary schools. The formal recommendations of the Conference, fourteen in number, will be found concisely stated in numbered paragraphs at the close of their report.
2. GREEK.
The Conference on Greek agree with the Conference on Latin in recommending the cultivation of reading at sight in schools, and in recommending that practice in translation into the foreign
20 GREEK. ENGLISH.
language should be continued throughout the school course. They urge that three years be the minimum time for the study of Greek in schools ; provided that Latin be studied four years. They would not have a pupil begin the study of Greek without .a knowledge of the elements of Latin. They recommend the substitution of portions of the Hellenica for two books of the Anabasis in the requirements for admission to college, and the use of some narrative portions of Thwyvdides in schools. They urge that Homer should continue to be studied in all schools which provide instruction in Greek through three years, and they suggest that the Odyssey is to be preferred to the Iliad. They regret "that so few colleges through their admission examinations encourage reading at sight in schools." Like the Latin Conference, the Greek Conference urge that the reading of the text be constantly practiced by both teacher and pupil, " and that teachers require from their pupils no less intelligent reading of the text than accurate translation of the same." The Greek Conference also adopted a vote " to concur with the Latin Conference as to the age at which the study of Latin should be begun." The specific recommenda- tions of the Conference will be found in brief form in the paragraphs at the head of the eleven numbered sections into which their report is divided.
3. ENGLISH.
The Conference on English found it necessary to deal with the study of English in schools below the high school grade as well as in the high school. Their opening recommendations deal with the very first years of school, and one of the most interesting and admirable parts of their report relates to Eng- lish in the primary and the grammar schools.
The Conference, are! of the opinion that English should be pursued in the high school during the entire course of four years ; but in making this recommendation the Conference have in mind both study of literature and training in the expression of thought. To the study of rhetoric they assign one hour a week in the third year of the high school course. To the subject of historical and systematic grammar they assign one hour a week
ENGLISH. 21
in the fourth year of the high school course. The intelligent reader of the report of this Conference will find described in it the means by which the study of English in secondary schools is to be made the equal of any other study in disciplinary or develo_DinoL_pawer-. The Conferencfijcjaim for English as much
-, * ~J A CT
time as the Latin Conference claim for Latin in secondary schools ; and it is clear that they intend that the study shall be in all respects as serious and informing as the study of Latin. One of the most interesting opinions expressed by the Confer- ence is " that the best results in the teaching of English in high schools cannot be secured without the aid given by the study of some other language ; and that Latin and German, by reason of their fuller inflectional system, are especially suited to this end." In the case of high schools, as well as in schools of lower grade, the Conference declare that every teacher, whatever his department, should feel responsible for the use of good English on the part of his pupils. In several passages of this report j the idea recurs that training in (English must go hand in hand | with the study of other subjects.) Thus the Conference hope for the study of the history and geography of the English- speaking people, so far as these illustrate the development of the English language. They mention that "the extent to which the study of the sources of English words can be carried in any school or class will depend on the acquaintance the pupils possess with Latin, French, and German." They say that the study of words should be so pursued as to illus- trate the political, social, intellectual, and religious develop- ment of the English race ; and they urge that the admission of n student to college should be made to depend largely on his ability to write English, as shown in his examination books on other subjects./ It is a fund am ental_ idea in this report that the study of every other subject should contribute, to the pupil's training in English ; and that the pupil's capacity to write English should be made available, and be developed, in every other department. The very specific recommendations of the Conference as to English requirements for admission to colleges and scientific schools are especially wise and valuable.
22 OTHER MODERN LANGUAGES.
4. OTHER MODERN LANGUAGES.
The most novel and striking recommendation made by the Conference on Modern Languages is that an elective course in German or French be provided in the grammar school, the instruction to be open to children at about ten years of age. The Conference made this recommendation "in the firm belief that the educational effects of modern language study will be of immense benefit to all who are able to pursue it under proper guidance." They admit that the study of Latin presents the same advantages ; but living languages seem to them better adapted to grammar school work. The recommendations of this Conference with regard to the number of lessons a week are specific. They even construct a table showing the time which should be devoted to modern languages in each of the last four years of the elementary schools and in each year of the high school. They plead that "all pupils of the same intelligence and the same degree of maturity be instructed alike, no matter whether they are subsequently to enter a college or scientific school, or intend to pursue their studies no further." The Conference also state with great precision what in their judgment may be expected of pupils in German and French at the various stages of their progress. An important passage of the report treats of the best way to facilitate the pro- gress of beginners ; — pupils should be lifted over hard places; frequent reviews are not to be recommended ; new texts stimu- late interest and enlarge the vocabulary. Their recommenda- tions concerning translation into English, reading aloud, habituating the ear to the sounds of the foreign language, and translating into the foreign language, closely resemble the recommendations of the Conferences on Latin, Greek, and English regarding the best methods of instruction in those languages. In regard to college requirements, the Conference
'agree with several other Conferences in stating " that college requirements for admission should coincide with the high school requirements for graduation." Finally, they declare that "the worst obstacle to modern language study is the lack of properly equipped instructors ; and that it is the duty of universities, states, and cities to provide opportunities for the special preparation of modern language teachers."
MATHEMATICS. 23
5. MATHEMATICS.
The form of the report of the Conference on Mathematics differs somewhat from that of the other reports. This report is subdivided under five headings : — 1st, General Conclusions. 2nd, The Teaching of Arithmetic. 3rd, The Teaching of Con- crete Geometry. 4th, The Teaching of Algebra. 5th, The Teaching of Formal or Demonstrative Geometry.
The first general conclusion of the Conference was arrived at unanimously. The Conference consisted of one government official and university professor, five professors of mathematics in as many colleges, one principal of a high school, two teachers of mathematics in endowed schools, and one proprietor of a private school for boys. . The professional experience of these gentlemen and their several fields of work were various, and they came from widely separated parts of the country ; yet they were unanimously of opinion "that a radical change in the teaching of arithmetic was necessary." They recommend "that the course in arithmetic be at once abridged and enriched ; abridged by omitting entirely those subjects which perplex and exhaust the pupil without affording any really valuable jmental discipline, and enriched by a greater number of exercises in simple calculation, and in the solution of concrete problems. " They specify in detail the subjects which they think should be curtailed, or entirely omitted ; and they give in their special report on the teaching of arithmetic a full statement of the reasons on which their conclusion is based. They map out a course in arithmetic which, in their judgment, should begin about the age of six years, and be completed at about the thirteenth year of age.
The Conference next recommend that a course of instruction in concrete geometry with numerous exercises be introduced into the grammar schools ; and that this instruction should, / during the earlier years, be given in connection with drawing./ | They recommend that the study of systematic algebra should be begun at the age of fourteen ; but that, in connection with / the study of arithmetic, the pupils should earlier be made familiar with algebraic expressions and symbols, including . the method of solving simple equations. "The Conference
24 GEOMETHY. ALGEBRA.
believe that the study of demonstrative geometry should begin at the end of the first year's study of algebra, and be carried on by the side of algebra for the next two years, occupying about two hours and a half a week." They are also of opinion "that if the introductory course in concrete geometry has been well taught, both plane and solid geometry can be mastered at this time." Most of the improvements in teaching arithmetic which the Conference suggest "can be summed up under the two heads of giving the teaching a more concrete form, and paying more attention to facility and correctness in work. The con- crete system should not be confined to principles, but be extended to practical applications in measuring and in physics."
In regard to the teaching of concrete geometry, the Confer- ence urge that while the student's geometrical education should begin in the kindergarten, or at the latest in the primary school, systematic instruction in concrete or experimental geometry should begin at about the age of ten for the average student, and should occupy about one school hour a week for at least three years. From the outset of this course, the pupil should be required to express himself verbally as well as by drawing and modelling. He should learn to estimate by the eye, and to measure with some degree of accuracy, lengths, angular magnitudes, and areas ; to make accurate plans from his own measurements and estimates ; and to make models of simple geometrical solids. The whole work in concrete geometry will connect itself on the one side with the work in arithmetic, and on the other with elementary instruction in physics. With the study of arithmetic is therefore to be intimately associated the study of algebraic signs and forms, of concrete geometry, and of elementary physics. Here is a striking instance of the inter- lacing of subjects which seems so desirable to every one of the nine Conferences.
Under the head of teaching algebra, the Conference set forth in detail the method of familiarizing the pupil with the use of algebraic language during the study of arithmetic. This part of the report also deals clearly with the question of the time required for the thorough mastery of algebra through quadratic equations. The report on the teaching of demonstrative geom- etry is a clear and concise statement of the best method of
PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND ASTRONOMY. 25
teaching this subject. It insists on the importance of elegance and finish in geometrical demonstration, for the reason that the discipline for which geometrical demonstration is to be chiefly prized is a discipline in complete, exact, and logical statement. If slovenliness of expression, or awkwardness of form, is toler- ated, this admirable discipline is lost. The Conference therefore recommend an abundance of oral exercises in geometry — for which there is no proper substitute — and the rejection of all demonstrations which are not exact and formally perfect. Indeed throughout all the teaching of mathematics the Con- ference deem it important that great stress be laid by the teacher on accuracy of statement and elegance of form as well as on clear and rigorous reasoning. Another very important recommendation in this part of the report is to be found in the following passage, — "As soon as the student has acquired the art of rigorous demonstration, his work should cease to be merely receptive. He should begin to devise constructions and demonstrations for himself. Geometry cannot be mastered by reading the demonstrations of a text-book ; and while there is no branch of elementary mathematics in which purely recep- tive work, if continued too long, may lose its interest more completely, there is also none in which independent work can be made more attractive and stimulating." These observations are entirely in accordance with the recent practice of some colleges in setting admission examination papers in geometry which demand of the candidates some capacity to solve new problems, or rather to make new application of familiar principles.
6. PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND ASTRONOMY.
The Conference on this subject were urgent that the study of simple natural phenomena be introduced into elementary schools ; and it was tho sense of the Conference that at least one period a day from the fir^st year of the primary school should be given to such study. Apparently the Conference entertained the opinion that the present teachers in elementary schools are ill prepared to teach children how to observe simple natural phenomena ; for their second recommendation was that special science teachers or superintendents be appointed to
26 LABORATORY TEACHING.
instruct J;he teachers of elementary schools in the methods of teaching natural phenomena. The Conference was clearly of opinion that from the beginning this study should be pursued by the pupil chiefly, though not exclusively, by means of experimeiits and by practice in the use of simple instruments for making physical measurements. The report dwells re- peatedly on the importance of the study of things and phenom- ena by direct^contact. It emphasizes the necessity of a large proportion of laboratory work in the study of physics and chemistry, and advocates the keeping of laboratory note-books by the pupils, and the use of such note-books as part of the test for admission to college. At the same time the report points out that laboratory work must be conjoined with the study of a text^bopk and with attendance at lectures or demon- strations ; and that intelligent direction by a good teacher is as necessary in a laboratory as it is in the ordinary recitation or lecture room. The great utility of the laboratory note-book is emphatically stated. To the objection that the kind of instruction described requires (much time and eifort on the part of the teacher) the Conference reply that to give good instruc- tion in the sciences requires of the teacher more work than to give good instruction in mathematics or the languages ; and that the sooner this fact is recognized by those who have the management of schools the better for all concerned. The science teacher must regularly spend much time in collecting materials, preparing experiments, and keeping collections in order ; and this indispensable labor should be allowed for in . programmes and salaries. As regards the means of testing the progress of the pupils in physics and chemistry, the Conference were unanimously of opinion that a laboratory examination should always be combined with an oral or written examination, neither test taken singly being sufficient. There was a difference of opinion in the Conference on the question whether physics should precede chemistry, or chemistry physics. vThe logical order would place physics first ; but all the members of the Conference but one advised that chemistry be put first for practical reasons which are stated in the majority reportS> A sub-committee of the Conference has prepared lists of experiments in physics and chemistry for the use of second-
NATURAL HISTORY. 27
ary schools, — not, of course, as a prescription, but only as a suggestion, and a somewhat precise indication of the topics which the Conference had in mind, and of the limits of the instruction.
7. NATURAL HISTORY.
The Conference on Natural History unanimously agreed that the study of botany and zoology ought to be introduced into the primary schools at the very beginning of the school course, and be pursued steadily, with not less than two periods a week, throughout the whole course below the high school. In the next place they agreed that in these early lessons in natural science no text-book should be used ; but that the study should constantly be associated with the study of literature, lan- guage, and drawing. It was their opinion that the study of physiology should be postponed to the later years of the high school course ; but that in the high school, some branch of natural history proper should be pursued every day throughout at least one year. Like the report on Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy, the report on Natural History emphasizes tjie absolute necessity of 1 aboratory work by the pupils on plants and animals ; and would have careful drawing insisted on from the beginning of the instruction. As the laboratory note-book is recommended by the Conference on Physics, so the Confer- ence on Natural History recommends that the pupils should be made to express themselves clearly and exactly in words, or by drawings, in describing the objects which they observe ; and they believe that this practice will be found a valuable aid in training the pupils in the art of expression. They agree with the Conference on Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy that science examinations should include both a written and a laboratory test, and that the laboratory note-books of the pupils should be produced at the examination. The recom- mendations of this Conference are therefore very similar to those of the sixth Conference, so far as methods go ; but there are appended to the general report of the Conference on Natural History sub-reports which describe the proper topics, the best order of topics, and the right methods of instruction in botany for schools below the high school, and for the high
28 HISTORY AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT.
school itself, and in zoology for the secondary schools. Inasmuch as both the subject matter and the methods of instruction in natural history are much less familiar to ordinary school teachers than the matter and the methods in the lan- guages and mathematics, the Conference believed that descrip- tive details were necessary in order to give a clear view of the intentions of the Conference. In another sub-report the Conference give their reasons for recommending the postpone- ment to the latest possible time of the study of physiology and hygiene. Like the sixth Conference, the Conference on Natural History protest that no person should be regarded as qualified to teach natural science who has not had special training for this work, — a preparation at least as thorough as that of their fellow teachers of mathematics and the languages.
8. HISTORY, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY.
The Conference on History, Civil Government, and Political Economy had a task different in some respects from those of other Conferences. It is now-a-days admitted that language, natural science, and mathematics should each make a substan- tial part of education ; but the function of history in education is still very imperfectly apprehended. Accordingly, the eighth Conference were at pains to declare their conception of the object of studying history and civil government in schools, and their belief in the efficiency of these studies in training the judgment, and in preparing children for intellectual enjoyments in after years, and for the exercise at maturity of a salutary /influence upon national affairs. They believed that the time \l devoted in schools to history and the allied subjects should be materially increased ; and they have therefore presented argu- ments in favor of that increase. At the same time, they state strongly their conviction that they have recommended " nothing that was not already being done in some good schools, and that might not reasonably be attained wherever there is an efficient system of graded schools." This Conference state quite as strongly as any other their desire to associate the study of their particular subject with that of other subjects which enter into every school programme. They declare that the teaching of
HISTORY WITH ENGLISH AND GEOGRAPHY. 29
history should be intimately connected with the teaching of ' English ; that pupils should be encouraged to avail themselves of their knowledge of ancient and modern languages ; and that their study of history should be associated with the study of topography and political geography, and should be supple- mented by the study of historical and commercial geography, and the drawing of historical maps. They desire that historical works should be used for reading in schools, and that subjects of English composition should be drawn from the lessons in history. They would have historical poems committed to memory, and the reading of biographies and historical novels encouraged. While they are of opinion that political economy should not be taught in secondary schools, they urge that, in connection with United States history, ci \dJLgov_ernment, and commerciaTgeography, instruction should be given in the most important economic topics. The Conference would therefore have the instruction in history made contributory- to the work in three other school departments, namely, English, geography, and drawing. The subject of civil government they would associate with both history apd geography. They would intro- duce it into the grammar school by means of oraHessons, and into the high school by means of a text-book with collateral reading and oral lessons. In the high school they believe that the study of civil government may be made comparative, — that is, that the American method may be compared with foreign systems.
Although the Conference was made up of very diverse elements, every member of the Conference was heartily in favor of every vote adopted. This remarkable unanimity was not obtained by the silence of dissentients, or the withdrawal of opposition on disputed points. It was the natural result of the strong conviction of all the members, that history, when taught by the methods advocated in their report, deserves a position in school programmes which would give it equal dignity and importance with any of the most favored subjects, and that the advantages for all children of the rational study of history ought to be diffused as widely as possible. On one point they made a clearer declaration than any other Con- ference ; although several other Conferences indicate similar
30 TIME TO BE GIVEN TO HISTORY.
opinions. They declared that their interest was chiefly " in the school children who have no expectation of going to college, the larger number of whom will not even enter a high school," and that their " recommendations are in no way directed to building up the colleges, or increasing the number of college students." Like every other Conference, they felt anxious about the qualifications of the teachers who are to be entrusted with the teaching of history, and they urged that only teachers who have had adequate special training should be employed to teach history and civil government. In their specific recommendations they strongly urge that the historical course be made continuous from year to year, and extend through eight years, and in this respect be placed upon the same footing with other substantial subjects.
The answers of this Conference to the questions contained in the memorandum sent to the Conferences by the Committee of Ten were specific and clear. They will be found in an appendix to the report of the Conference.
In regard to the time to be devoted to history in school programmes, this Conference ask for not less than three periods a week throughout a course of eight years ; and they surest that some of this time can be found by contracting; the
OO «/ O
course in arithmetic, and using for history a part of the time now given to political geography and to language study. Of these eight years they suggest that four should be in the high school and four in the grammar school. They " especially recommend such a choice of subjects as will give pupils in the grammar schools an opportunity of studying the history of other countries, and to the high schools one year's study on the intensive method."
A large portion of the report is necessarily taken up with the description of what the Conference consider the most suitable historical topics and the best methods of teaching history. This portion of the report does not admit of any useful presentation in outline ; it must be read in full.
With regard to examinations in history for admission to college, the Conference protest "against the present lax and inefficient system," and seem to sum up their own desires on this subject in the statement that "the requirements for college
GEOGRAPHY. 31
ought to be so framed that the methods of teaching best adapted to meet them will also be best for all pupils."
Like the Conferences on scientific subjects the Conference on History insist on note-books, abstracts, special reports, and other written work, as desirable means of teaching. If the recommendations of the nine Conferences should be carried out in grammar and high schools, there would certainly be at least one written exercise a day for every pupil, — a result which persons interested in training children to write English deem it important to accomplish.
The observations of the Conference on geographical training in connection with history are interesting and suggestive, as are also the recurring remarks on the need of proper apparatus for teaching history, such as maps, reference-libraries, histori- cal pictures, and photographs. It is not the natural sciences alone which need school apparatus.
9. GEOGRAPHY.
Considering that geography has been a subject of recognized"? value in elementary schools for many generations, and that a considerable portion of the whole school time of children has long been devoted to a studyjcalled by this name, it is soni what startling to find that the report of the Conference on Geography deals with more novelties than any other report \) exhibits more dissatisfaction with prevailing methods; and\ makes, on the whole, the most revolutionary suggestions. ) I This Conference had but nine members present at its sessions ; ~ and before the final revision of its report had been accomplished, one of the most valued of its members died. Seven members sign the majority report, and the minority report is presented by one member. The dissenting member, however, while protesting against the views of the majority on many points, concurs with the majority in some of the most important conclusions arrived at by the Conference.
It is obvious on even a cursory reading of the majority and , / minority reports that geography means for all the members of this Conference something entirely different from the term I geography as generally used in school programmes. Their definition of the word makes it embrace not only a description
32 COMPREHENSIVENESS OF GEOGRAPHY.
of the surface of the earth, but also the elements of botany, zoology, astronomy, and meteorology, as well as many con- siderations pertaining to commerce, government, and ethnology, he physical environment of man " expresses as well as any single phrase can the Conference's conception of the principal ubject which they wish to have taught. No one can read the reports without perceiving that the advanced instruction in geography which the Conference conceive to be desirable and feasible in high, .schools cannot be given until the pupils have mastered many of the elementary facts of botany, zoology, V geometry, and physics. It is noteworthy also that this ninth Conference, like the seventh, dealt avowedly and unreservedly with the whole range of instruction in primary and secondary schools. They did not pretend to treat chiefly instruction in secondary schools, and incidentally instruction in the lower 4 schools ; but, on the contrary, grasped at once the whole prob- lem, and described the topics, methods, and apparatus appropri- ate to the entire course of twelve years. They recognized that complete descriptions would be necessary in all three branches of the subject, — topics, methods, and equipment; and they have given these descriptions with an amplitude and force which leave little to be desired. More distinctly than any other Conference, they recognized that they were presenting an ideal course which could not be carried into effect everywhere or immediately. Indeed at several points they frankly state that the means of carrying out their recommendations are not at present readily accessible ; and they exhibit the same anxiety which is felt by several other Conferences about training teachers for the kind of work which the Conference believe to be desirable. After the full and interesting descriptions of the relations and divisions of geographical science, as the Confer- ence define it, the most important sections of their report relate to the methods and means of presenting the subject in schools, and to the right order in developing it. The methods which they advocate require not only better equipped teachers, but better means of illustrating geographical facts in the school- room, such as charts, maps, globes, photographs, models, lantern slides, and lanterns. Like all the other Conferences on scientific subjects, the ninth Conference dwell on the im-
METEOROLOGY. ,13
, //
portance of forming from the start good habits of observing •/ correctly and stating accurately the facts observed. They also\|'l wish that the instruction in geography may be connected with /* the instruction in drawing, history, and English. They believe / that meteorology may be taught as an observational study in the earliest years of the grammar school, the scholars being even then made familiar with the use of the thermometer, the wind-vane, and the rain-gauge ; and that it may be carried much farther in the high school years, after physics has been studied, so that the pupils may then attain a general understanding of topographical maps, of pressure and wind charts, of iso- thermal charts, and of such complicated subjects as weather prediction, rainfall and the distribution of rain, storms, and the seasonal variations of the atmosphere. ^Their conception of physiography is a very comprehensive one. In short, they""T recommend a study of physical geography which would em- brace in its scope the elements of half-a-dozen natural sciences, and would bind together in one sheaf the various gleanings which the pupils would have gathered from widely separated fields. There can be no doubt that the study would be interest- ing, informing, and developing, or that it would be difficult I and in every sense substantial.
It already appears that the nine Conferences have attended carefully to three out of the five subjects which it was the intention of the National Council of Education that they should examine. They have discussed fully the proper limits of the several subjects of instruction in secondary schools, the best methods of instruction, and the best methods of testing pupils' attainments. The Conferences were equally faithful in dis- cussing the other two subjects committed to them by the Council, namely, the most desirable allotment of time for each subject, and the requirements for admission to college.
The next subject which the Committee of Ten, following the guidance of the Conferences, desire to present to the Council is, therefore, the allotment of school time among the various subjects of stuHy! It is the obvious duty of the Committee, in the first place, to group together in tabular form the numer- ous suggestions on this subject made by the Conferences. 3
TIME DEMANDS OF THE CONFERENCES.
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36 PROPER SECONDARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS.
Having exhibited the programme-time suggestions of the Con- ferences, it will remain for the Committee to construct a flexible and comprehensive schedule of studies, based on the recommendations of the Conferences.
The preceding table exhibits the demands for programme time made by all the Conferences. It will be seen at once that this table does not yield, without modification, a practical programme. The nine Conferences acted separately, and were, studying each its own needs, and not the comparative needs of all the subjects. It was not for them to balance the different interests, but for each to present strongly one interest. It will further be noticed that some of their demands are not specific, — that is, they do not call for any specified number of recitation periods for a definite number of weeks during a stat^JtHiumber of years. The Conferences on Languages and History are the most definite in their recommendations, the Conferences on Mathematics and the Sciences being much less definite. Table I. is therefore not a programme, but the materials from which serviceable programmes may be constructed.
The Committee of Ten deliberately placed in this one table the recommendations of the Conferences for the elementary grades and the recommendations for secondary schools, in order that the sequence of the recommendations for each subject might be clearly brought out. The recommendations made for the secondary schools presuppose in many cases that the recom- mendations made for the elementary schools haVe been ful- filled ; or, at least, in many cases the Conferences would have made different recommendations for the secondary schools, if they had been compelled to act on the assumption that things must remain just as they are in the elementary schools.
At this point it is well to call attention to the list of subjects which the Conferences deal with as proper for secondary schools. They are: 1. languages — Latin, Greek, English, German, and French, (and locally Spanish) ; '2. mathematics — algebra, geometry, and trigonometry; 3. general history, and the intensive study of special epochs; 4. natural history — in- cluding descriptive astronomy, meteorology, botany, zoology, physiology, geology, and ethnology, most of which subjects may be conveniently grouped under the title of physical
TOTAL INSTRUCTION RECOMMENDED.
37
geography; and 5. physics and chemistry. The Committee of Ten assent to this list, both for what it includes and for what it excludes, with some practical qualifications to be mentioned below.
Table II. exhibits the totyl amount of instruction (estimated by the number of weekly periods assigned to each subject) to be given in a secondary school during each year of a four years' course, on the supposition that the recommendations of the Conferences are all carried out.
TABLE II.
IST SECONDARY SCHOOL YEAR.
Latin 5 p.
English Literature, 3 p. ) " Composition, 2 p. >
German or French ........ 4 p.
Algebra op.
History 3 p.
22 p.
2ND SECONDARY SCHOOL YEAR.
Latin 5 p.
Greek 5 p.
English Literature, 3 p. )
" Composition, 2 p. > German 4
5 p.
French ........... 4
Algebra,* 2* p. I -
Geometry, 2$ p. >
Astronomy (12 weeks) ..... 5
p.—
Botany or Zoology
5 p.
History . .......... 3 p.
* Option of book-keeping and commercial arithmetic.
SRD SECONDARY SCHOOL YEAR.
Latin 5
Greek 4
English Literature, 3 p.
5 p.
" Composition, 1 p. Rhetoric, 1 p.
German 4 p
French 4 p
Algebra* 2\ p
Geometry 2} p
Chemistry 5 p
History 3 p
35 p.
* Option of book-keeping and commercial arithmetic.
4TH SECONDARY SCHOOL YEAR.
Latin 5 p.
Greek 4 p.
English Literature, 3 p. ^
" Composition, 1 p. j ... 5 p.
" Grammar, 1 p.^
German 4 p.
French 4 p.
Trigonometry, 2 p. £ yr. ) 2
Higher Algebra, 2 p. } yr. )
Physics 5 p.
Anatomy, Physiology, and Hy- giene, £ yr 5 p.
History 3 p.
Geol. or Physiography, 3 p. % yr. Meteorology, 3 p. £ yr.
3 p.
38 NUMBER OF WEEKLY RECITATION PERIODS.
The method of estimating the amount of instruction offered in any subject by the number of recitation periods assigned to it each week for a given number of years or half years is in some respects an inadequate one, for it takes no account of the scope and intensity of the instruction given during the periods ; but so far as it goes, it is trustworthy and in- structive. It represents with tolerable accuracy the propor- tional expenditure which a school is making on a given subject, and therefore the proportional importance which the school attaches to that subject. It also represents roughly the proportion of the pupil's entire school time which he can devote to a given subject, provided he is free to take all the instruction offered in that subject. All experience shows] that subjects deemed important get a large number of weekly! periods, while those deemed unimportant get a small number.! Moreover, if the programme time assigned to a given subject be insufficient, the value of that subject as training cannot be got., no matter how good the quality of the instruction.
Every one of these years, except the first, contains much more instruction than any one pupil can follow; but, looking at the bearing of the table on the important question of educa- tional expenditure, it is encouraging to observe that there are already many secondary schools in this country in which quite as many subjects are taught as are mentioned in this table, and in which there are more weekly periods of instruc- tion provided for separate classes than are found in any year of the table. In some urban high schools which provide from five to nine different courses of three to five years each, and in some endowed secondary schools which maintain two or „• three separate courses called Classical, Latin-scientific, and English, or designated by similar titles, the total number of weekly periods of unrepeated instruction given to distinct classes is even now larger than the largest total of weekly periods found in Table II. The annual expenditure in such schools is sufficient to provide all the instruction called for by Table II. The suggestions of the Conferences presuppose that L all the pupils of like intelligence and maturity in any subject study it in the same way and to the same extent, so long as they study it at all, — this being a point on which all the
ONE QUARTER OF SCHOOL TIME FOR SCIENCE. 39
Conferences insist strongly. No provision is made, therefore, for teaching Latin, or algebra, or history to one portion of a class four times a week, and to another portion of the same class only thrice or twice a week. Such provisions are very common in American schools; but the recommendations of the Conferences, if put into effect, would do away with all expend- itures of this sort.
It clearly appears from Table II. that the recommendations of the Conferences on scientific subjects have been moderate so far as the proposed allotment of time to them is concerned. The Conferences on Physics, Chemistry and Astronomy, Natural History, and Geography held one combined session in Chicago, and passed a resolution that one-fourth of the whole high school course ought to be devoted to natural science, their intention doubtless being that each pupil should devote one quarter of his time to science ; yet if all the time asked for in secondary schools by the scientific Conferences be added together, it will appear, first, that the rare pupil who should take all the scientific instruction provided would need for it only one quarter of his time, and secondly, that less than one-sixth of the whole instruction to be given in accordance with the combined recommendations of all the Conferences is devoted to subjects of natural science. The first year of the secondary school course according to Table II. will contain no science at all ; and it is only in the last year of the secondary school that the proportion of natural science teaching rises to one-fourth of the whole instruction.
In studying these two tables which result from the recom- mendations of the Conferences, the Committee of Ten perceived at once, that if the recommendations are to be carried out, so far as offering the instruction proposed is concerned, a selectionV of studies for the individual pupil must be made in the second, I third, and fourth years of the secondary school course. This selection will obviously be made in different ways in different schools. Any school principal may say, — "With the staff at my command I can teach only five subjects out of those proposed by the Conferences in the manner proposed. My school shall therefore be limited to these five." Another school may be able to teach in the thorough manner proposed five subjects, but
40 AN ADJUSTMENT OF THE TIME DEMANDS.
some or all of these five may be different from those Delected by the first school. A larger or richer school may be able to teach all the subjects mentioned, and by the methods and with the apparatus described. In the last case, each pupil, under the supervision of the teachers, and with the advice of parents or friends, may make choice between several different four-years' courses arranged by the school ; or, if the school authorities prefer, the pupil may be allowed to make year by year a care- fully guided choice among a limited number of subjects ; or these two methods may be combined. Selection for the indi- vidual is necessary to thoroughness, and to the imparting of po_w_e_r as distinguished from information ; for any large subject whatever, to yield its training value, must be pursued through several years and be studied from three to five times a week, and if each subject studied is thus to claim a considerable fraction of the pupil's school time, then clearly the individual pupil can give attention to only a moderate number of subjects.
In Table II. the number of weekly periods assigned to a single subject varies from two to five, about half of the assignments being made for five periods a week. There is an obvious con- venience in the number five because it ordinarily gives one period a day for five days in the week ; but there is also an obvious disadvantage in making too free use of th6 number five. It practically limits to three or, at most, four, the number of subjects which the individual pupil may pursue simultaneously ; and this limit is inexpedient in a four years' programme.
The Committee have therefore prepared the following modi- fication of Table II., using four as the standard number of weekly periods, except in the first year of a new language, and in the few cases in which the Conferences advise a number smaller than four. By this means the total number of periods is some- what reduced, except in the first year, and the numbers of periods allotted to different subjects are made more consonant, each with the others. The result is only a correlation and adjustment of the recommendations of the Conferences, no judg- ment or recommendation of the Committee being expressed in it.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE CONFERENCES MODIFIED. 41
TABLE III. ^
IST SECONDARY SCHOOL YEAR.
^atin 5 p.
English Literature, 2p.' ) " Composition, 2 p. 4
Jerman [or French] 5 p.
v^Clgebra 4 p.
listory of Italy, Spain, and France 3 ^p. Applied Geography (European po- litical— continental and oceanic flora and fauna) 4 p.
3RD SECONDARY SCHOOL YEAR.
,atin
Greek '
English Literature, 2 p. ' Composition, 1 p-
Ihetoric, 1 p. German 4 p
Trench 4 p
Algebra,* 2 p. ) Geometry, 2 p. ' Physics .........
History, English and American Astronomy, 3 p. 1st 5 yr. ) Meteorology, 3 p. 2nd \ yr. >
4 p.
4 p.
4 p. 3 p.
3 p.
34 p.
* Option of book-keeping and commer- cial arithmetic.
2ND SECONDARY SCHOOL YEAR.
Latin 4 p
Greek 5
English Literature, 2 p. )
" Composition, 2 p J ... 4
German, continued 4
^French, begun 5
i Algebra,* 2 p. )
Geometry, 2 p. >
^ Botany or Zoology 4 p.
- English History to 1688 3 p.
p. p.
p. p.
4 p.
33 p.
* Option of book-keeping and commer- cial arithmetic.
4TH SECONDARY SCHOOL YEAR.
Latin
Greek
English Literature, 2 p. " Composition, 1 p. " Grammar, 1 p.
German
French ,
Trigonometry, )
Higher Algebra, >
Chemistry
History (intensive) and Civil Govern- ment
Geology or Physiography, 4 p. 1st 2 yr,
Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, 4 p. 2nd \ yr.
4 p. 4 p.
4 p.
4 p. 4 p.
2 p. 4 p.
3 p.
^
33 p.
adoption of the number four as the standard number of weekly periods will not make it impossible to carry into effect the fundamental conception of all the Conferences, namely, — that all the subjects which make part of the secondary school course should be taught consecutively enough and extensively enough to make every subject yield that training which it is best fitted to yield, — provided that the proposed corre- lation and association of subjects are carried out in practice. With regard to the arrangement or sequence of subjects, the Committee follow in this table the recommendations of the Conferences with only slight modifications. They insert in the first year applied geography, using the term in the sense in which it is used by the Conference on Geography ; and they
42 THE SOURCE OF VARIOUS PROGRAMMES.
make this insertion in order that natural science may be repre- sented in the programme of that year, and that a complete break of continuity, as regards science subjects, between the eighth grade and the second year of the secondary school may be avoided. They have felt obliged to put physics into the third year, and chemistry into the fourth, in order that the subject of physics may precede meteorology and physiography ; and they have slightly increased the number of lessons in astronomy. With regard to the proportions of school time to be devoted to the different subjects, Table III. reduces somewhat the propor- /tional time devoted to Latin, English, and mathematics, and ^ increases the proportional time to be devoted to natural science. In a secondary school which teaches all the subjects recom- mended by the Conferences, and to the extent contemplated in Table III., nearly one-fifth of the whole instruction given will be devoted to natural science.
The Committee regard Table III. not, of course, as a feasible programme, but as the possible source of a great variety of good secondary school programmes. It would be difficult to make a bad programme out of the materials contained in this table, unless indeed the fundamental principles advocated by the Conferences should be neglected. With some reference to Table I., excellent six years' and five years' programmes for secondary schools can readily be constructed by spreading the subjects contained in Table III. over six or five years instead of four, — of course with some changes in the time-allotment.
The details of the time-allotment for the several studies which enter into the secondary school programme m#y seem to some persons mechanical, or even trivial — a technical matter to be dealt with by each superintendent of schools, or by each principal of a secondary school, acting on his own individual experience and judgment ; but such is not the opinion of the Conimittee of Ten. The Committee believe that to establish t proportions between the several subjects, or groups of Hied subjects, on which the Conferences were held, it is essential that^each principal subject shall be taught thoroughly and extensively, and therefore for an adequate number of periods a week on the school programme^ If twice as much time is given in a school to Latin ^s is given .to mathematics,
c
•\
ADEQUATE TIME ALLOTMENTS 43
the attainments of the pupils in Latin ought to be twice as great as they are in mathematics, provided that equally good work is done in the two subjects ; and Latin will have twice the educational value of mathematics. Again, if in a secondary school Latin is steadily pursued for four years with four or five hours a week devoted to it, that subject will be worth more to the pupil than the sum of half a dozen other subjects, each of which has one sixth of the time allotted to Latin. The good effects of continuous study in one subject will be won for the pupil through the Latin, and they wilFnot be won through the six other subjects among which only so much time as is devoted to the single language has been divided. If every subject studied at all is to be studied thoroughly and consecu tively, every subject must receive an adequate time-allotment If every subject is to provide a substantial mental training, it must have a time-allotment sufficient to produce that fruit^ Finally, since selection must be exercised by or on behalf of the individual pupil, all the subjects between which choice is allowed should be approximately equivalent to each other in seriousness, dignity, and efficacy. Therefore they should have approxi-^ mately equal time-allotments. The Conferences have abun- dantly shown how every subject which they recommend can made a serious subject of instruction, well fitted to train il's powers of observation, expression, and reasiWH-ng. It remains for makers of school programmes to give every subject the chance of developing a good training capacity by giving it an adequate time-allotment.
The schedule of studies contained in Table III. permits flexi- ' i bility and variety in three respects. First, it is not necessary that any school should teach all the subjects which it contains, or any particular set of subjects, Secondly, it is not necessary that the individual pupil should everywhere and always have the same number of periods of instruction per week. In one school the pupils might have but sixteen periods a week, in another twenty ; or in some years of the course the pupils might have . more periods a week than in other years. Within the schedule many particular arrangements for the convenience of a school, or for the welfare of an individual pupil would be possible. Thirdly, it is not necessary that every secondary school should
44 SPECIMEN PROGRAMMES.
begin its work at the level which is assumed as the starting point of secondary instruction in Tables I., II., and III. If in any community the high school has no such grammar school found- ation beneath it as is imagined in Table I. it will simply have to begin its work lower down in the table. The sequence of studies recommended by the Conferences would still serve as a guide ; but the demarcation between the elementary schools and the high school would occur in that community at a lower point. From this point of view, Tables I., II., and III. may be consid- ered to set a standard towards which secondary schools should iend ; and not a standard to which they can at once conform.
The adoption of a programme based on Table III. would not necessarily change at all the relation of a school to the colleges or universities to which it habitually sends pupils. Any such programme would lend itself either to the examination method of admission to college, or to the certificate method ; and it could be slightly modified in such a way as to meet the present admission requirements of any college in the country. Future changes in admission requirements might fairly be made with a view to the capabilities of programmes based on Table III.
As samples of school programmes constructed within the schedules of Table III., the Committee present the following- working programmes, whic}i they recommend for trial wherever the secondary school period is limited to four years. All four combined might, of course, be tabulated as one programme with options by subject.
These four programmes taken together use all the subjects mentioned in Table III., and usually, but not always, to about the amounts there indicated. History and English suffer serious contraction in the Classical programme. All four programmes conform to the general recommendations of the Conferences, that is, — they treat each subject in the same way for all pupils with trifling exceptions; they give time enough to each subject to win from it the kind of mental training it is fitted to supply ; they put the different principal subjects on an approximate equality so far as time-allotment is concerned; they omit all short information courses ; and they make sufficiently continuous the instruction in each of the main
PROLONGING THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PERIOD. 45
/ X
lines, namely, | language, science, history and mathematics, i
With slight modifications, they would prepare the pupils for admission to appropriate courses in any American college or university on the existing requirements ; and they would also meet the new college requirements which are suggested below. \
In preparing these programmes, the Committee were perfectly \ aware that it is impossible to make a satisfactory secondary I school programme, limited to a period of four years, and founded on the present elementary school subjects and methods. I/ In the opinion of the Committee, several subjects now reserved for high schools, -/such as algebra, geometry, natural science, and foreign languages, — should be begun earlier than now^ and therefore within the schools classified as elementary ; or, as an alternative, N^he secondary school period should be made to begin two years earliej^than at present, leaving six years instead of eight for the elementary school period. Under the present organization, \elenientary subjects and elementary methods are, in the judgment of the Committee, kept in use too lona>
The most striking differences in the four programmes will be found, as is intimated in the headings, in the relative amounts of time given to foreign languages. In the Classical pro- gramme the foreign languages get a large share of time; in the English programme a small share. In compensation, English and history are more developed in the English programme than in the Classical.
Many teachers will say, at first sight, that physics comes too early in these programmes and Greek too late. One member of the Committee is firmly of the opinion that Greek comes too late. The explanation of the positions assigned to these sub- jects is that the Committee of Ten attached great importance to two general principles in programme making: — In the first place they endeavored to postpone till the third year the grave choice between the Classical course and the Latin-Scientific. They believed that this bifurcation should occur as late as pos- sible, since the choice between these two roads often determines for life the youth's career. Moreover, they believed that it is pos- sible to make this important decision for a boy on good grounds, only when he has had opportunity to exhibit his quality and
POSTPONING BIFURCATION.
discover his tastes by making excursions into all the principal fields of knowledge. The youth who has never studied any but his native language cannot know his own capacity for linguistic acquisition ; and the youth who has never made a chemical or physical experiment cannot know whether or not /\ V
TABLE IV.
(A
|
W 3 £ |
CLASSICAL. Three foreign languages (one modern). |
LATIN-SCIENTIFIC. Two foreign languages (one modern). |
||
|
, I. |
Latin |
5'p |
5 p. 4 p. 4 p. 4 p. 3 p. 20 p. |
|
|
English |
4 V*' |
|||
|
. 4 p. |
||||
|
History |
4 p' |
|||
|
Physical G-eotrraohv |
. 3 P |
|||
|
20 p. |
||||
|
II. |
5 p. |
|||
|
English . « |
English .... |
|||
|
*G<Mu«an [or French] begun . . Geometry |
. 3 p. . 3 p. |
German [or French] begun .... |
4.p. 3 p. 3 p. 3 p. 20 p. |
|
|
History |
. 3 p. 20 p. |
Botany or Zoology |
||
|
III. |
fsn |
Latin ... |
4 p. 3 p. 4 p. 4 p. 3 p. 2 p. 20 p. |
|
|
*<iiiuaL |
English |
|||
|
English |
. 3 IX- |
German [or French] Mathematics j Algebra 2 j 1 Geometry 2 > Astronomy ^ yr. & Meteorology ^ yr. History |
||
|
Ig^^ma^ | Algebra 2 ) |
. 4 p. 20 p. |
|||
|
i Geometry 2 > |
||||
|
IV. |
. 4 p. |
Latin |
4 p. .4 p. 3 p. 8 p. 3 p. J3p. 20 p. |
|
|
. & p. |
English \ ils in C1:lssi(';l1 2 ' i additional 2 ? |
|||
|
3 P |
||||
|
Tugottometry & Higher Algebra \ or History |
. 3 p. 20 p. |
Trigonometry & Higher Algebra \ or Histoiy ) Geology or Physiography | yr. and Anatomy, Physiology, &Hygiene |yr. |
* In any school in which Greek can be better taught than a modern language, or in which local public opinion or the history of the school makes it desirable to teach Greek in an ample way, Greek may be substituted for German or French in the second year of the Classical programme.
REPRESENTATIVE SUBJECTS IN THE FIRST TWO YEARS. 47
he has a taste for exact science. The wisest teacher, or the most observant parent, can hardly predict with confidence a boy's gift for a subject which he has never touched. In these considerations the Committee found strong reasons for post- poning bifurcation, and making the subjects of the first two
TABLE IV. (continued).
MODERN LANGUAGES. Two foreign languages (both modern).
French [or German] begun .... 5 p.
English 4 p.
Algebra 4 p.
History 4 p.
Physical Geography 3 p.
20 p.
ENGLISH. One foreign language (ancient or modern).
Latin, or German, or French
English
Algebra
History
. 5 p.
. 4 p.
, 4 p.
. 4 p.
Physical Geography 3 p.
20 p.
II.
French [or German] 4 p.
English 2 p.
German [or French] begun . . . . 5 p.
Geometry 3 p.
Physics 3 p.
Botany or Zoology 3 p.
20 p.
Latin,' or German, or French . . 5 or 4 p.
English 3 or 4 p.
Geometry 3 p.
Physics 3 p.
History 3 p.
Botany or Zoology 3 p.
20 p.
III.
French [or German] 4 p.
English 3 p.
German [or French] 4 p.
Mathematics j A1*ebra 2 } .... 4 p. i Geometry 2 '
Astronomy £ yr. & Meteorology 5 yr. 3 p.
History 2 p.
20 p.
Latin, or German, or French English f^ in others 3,
I additional 2 J '
Mathematics j "Algebra 2} ( Geometry 2 '
4 p.
5 p. 4 p.
Astronomy | yr. & Meteorology 5 yr. 3 p.
History \ as in tlie Latm-Scientific 2 j. 4 p < additional / 2 J
20 p.
English
French [or German]
as in Classical 2 )
additional 2 '
German [or French]
Chemistry
Trigonometry & Higher Algebra 3 )
or
History Geology or Physiography 5 yr.
and 'Anatomy, Physiology, & Hygiene £yr.
3 p.
4 p.
4 p. 3 p.
3 p.
3 p.
Latin, or German, or French . . . English {as in Classical 2 | I additional 2 >
Chemistry
Trigonometry & Higher Algebra . .
History
Geology or Physiography \ yr.
and Anatomy, Physiology, & Hygiene £yr. •
4 p.
4 p. 3 p.
y P.
."> p. J3,
20 p.
20 p.
years as truly representative as possible. Secondly, inasmuch as many boys and girls who begin the secondary school course
48 EXPLANATION OF THE SAMPLE PROGRAMMES.
do not stay in school more than two years.,- the Committee thought it important to select the studies of the first two years in such a way that linguistic, historical, mathematical, and scientific subjects should all be properly represented. Natural history being represented by physical geography, the Commit- tee wished physics to represent the inorganic sciences of precision. The first two years of any one of the four pro- grammes presented above will, in the judgment of the Com- mittee, be highly profitable by themselves to children who can go no farther.
Although the Committee thought it expedient to include among the four programmes, one which included neither Latin nor Greek, and one which included only one foreign language (which might be either ancient or modern), they desired to affirm explicitly their unanimous opinion that, under existing conditions in the United States as to the training of teachers and the provision of necessary means of instruction, the two programmes called respectively Modern Languages and English must in practice be distinctly inferior to the other two.
In the construction of the sample programmes the Committee adopted twenty as the maximum number of weekly periods, \J but with two" qualifications, namely, that at least five of the twenty periods should be given to unprepared work, and that laboratory subjects should have double periods whenever that prolongation should be possible.
The omission of music, drawing, and elocution from the programmes offered by the Committee was not intended to imply that these subjects ought to receive no systematic attention. It Avas merely thought best to leave it to local school authorities to determine, without suggestions from the Committee, how these subjects should be introduced into the programmes in addition to the subjects reported on by the Conferences.
The Committee were governed in the construction of the first three programmes by the rule laid down by the language Conferences, namely, that two foreign languages should not be begun at the same time. To obey this rule is to accept strict limitations in the construction of a four years' Classical pro- gramme. A five years' or six years' programme can be made
ECONOMY OF THE PROGRAMMES MISSING SUBJECTS. 49
much more easily under this restriction. The Committee were anxious to give five weekly periods to every foreign language in the year when it was first attacked ; but did not find it possible to do so in every case.
The four programmes can be carried out economically in a single school; because, with a few inevitable exceptions, the several subjects occur simultaneously in at least three pro- grammes and with the same number of weekly periods. '
Numerous possible transpositions of subjects will occur to every experienced teacher who examines these specimen pro- grammes. Thus, in some localities it would be better to trans- pose French and German ; the selection and order of science subjects might be varied considerably to suit the needs or cir- cumstances of different schools ; and the selection and order of historical subjects admit of large variety.
Many subjects now familiar in secondary school courses of ] study do notf appear in Table III. or in the specimen pro- : grammes given above ; but it must not be supposed that the omitted subjects are necessarily to be neglected. If the recom- mendations of the Conference were carried out, some of the omitted subjects would be better dealt with under any one of the above programmes than they are now under familiar high school and academy programmes in which they figure as separ- ate subjects. Thus, drawing does not appear as a separate sub- ject in the specimen programmes ; but the careful reader of the Conference reports will notice that drawing, both mechanical and free-hand, is to be used in the study of history, botany, zoology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, geography, and physiography, and that the kind of drawing recommended by the Conferences is the most useful kind, — namely, that which is applied to recording, describing, and discussing observa- tions. This abundant use of drawing might not prevent the need of some special instruction in drawing, but it ought to diminish the number of periods devoted exclusively to drawing. Again, neither ethics nor economics, neither metaphysics nor aesthetics appear in the programmes ; but in the large number of periods devoted to English and history there would be some tim. " " -n in the elements of these subjects.
irriting required of pupils, or 4 '
50 SATURDAY WORK ASSISTANTS.
recommended to them, that the fundamental ideas on these important topics are to be inculcated. Again, the industrial and cjDmrnejrcial subjects do not appear in these programmes ; but book-keeping and commercial arithmetic are provided for by the option for algebra designated in Table III. ; and if it were desired to provide more amply for subjects thought to have practical importance in trade or the useful arts, it would be easy to provide options in such subjects for some of the science contained in the third and fourth years of the "English" programme.
The Committee of Ten think much would be gained if, in addition to the usual programme hours, a portion of Saturday morning should be regularly used for laboratory work in the scientific subjects. Laboratory work requires more consecutive time than the ordinary period of recitation affords ; so that an hour and a half is about the shortest advantageous period for a laboratory exercise. The Committee venture to suggest further that, in addition to the regular school sessions in the morning, one afternoon in every week should be used for out-of-door instruction in geography, botany, zoology, and geology, these afternoon and Saturday morning exercises being counted as regular work for the teachers who conduct them. In all laboratory and field work, the Committee believe that it will be found profitable to employ as assistants to the regular teachers, — particularly at the beginning of laboratory and field work in each subject, — recent graduates of the secondary schools who have themselves followed the laboratory and field courses ; for at the beginning the pupil will need a large amount of individual instruction in the manipulation of specimens, the use of instruments, and the prompt recording of observations. One teacher without assistants cannot supervise effectively the work of thirty or forty pupils, either in $he laboratory or in the field. The laboratory work on Saturday mornings could be maintained throughout the school year : the afternoon excursions would of course be difficult, or impossible, for perhaps a third of the school year.
In general, the Committee of Ten have endeavored to empha- size the principles which should govern all secondary school programmes, and to show how the main recommendations of
REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION TO COLLEGE. 51
the several Conferences may be carried out in a variety of feasible programmes.
One of the subjects which the Committee of Ten were directed to consider was req^nremejits_Ji^^ ; and
particularly they were expected to report on uniform require- ments for admission to colleges, as well as on a uniform secondary school programme. Almost all the Conferences have something to say about the best mode of testing the attainments of candidates at college admission examinations; and some of them, notably the Conferences on History and Geography, make very explicit declarations concerning the nature of college examinations. The improvements desired in the mode of testing the attainments of pupils who have pursued in the secondary schools the various subjects which enter into the course will be found clearly described tinder each subject in the several Conference reports ; but there is a general principle concerning the relation of the secondary schools to colleges which the Committee of Ten, inspired and guided by the Conferences, feel it their duty to set forth with all possible distinctness.
I //" The secondary schools of the United States, taken as a whole, ' I do not exist for the purpose of preparing boys and girls for |\ colleges. Only an insignificant percentage of the graduates of these schools go to colleges or scientific schools. Their main function is to prepare for the duties of life that small proportion of all the children in the country — a proportion small in number, but very important to the welfare of the nation — who show themselves able to profit by an education prolonged to the eighteenth year, and whose parents are able to support them while they remain so long at school. There are, to be sure, a few private or endowed secondary schools in the country, which make it their principal object to prepare students for the colleges and universities ; but the number of these schools is relatively small. A secondary school programme in tended for national use must therefore be made for those children whose education is not to be pursued beyond the secondary school. The preparation of a few pupils for college or scientific school should in the ordinary secondary school be the
52 THE PASSAGE FEOM SCHOOL TO COLLEGE.
incidental, and not the principal object. At the same time, it is obviously desirable that the colleges and scientific schools should be accessible to all boys or girls who have completed creditably the secondary school course. Their parents often do not decide for them, four years before the college age, that they shall go to college, and they themselves may not, perhaps, feel the desire to continue their education until near the end of their school course. In order that any successful graduate of a good secondary school should be free to present himself at the gates of the college or scientific school of his choice, it is necessary 'that the colleges and scientific schools of the country should accept for admission to appropriate courses of their instruction the attainments of any youth who has passed creditably through a good secondary school course, no matter to what group of subjects he may have mainly devoted himself in the secondary ^/school. As secondary school courses are now too often arranged, this is not a reasonable request to prefer to the colleges and scientific schools ; because the pupil may now go through a secondary school course of a very feeble and scrappy nature — studying a little of many subjects and not much of any one, getting, perhaps, a little information in a variety of fields, but nothing which can be called a thorough training. Now the I recommendations of the nine Conferences, if well carried out, O might fairly be held to make all the main subjects taught in the secondary schools of equal rank for the purposes of admission to .college or scientific school. They would all be taught consecu- tively and thoroughly, and would all be carried on in the same spirit ; they would all be used for training the powers of obser- vation, memory, expression, and reasoning ; and they would all be good to that end, although differing among themselves in quality and substance. In preparing the programmes of Table IV., the Committee had in mind that the requirements for admission to colleges might, for schools which adopted a pro- gramme derived from that table, be simplified to a considerable extent, though not reduced. A college might say, — We will accept for admission any groups of studies taken from the secondary school programme, provided that the sum of the stu- dies in each of the four years amounts to sixteen, or eighteen, or twenty periods a week, — as may be thought best, — and
ARTICULATING SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 53
provided, further, that in each year at least four of the subjects presented shall have been pursued at least three periods a week,/ and that at least three of the subjects shall have been pursued three years or more. For the purposes of this reckoning ^ natural history, geography, meteorology, and astronomy might l)e grouped together as one subject. Every youth who entered college would have spent four years in studying a few subjects thoroughly ; and, on the theory that all the subjects are to be considered equivalent in educational rank for the pur- poses of admission to college, it would make no difference which subjects he had chosen from the programme — he would have had four years of strong and effective mental training. The Conferences on Geography and Modern Languages make the most explicit' statement to the effect that college require- ments for admission should coincide with high-school require- ments for graduation. The Conference on English is of opinion "that no student should be admitted to college who shows in his English examination and his other examinations that he is very deficient in ability to write good English." This recom- mendation suggests that an ample English course in the sec- ondary school should be required of all persons who intend to enter college. It would of course be possible for any college to require for admission any one subject, or any group of subjects, in the table, and the requirements of different colleges, while all kept within the table, might differ in many respects ; but the Committee are of opinion that the satisfactory completion of any one of the four years' courses of study embodied in the foregoing programmes should admit to corresponding courses in colleges and scientific schools. They believe that this close articulation between the secondary schools and the higher institutions would be advantageous alike for the schools, the colleges, and the country.
Every reader of this report and of the reports of the nine Conferences will be satisfied that to carry out the improve- ments proposed more highly trained teachers will be needed than are now ordinarily to be found for the service of the elementary and secondary schools. The Committee of Ten desire to point out some of the means of procuring these better
54 GETTING TEACHERS MORE HIGHLY TRAINED.
trained teachers. For the further instruction of teachers in actual service, three agencies already in existence may be much better utilized than they now are. The Summer Schools which many universities now maintain might be resorted to by much larger numbers of teachers, particularly if some aid, such as the payment of tuition fees and travelling expenses, should be given to teachers who are willing to devote half of their vacations to study, by the cities and towns which these teachers serve. Secondly, in all the towns and cities in which colleges and universities are planted, these colleges or univer- sities may usefully give stated courses of instruction in the main subjects used in the elementary and secondary schools to teachers employed in those towns and cities. This is a reasonable service which the colleges and universities may render to their own communities. Thirdly, a superintendent who has himself become familar with the best mode of teaching any one of the subjects which enter into the school course can always be a very useful instructor for the whole body of teachers under his charge. A real master of any one subject will always have many suggestions to make to teachers of other subjects. The same is true of the principal of a high school, or other leading teacher in a town or city. In every considerable city school system the best teacher in each depart- ment of instruction should be enabled to give part of his time to helping the other teachers by inspecting and criticising their work, and showing them, both by precept and example, how to do it better.
In regard to preparing young men and women for the business of teaching, the country has a right to expect much more than it has yet obtained from the colleges and normal schools. The common expectation of attainment for pupils of the normal schools has been altogether too low the country over. The normal schools, as a class, themselves need better apparatus, libraries, programmes, and teachers. As to the colleges, it is quite as much an enlargement of sympathies as an improvement of apparatus or of teaching that they need. They ought to take more interest than they' have heretofore done, not only in the secondary, but in the elementary schools : and they ought to take pains to fit men well for the duties
UNIFORM DATES FOR ADMISSION EXAMINATIONS. 55
of a school superintendent. They already train a considerable number of the best principals of high schools and academies; but this is not sufficient. They should take an active interest, through their presidents, professors, and other teachers, in improving the schools in their respective localities, and in con- tributing to the thorough discussion of all questions affecting the welfare of both the elementary and the secondary schools.
Finally, the Committee venture to suggest, in the interest of secondary schools, that uniform dates — such as the last Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, or the third Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday of June and September — be established for the admission examinations of colleges and scientific schools throughout the United States. It is a serious inconvenience for secondary schools which habitually prepare candidates for several different colleges or scientific schools that the admission examinations of different institutions are apt to occur on different dates, sometimes rather widely separated.
The Committee also wish to call attention to the service which Schools of Law, Medicine, Engineering, and Technology, whether connected writh universities or not, can render to secondary education by arranging their requirements for ad- mission, as regards selection and range of subjects, in con- formity with the courses of study recommended by the Com- mittee. By bringing their, entrance requirements into close relation with any or all of the programmes recommended for secondary schools, these professional schools can give valuable support to high schools, academies, and preparatory schools.
CHARLES W. ELIOT, WILLIAM T. HARRIS, JAMES B. ANGELL, JOHN TETLOW, JAMES M. TAYLOR, OSCAR D. ROBINSON, JAMES H. BAKER, RICHARD H. JESSE, JAMES C. MACKENZIE,
HENRY C. KING. 4 December, 1893.
56 MINORITY REPORT.
President Baker signs the above report, but adds the following statement : —
To THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION :
I beg leave to note some exceptions taken to parts of the Report of the Committee of Ten. Had the Committee not been limited in time, doubtless fuller discussion would have resulted in modifying some statements embodied in the report. The great value of the reports of the Conferences upon the subjects referred to them, as to matter, place, time, methods, adequate and continuous work for each subject, and identity of work in different courses, and the masterly summary and tabu- lation of their recommendations, made by the Chairman of the Committee of Ten, can but invite cordial commendation. Objections are raised to parts of the special work of the Committee.
1. I cannot endorse expressions that appear to sanction the idea that the choice of subjects in secondary schools may be a matter of comparative indifference. I note especially the fol- lowing sentences, referring the reader to their context for accurate interpretation.
"Any school principal may say: — 'With the staff at my command I can teach only five subjects out of those proposed by the Conferences in the manner proposed. My school shall, therefore, be limited to these five.' Another school may be able to teach in the thorough manner proposed five subjects, but some or all of these five may be different from those selected by the first school."
" If twice as much time is given in a school to Latin as is given to mathematics, the attainments of the pupils in Latin ought to be twice as great as they are in mathematics, provided that equally good work is done in the two subjects ; and Latin will have twice the educational value of mathematics"."
" The schedule of studies contained in Table III. permits flexibility and variety in three respects. First, it is not neces- sary that any school should tench all the subjects which it contains, or any particular set of subjects."
MINORITY REPORT. 57
" Every youth who entered college would have spent four years in studying a few subjects thoroughly ; and on the theory that all the subjects are to be considered equivalent in educa- tional rank for the purpose of admission to college, it would make no difference which subjects he had chosen from the programme — he would have had four years of strong and effective mental training."
All such statements are based upon the theory that, for the purposes of general education, one study is as good as another, — a theory which appears to me to ignore Philosophy, 1 Psychology and Science of Education. It is a theory which makes education formal and does not consider the nature and value of the content. Power comes through knowledge ; we can not conceive of observation and memory in the abstract. The world which offers to the human mind several distinct views is the world in which our power that comes through knowledge is to be used, the world which we are to understand and enjoy. The relation between the subjective power and the objective — or subjective — knowledge is inseparable and vital. On any other theory, for general education, we might well consider the study of Egyptian hieroglyphics as valuable as that of physics, and Choctaw as important as Latin. Second- ary school programmes can not well omit mathematics, or science, or history, or literature, or the culture of the ancient classics. An education which gives a view in all directions is the work of elementary and secondary schools. Such an education is the necessary preparation for the special work of the university student. If I rightly understood, the majority of the Committee rejected the theory of equivalence of studies for general education.
Studies vary in value for the training of the different powers, and for this additional reason the choice can not be regarded as a matter of indifference.
The training of " observation, memory, expression and reasoning" (inductive) is a very important part of education, but is not all of education. The imagination, deductive reason- ing, the rich possibilities of emotional life, the education of the will through ethical ideas and correct habit, all are to be con-
58 MINORITY REPORT. ,
sidered in a scheme of learning. Ideals are to be added to the scientific method.
The dilemma which appears on an examination of the time demands of the various conferences offers to the programme maker the alternatives of omitting essential subjects and of a rational adjustment of the time element, while retaining all essential subjects. Reason and experience point toward the latter alternative. By wise selection of matter within the lines of study adequate and consecutive time can be given to each.
2. The language of the second paragraph following Table II. might be misconstrued to mean that the Committee favor the multiplication of courses with a loss of the thoroughness attain- able when the teaching force is devoted to one or two courses. Intension rather than extension of effort, both in respect to the number of courses and in respect to the number of studies or topics under each principal subject, is to be strongly recommended .
3. It may seem trivial to offer criticism of the specimen programmes made by the Committee, and yet I believe that each member felt that with ample deliberation results somewhat different would have been reached. Note for instance that in some of the programmes history is entirely omitted in the second year, and physics is given only three hours per week, — no more time than is allowed for botany or zoology. There are many symmetrical secondary school programmes in actual operation today which furnish continuous instruction in all important subjects throughout the four years, allowing to each an amount of time adequate to good results. For most high schools the first, the Classical programme, and the last pro- gramme, the one offering one foreign language, will commend themselves because they are economical, and they combine a good finishing course with adequate college preparation.
4. On the basis of the tabulated results of the Conferences I believe that by earnest scientific examination a scheme of work can be formulated that will meet the views of the mem- bers of the Committee and of most educators. As an after- thought it may be an occasion for regret that the strength of the discussion was not devoted to Table III. Instead of con-
MINORITY REPORT. 59
sidering the work of the Committee as ended, I would recommend that the National Council hold itself responsible for further examination of the data furnished by the Conferences. I have not presumed to offer a substitute report, because I believe that the importance of the work demands further effort of an entire Committee.
Respectfully submitted,
JAMES H. BAKER.
KEPOKTS OF THE COKFEKENCES.
LATIN.
PRESIDENT CHARLES W. ELIOT, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN
OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION : —
The Conference upon the subject of Latin respectfully submits the following report : —
In seven sessions of nearly three hours each the Conference 'dis- cussed all the questions suggested in the circular of instructions, except the last, respecting the proper limit between the preliminary and the final examination for admission to college ; and on most of the points -presented, as well as on several not suggested in the circular, arrived at unanimous or nearly unanimous conclusions, which will be found expressed in the Recommendations appended to this Report. t
The first question considered was whether the requirements in Latin for admission to college ought to be increased.
It would be a very desirable gain to the stud}' of Latin in our universities and colleges if the present standard of admission requirements could be raised ; and the experience of other countries would seem to indicate that a higher standard is feasible. But, in view of the just demands for more and better work in several other subjects of the preparatory course, it seemed clear to the Conference that no increase in the quantity of the preparation in Latin should be asked for. It is fully believed, however, that, through the careful choice of teachers, and the employment of better methods, a gain in the quality of the preparation can be secured without the expenditure of more time than is now generally given in the better schools. See Recommendations 1, 6, 11, and 14, at the end of this Report.
Upon the subject first suggested in the memorandum of the Com- mittee of Ten, — namely, the question of the age at which the study of Latin should be begun, — a comparison of the customs existing in Europe and in this country will be suggestive. In the United States, the average age is about fifteen years, and probably above that number rather than below it.1 In England and on the Continent the
1 At some private and endowed public schools in this country, however, the age is not far from twelve. In Michigan, successful experiments have Ijeen made in introducing the study of Latin into the grammar-school ; and the trial is also being made in certain grammar-schools in Massachusetts.
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study is seldom begun so late as at the age of twelve, and much oftener between the ages of nine and eleven ; in other words, from four to six years earlier than with us. ^The reasons in favor of an early age are not far to seek. (1) Latin is a difficult language, and long stud}* is needed to make it yield its best fruits. (2) The rudi- ments of the subject, and in particular the forms, can be more easily and quickly mastered at an early age ; and, conversely, the study of these things constitutes a less agreeable and less suitable discipline for a mind that is becoming conscious of its powers. A radical change cannot be brought about in this country at once ; but it is hoped that such a modification of grammar-school courses can be made without delay as to render it possible that the high-school course, — and with it the subject of Latin, — may be begun not later than at the age of fourteen. See Recommendations 2 and 3.
With regard to tfie number of years and the number of hours a week devoted to the study of Latin, the actual practice of the schools in this country varies greatly. In twenty-six representative schools having a four-year course, the aggregate of hours ranges from 580 to 1,009 ; and, in fourteen schools having a course of five or six years, from 740 to 1,92s.1 In the opinion of the Conference, Latin should claim about one-fifth of each school day, or fipe-Jjoars a week. This means a total of about 800 periods of fort3'-five or fifty minutes of actual work. If the course were to be one of five or six years, instead of four, the Conference would not recommend any diminution of the weekly allotment. The aggregate of 1,000 to 1,200 "hours" thus obtained, which might to some observers seem excessive, is much below the maximum amount already given in the fourteen representa- tive schools having a course of five or six }*ears, while it is identical with, or but little above, the average in those schools (viz., 1000 hours), and much below the average in the schools of England, France and Germany. The explanation of the undeniable fact that, in the countries just named. Latin has been more successfully em- ployed than with us " as an instrument for training the mind to habits of intellectual conscientiousness, patience, discrimination, accuracy, and thoroughness, — in a word, to habits of clear and sound think- ing," doubtless lies partly in the more liberal allowance of time. See Recommendations 3, 4, and 5.
The answer to the tenth question put before the Conference, with regard to the best__method of testing attainments at the college examinations for admission, must turn mainly upon the general
1 From statistics of forty representative schools gathered by the Committee of Ten.
62 LATIN.
character of the requirements held up before the schools. Up to the present timeAhe commoner form of requirement may be said to insist strongly upon the quantitative side/ A certain number of books of certain authors are to be read, or certain defined substitutes, supposed to be equal in quantity ; a certain number of lessons in some manual of Latin composition must be studied ; and a certain amount of Latin grammar must be learned. After a preparation controlled by this quantitative conception, the test applied by colleges that do not use the certificate system must necessarily be directed to ascer- taining what familiarity has been gained with the ground gone over. On the other hand, if the requirement be ability to translate "at sight " from Latin into English and from English into Latin, the~test must necssarily be one of power. Its object is to show what the stu- dent is now capable of doing ; and it may therefore fairly be called a qualitative test. It has distinct and great advantages. What the studient knows and what he can do is made manifest at once to the practised eye, and, on the other hand, ignorance and feebleness emerge with fatal clearness. " Cramming " is made nearly useless by it, and the steady gain of power becomes the student's necessary aim and sole means of salvation. Still, many shrink from adopting it as the sole test. The examination, they urge, may, especially in view of the fact that there are many students of mediocre natural gifts, but of faithfulness and staying powers, properly take account of the amount of work which the candidate Ir.is covered, and of the thoroughness with which he has performed a fixed task, as a means of judging, in the rough, of his fitness for higher study. Yet the importance of devoting a good deal of attention to translation at sight is now universally acknowledged among the best teachers in school and college, and the recommendation (included in No. G) that transla- tion at sight_form a constant and increasing part of the examination for admission and of the work of preparation, is therefore regarded by the Conference as of especial moment.
Intimately connected with the same subject is the question of the wrffingr r>f jjg.f.inj — its place in the study of the language, the subject- matter to be employed, and the method of development to be adopted.
The object is not the acquirement of the power for its own sake ; for this power, while once indispensable, is not to-day a necesshVv, nor even, for most men, an especially desirable accomplishment. The practice should be employed as a means, — as a powerful instrument for gaining a penetrating insight into the structure, idiom, and spirit of the Latin language, both in its agreement with, and in its differ- ences from, the mother tongue. It is admitted, for example, that, in order to be able to read Latin, one must have a firm grasp of the
LATIN. 63
principles of Latin syntax. But the experience of many teachers has shown that this grasp is to be gained with much more certainty through writing Latin than in any other way ; and in this field, too, the stu- dent himself clearly sees the reasonableness and immediate utility of the same instruction which, when applied to a Latin text, often seems to him, and often is, needless and barren. Here, then, should fall the principal part of the syntactical instruction. And, for similar reasons, the writing of Lath: affords the best field for the master}7" of forms, of vocabulary, of idiom, and of order.
The majority of the Conference is of the belief that, instead of being dissociated from practice in reading and translating, as it still so commonly is, practice in writing should be regarded as the obverse and counterpart of reading, and therefore should be carried on pari passu with it. In no other way can direct advantage be taken of the threads of association woven in the mind by the reading of an author, and in no other way can the subject-matter, in the earlier stages, be made so interesting and so practical. It follows that the basis of all sentences and passages set for translation into English in the pre- paratory schools should be found in the Latin texts read. And it is also evidently desirable that the portions of the text chosen should be limited, — so limited, in fact, that thej^can gradually be committed to memor}', and preserved as a permanent store.- "This small treatise alone" says George Long, in the preface to his edition of the Cafo Major. " if thoroughly mastered, . . . would make a maa a good Latin scholar."
The use of manuals of composition based upon a plan of exer- cises having no connection with the texts read, and arranged in arti- ficial sequence to illustrate S37ntactical rules, ought accordingly to be discouraged. See Recommendation 11.
The summoning of the Conference afforded a fortunate opportunity for the discussion of an important question not included in the mem- orandum, namely, ^what authors, and what parts of authors, should constitute the reading of the preparatory schools;/ Thus far, the colleges have in general left the schools very little liberty of choice. Three authors have been named by every college that prescribes set work. Of these three the easiest, or, as one should perhaps say, the least difficult, is Caesar. Hence it has come about that the Gallic War is very commonly used as the first reading-book in Latin. Our American schools are probably the only ones in the world of which this is true. The choice is an unfortunate one. The book is altogether too difficult for beginners ; it is too exclusively military in contents to be generally interesting ; its vocabulary is too largely restricted, from the nature of the subject, to marches, sieges, and
64
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battles, to afford the best introduction to subsequent reading; and, finally, it touches human life at too few points to be morally helpful and significant. The Conference therefore makes two recommenda- tions : first, that some easy reading, such as Gradatim, Eutropius, or the Viri Romae, be used as a transition from the introductory work of the beginner's book to the regular reading of a classic ; and second, that at least a portion of the time now usually given to Caesar be taken from him and given to Nepos. Against the " Liv£s" not one of the reasons urged against the use, or exclusive use, oTftle Gallic War can be brought. The objection that the Latinity of Nepos is inferior to that of Caesar would be of weight only in case the chief object in the earlier years of the study of Latin were the immediate production of writers of an elegant Latin style. No such fear is felt by German, French, and English school-masters, who have found, as have also various experimenters in this country, that the use of the books men- tioned above as bridges to and substitutes for Caesar contributes to the pleasure and progress of the student. See Recommendation 9.
The Bucolics of Virgil constitute the least original, and, to the school-bo^T^e^st interesting, and most difficult, part of the poet's works. Their proper place is in an elective course for university students, in connection with the reading of Theocritus. It is advised that they be discontinued in the requirements for admission to college. See Recommendation 7.
Some teachers of learning, experience, and skill have believed that, in what is called the inductive method, they have found a shorter and better way of learning Latin than has heretofore been devised. The saving of time and the attainment of a more exact scholarship, which are the ends they have set themselves to bring about, are certainly greatly to be desired. Perhaps some good has been done by the pub- lication of books calling attention strongly to a side of linguistic study which, even in the earlier years, should not be entirely ignored. But the Conference is of the opinion that/it is an error to erect into the sole controlling principle what should, in the nature of things, be subordinate./ On this subject, therefore, a word of caution seemed to nearly all rfe members to be desirable. See Recommendation 13.
In the judgment of the Conference, the greatest defects now exist- ing in the instruction given in Latin in the schools are to be found in the elementary stages. It is a common practice to put the teaching of beginners into the hands of the youngest and most poorly paid teachers, that is to say, of those who have the slenderest equipment of knowledge and experience. The same thing is true in other^sub- jects ; but the danger seems to be especially great in Latin, partly because the field is so vast, covering as it does a great number and
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variety of topics, and partly because it is so difficult to determine practically the best distribution and appropriation of time along the several lines of study. To competent knowledge the teacher must add the clearest and most definite conceptions of the relative import- ance and the lo^ical^seguence of topics, of the ends to be reached in each stage, and of the best methods of arriving at these ends. If, then, the results of the study of Latin often seem absurdly meagre in proportion to the time spent upon the subject, we must look for the cause very largely in the fact that, at the most critical point in his stud}7, the student is given over to an instructor of the least experience and knowledge.
To describe in full the best method of teaching Latin throughout the course, as was suggested in the memorandum of your Committee, would require, the conversion of this Report irito a treatise. But a brief summary may be made of the things to do and the things to avoid, and a few definite suggestions may be offered under each of the former heads.
The teacher of elementary Latin need not concern himself too much with the remojter ends of the study. To him the question should be : What knowledge is of prime importance, as the foundation for subsequent work? Stated generally, it may be said that the work of the first period should be (1) learning to pronounce accurate!}* and to read fluently and intelligently the Latin text of what has been studiecTf~(2) the mastery ofjnflection, so that number, case, person, mode, tense, etc., can be instantly recognized, and, conversely, can be formed without much hesitation by the student himself; (3) the acqui- sition of a working vocabulary of from one to two thousand words ;
^ ~~ L *
(4) the mastery of the oruer of the Latin sentence ; (5) the mastery of the simpler principles of syntax, regarded as a means of expres- sion; (G) learning how to understand simple narrative in Latin; and (7) learning how to translate such narrative into true P^nglish. In necessary connection with the pui'suit of these aims, a good deal of training of the ear should be employed, through listening to the reading or speaking of the teacher; and, in addition, a certain amount of practice in turning English into Latin will be necessary, as an indispensable instrument for" fixing forms in the memory and. establishing a feeling for their syntactical powers. On the other hand, the things to be avoided are (1) a dispersion of effort in con- sequence of the attempt to include too many parts of the study in the first stage ; (2) an undue prominence of rules, and the treat- ment of syntax as an end in itself, rather than as an auxiliary to the penetration of the sense; and (3) the use of "translation English." 5
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The more detailed suggestions that follow, under the head of the things to be dpne, apply in part, as will be seen, to the work of the later years of the preparatory course, as well as to the earlier.
1. PRONUNCIATION AND READING ALOUD, The Conference desires to emphasize the importance of a correct pronunciation of Latin from the very beginning of the study. A student who acquires the habit of pronouncing accurately in reading Latin prose will find little difficulty, and a genuine pleasure, in reading Latin verse. As practical aids to this end, the following suggestions are made with regard to certain peculiarities of the pronunciation of the Romans : —
(a) The long vowels received full length, not only in ultimas and penults, but in every syllable. (So, for example, the second a in amabamus should occupy about as much time in the utterance as the second in arnabam) .
(b) An obstructed consonant (i. e., a consonant made more difficult to articulate fully, through being immediately followed by another, either in the same word or at the beginning of the next) was pronounced with a clearness and distinctness not known in similar cases in English, so that it occupied about as much time in the utterance as a short vowel. [A mute followed by a liquid, on the other hand, made a combination easy to pronounce both fully and rapidly, and so occupied no appreciable time in ordinary speech. In poetry, however, the first consonant was occasionally treated as obstructed, being pronounced as a distinct sound, out of combination].
(c) In verse, as in daily speech, a final vowel, before an initial vowel or vowel with h, was run as a glide into the next vowel.
Without a knowledge of quantities (and, of course, not merely in penults and ultimas, but in all syllables), correct reading is, in the nature of things, impossible. Yet to acquire this knowledge by look- ing up every word in the dictionary is, to the young student, a labo- rious, and, relatively, an unprofitable task. He should learn his quantities b}r the easiest and most direct way, namely, by the guid- ance of eye and ear. Hence books prepared for the first two years of a four-year course should, in the text proper, as well as in the paradigms, notes, and vocabulan*, have the vowels long by nature marked (the unmarked ones being understood to be short) . And the teacher, from whom, by unconscious imitation, class after class will largely take it pronunciation, should not feel at liberty to be careless in his own practice. He will find rules to be of little value, and example to be all-important.
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For the sounds of the letters, the following scheme is recom- mended : —
a as in. father.
a like first a in aha (same quality as second but short) , first vowel in artistic (of course with no r sound).
e like the English a-sound as heard in skein, cave, Cain, but without the van- ishing ee-element which ends the English sound.
e as in net, bed.
i as in machine.
i as in pin.
6 like the English o-sound heard in note, but without the vanishing oo-element which ends the English sound.
0 as in the first syllable of obey and the second of melody. The sound is not
the same as in not, dot. u as in rule. u as in pull.
y like French u, German u. ae like ai in aisle. oe like oi in oil. au like oiv in how. eu by pronouncing both elements in rapid succession, — a combination not
occurring in English. ei as in skein (with the vanishing ee-element) .
1 consonantal (sometimes printed/) like y in yet.
ui occurs chiefly in huic and cui, which should be pronounced wheek,
kwee. b, d, f, h, k, 1, m (not final), n, p, q, as in English, except that bs and bt
should be pronounced ps and pt. c always like k. g always as in get ; gu like gw, when preceded by n and followed by a vowel;
ng like English ng in anger. qu like English qu in quick, queen. r trilled with the tip of the tongue. s always as in sin; su like sw in suavis, suadeo, suesco, and in compounds
ai\d derivatives of these words. z like z. (The evidence is as yet conflicting with regard to the sound of this
consonant — probably zd, or dz, though possibly z — and for these
reasons the English sound of z is for the present recommended). t always as in ten (never with the sound of sh, as in English creation}. v like w. x like ks. ph, th, and ch not as in English, but nearly like p, t, and k (strictly with a
slight explosive sound, as heard at the end of English words, e. g., hop.
hot, hock}.
Final m preceding an initial vowel (or vowel with ft) should be pronounced as a faint nasal sound, the lips approaching the ordinary wi-position, but not touch- ing. The pronunciation before a consonant is doubtful, and, for the present, a change from the sound of English m is not recommended.
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It is strongly recommended that abundant practice be given in the reading aloud of a continuous text already studied, which should be assigned in advance for the purpose, and carefully prepared. Not onl}7 is this an excellent literaiy exercise, which will add much to the interest and sense of reality of the subject-matter, but it will also contribute greatly to a feeling for forms (since in Latin so much depends upon word endings) , and to a feeling for Latin order.
In this reading, while care should of course be taken with the individual sounds, it must not be supposed that pronunciation is the onlj* or even the chief thing to aim at. The meaning of the text must not be subordinated to the sounds of the letters. The reader should endeavor to bring out the thought and literary art of his author, not onl}' by a clear and full and easily-moving utterance, but by the grouping of words that constitute a phrase, by the suggestion of balance or antithesis wherever they are found, by a hint to the ear where the thought of the writer points back to something that has been said, or forward to something that is about to be said, and by emphasis in the expression wherever there is emphasis in the thought.
In this exercise the teacher himself (of course after careful prepa- ration) should from time to time take part. And, whether it be the teacher or one of their own number who is reading, the pupils should be encouraged to try always to follow the sense by the ear alone, without the help of the book.
2. FORMS. The mastery of forms is indispensable as a basis of any sound knowledge and of any progress, and, if not acquired in the first year, is very rarely acquired later. The method must, in the main, be two-fold translation ; first of single words, then of common combinations of adjective and noun, or pronoun and noun, or of all three; then of short phrases, as, e. 0., a verb and its object, an adjective, preposition, and noun, forming a phrase, etc. Particularly should dependence not.be .made wholly or chiefly on the. repetition of tabulated forms.
3. VOCABULARY. The mastery of the vocabulary of the language is a prodigious task. It confronts the learner at the outset, and it remains the last obstacle to be overcome. The fact seems not to be appreciated in elementary instruction, and accordingly many teachers think that text-books for the use of beginners should not contain more than a few hundred words, an error almost as great as to sup- pose that the words chosen should be largely taken from Caesar's Gallic War. It has already been said that this book is of too technical a character to constitute a good introduction to the reading of Latin ; and to plan the elementary work with especial reference to
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it is, therefore, to heap mistake upon mistake. Copiousness and variety should characterize the vocabulary of the introductory book, not only for the sake of subsequent reading, but because both are a necessary condition of any human interest in the exercises, oral and written, which are indispensable for practice in elementary study.
Some suggestions for the easing of the young learner's task may be gathered from books that have appeared within a few years, (a) Special vocabularies attached to separate exercises or selections should in no case be committed to memory before the study of such pensa, but should be used for reference first, and memorized last of all; that is, words should be studied in a sentence before they are studied in isolation. Not only is the immediate tax upon the memory in this way lightened, but the impression made is more lasting, (fr) Related words should be grouped together as fast as they occur. Five words obviously related in form and meaning can more easily be learned and remembered than one word in isolation, (c) The comparison and discrimination of nearly synonymous words (to be made, however, only as they occur in the learner's actual experience in reading) aids by giving definiteness and individuality to each. (d) And, finally, the greatest auxiliary is the habit of constant observation of the different applications of the same word. Students seldom know more than one English rendering for a Latin word, or more than one Latin rendering for an English word, — a state of things due in part to the want of the ha'bit just referred to, but in part also to an undue insistence, at the earliest stage of study, on the memorizing of the one particular meaning that happens to be given in the text-book. This memorizing of one meaning is, in fact, what many teachers mean by "mastering" a vocabular}*.
4. SYNTAX. The study of syntax may well, in university work, be dealt with as a matter of special interest to the advanced student, and be offered in courses by itself. But for the student who is preparing for college it is merely an indispensable means to an end^, namely, the power to read. This statement by no means implies that it is to be treated carelessly and superficially \yy the teacher (for, if that be done, no real power to read can possibly be gained) , but only that it will be taught by him in the most helpful manner, if he will do the greater part of his syntactical questioning in connection witli exercises in which the student is trying to get at the meaning of a new sentence (i. e., in translation at sight or at hearing) and in connection with the writing of Latin (see 5 and 6 below). No attempt should be made, however, to master the entire apparatus at the outset. A further suggestion of considerable importance m:iy be offered. Where, as is constantly happening, a mistake in translation is due to a mistake in
70 LATIN.
syntax, the teacher should not be content with giving a correct trans- lation himself, or with asking some pupil to do it, but should always himself state, or ask some one in the class to state, what the Latin would be for the English actually given. If this is done, syntax is seen in its true light, as one of the means by which the wrriter ex- presses his thought : if it is not done, the syntax of a given passage seems a matter of indifference.
5. ORDER. The importance of a genuine familiarity with Latin order can hardly be over-estimated. No one can really read Latin unless, whether consciously or instinctively, he is so familiar with the way in which the Roman arranged his sentences that it seems as natural to him as the English order. It will be a help if the teacher will frequent!}" point out whatever in this respect is noteworthy, and particularly if he will always, in working with his classes at the exer- cise of translation at sight, hold to the Latin order until he thinks that the thought has been grasped, — not pass from one part of the sentence to another, to make out an English order. Much help will also be found in the exercise described under C below (at the end of the section) , and in the exercise of listening, without looking at the book, to the reading of a prepared text by the teacher or fellow-pupil. And students should also be encouraged to read over and over by themselves, without translating, Latin with which they have become familiar in the class-room.
It is obvious that a proper Latin order should be insisted upon from the outset in all Latin written by the student. "English-Latin" should be as carefully avoided as the hybrid "Latin-English" too often accepted as translation. Equally important is it that the editors of elementary text-books should put before the student no Latin arranged in any other than a Latin order.
6. LEARNING TO UNDERSTAND THE LATIN. The success of the student in one of the points most essential to the attainment of power tqjread, namely, in learning to understand his author in 'his author's tongue, will depend in a large degree upon the attitude of mind of his teacher. The latter should, from the very beginning, hold up the idea that the highest aim of Latin scholarship, on the literary side, is to be able to read Latin, as every competent scholar learns to read French and German, with a direct comprehension and eujo3Tment of the very words written by the author, not of an English substitute made by the reader. The student should be taught to re- gard translation, not as a means of finding out what his author has said, but as, on the one hand, a way of making it clear to his instructor that he has understood, and, on the other, an exercise in expression, — a literary exercise, — in his own tongue. And finally, it should be
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shown him that, even on the most practical grounds, to attempt to find out the meaning of a Latin sentence through translating it (as the common way is) is an operation almost sure to miscarry ; that the Latin, as in the case of a g«f-clause, an w£-clause, a cw?7i-clause, etc., often uses a single word as connective, where the English would employ one or another out of a large group (e. gr., for the ^-clause, "when," "just as," "although," "in order to," "so that"), and that to translate by anything whatsoever, before the complete evi- dence of the entire sentence has been had and the relation of part to part seen, is to run a very large risk of going astray at this point, and of being led still further afield in other points in the unconscious attempt to make them consistent with the first mistake. But the stu- dent, dealing with a language in which the form of the sentence is entirely new to him, is naturally prone to go astray in precisely this way. He should therefore constantly receive practical help. Practice in translating at sight, or more exactly, in understanding at sight, under \the instructor's eye and then translating, ought to be given daily, or /at least very frequently. In general, the best passage for the pur- Ipose will be the passage immediately following the lesson of the day, for the double reason that the student is familiar with the context, and that, when the additional exercise carries him straight on to his end, he feels the reality of his progress. The Latin should always be read aloud, sometimes by a student, sometimes by the master, before any translation is ventured upon. The master should stop the student here and there, if his way of reading shows that his grouping is wrong, or if any other indication proves that he has not understood ; and other pupils should be asked to correct him. Where a word is einplo}*ed to give notice in advance that something is coming, this should be made clear by the way of reading. Where a Latin word calls for some construction yet to come, to complete its meaning, and either of several constructions may be employed according to the exact shade of the author's thought (as, e. g. , dico may be followed by the interroga- tive subjunctive clause, or by the infinitive, or by an ut- or Tie-clause, according as the idea is of asking a question, or stating a fact, or giving a direction) , this range of possibilities should be pointed out (unless it has already been pointed out so frequently that the class has become familiar with it) ;. after which nothing further need be said when the completing construction, thus already foreseen as a possi- bility or certainty, is actually reached. Where there is danger of going astray through misapprehension of the syntax of a word, the construction (i. e., the force of the case, the mode, or the tense) should be asked for. No question upon construction should be put except} as a means of guiding the class to an understanding of the
72
LATIN.
meaning of the Latin ; and consequently every question of this sort should precede the translation.
When a sentence is manifestly easj7, and has probably been understood by the class, it is well to pass straight on without translating it. The^^^r^ater part of what is read will, however, require translation.
The habit of trying to understand a sentence in the original, before translating, will be more easily acquired, if the teacher will from time to time put a new passage upon the board, a word or phrase at a time, or, better yet, read it aloud, calling attention as he goes along, by comment or question, to indications of meaning which would have guided a Roman, but asking for no translation until the whole pas- sage has been written or read.
In the preparation of his dail}T lesson by himself, the student should be urged to study the Latin, in entire faithfulness to the aims stated above, in the order in which it is written, without any skipping about. The sentence should be read through once, twice, or, if necessary, three times in the Latin, with no reference to the making of a trans- lation, but with the mind fixed upon grasping the meaning directly. If the effort has in part failed, the student may then help himself by making a rough rendering of the sentence, word for word, still in the Latin order, and with great suspense of mind in the case of words that are capable of corresponding to a variety of phrases in English. This rough rendering, however, must be regarded as a mere tem- porary expedient, at the last resort, for getting at the meaning, not, of course, as translation into English. The preparation for the trans- lation to be given in the class-room is an entirely different exercise, and should be the last act of the preparation of the lesson.
7. LEARNING TO TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH. There is probably no better exercise in English expression than the rendering of the thought of a Greek or Roman author into English idiom. The very difference of the two idioms increases the value of the exercise. But great loss is sustained by the student when, as is much too frequently the case, he is allowed to translate into a diction and idiom which have no exis- tence in actual English speech or English literature. Such phrases, e. g, as "this one, that one " (hie, ille), which are never heard outside the class-room, ought not be tolerated in it. For the sake of the clearer exhibition of the grammatical manner of expression in the Latin, it is well that the translation should correspond lo the original where the two idoms are identical, but no farther. Especial care should be taken to render the order oT development of the thought in the Latin, as shown by the order of the original, and the student should unhesitating^, where English idiom demands it, change the
LATIN. 73
active voice to the passive, and break a Latin sentence into as many English sentences as may be desirable.
A higher ideal of translation than it is easy to attain by oral work alone may be set up in the minds of students, if a passage is occasion- ally assigned for carefully studied written translation, and if a number of the compositions thus produced are then read aloud, criticisms of style being asked for from the class, and special excellencies pointed out by the teacher. It is also a great help, if the teacher makes a practice of giving the best version of which he is capable, after. the lesson has been translated by the class, not allowing himself to inter- pose remarks, but translating fluently from the beginning to the end.
In what has been said thus far, stress has been laid upon the mas-- tery of the mechanism of expression in Latin, — the \iords, their forms^and syntactical^constructions, and the order in which they stand in the sentence. But, at the very outset, the student should be made to understand that these things are not ends but tools, and that the end is to gain, through the jreading of Latin, an insight into the thought and feeling of a people who have contributed very largely to make the life of the civilized world of to-day what it is. The Com- mentaries of Caesar, the Epic of Virgil, and the Orations of Cicero, — commonly spoken of as subjects required for admission to college, — are in reality masterpieces of literary style, and historical documents of first-rate importance. The teacher, from whose attitude of mind his pupils are likely to take their own attitude, will do well not to allow the burden of daily work and yearly repetition to lead him to set up a mechanical conception of Latin as a field for intellectual gymnastics, in place of the true conception of a vital literature, cap- able of exerting a strong attraction upon the }'oung student (for the most part possessed as yet of but a very slight vision of an}' world except that which is immediately about him), and of becoming a powerful influence for the training of his taste and the awakening of his intellectual ambitions. As a help to this true conception, it is recommended that a few books, dealing with the authors studied solely from the point of viow of their human and literary interest, be, if possible, made accessible to the student, — such books, for example, as Froude's Caesar (Harper & Brothers), a book of perverted elo- quence, but helpful if corrected by tho next to be mentioned, For- syth's Cicero (Charles Scribner's Sons), Trollope's Cicero (Mac- millan), and Sellar's Virgil (Macmillan) ; to which should be added the articles on Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil in the Encyclopaedia Britan- nica, together with Sellar's article on Roman Literature in the sam« place, and Wilkins's Primer of Roman Literature (Macmillau).
74 LATIN.
The text of the formal expressions of opinion of the Conference follows : —
Recommendations of the Conference upon the subject of Latin.
(1) The formal requirements in Latin at present prevailing for admission to representative colleges ought not, so far as quantity is concerned, to be increased.
(2) Education below the high school course should be so organized that students may be prepared to enter upon that course at least a year earlier than, in most places, the}r now do.
(3) The study of Latin should be begun, in a four-year course, 'not later than at the age of fourteen years, and at a correspondingly earlier age when the course is of five or six years' duration.
(4) At least four years of study, with five recitation periods a week, of not less than forty-five minutes each, should be given to the study of Latin.
(5) In case the course extends through five or six years, there should, in the interests of more thorough work, be no diminution of the time which has been suggested as a proper weekly allotment for a four-year course.
v (6) While the Conference does not find itself yet prepared to declare that translation at sight from Latin into English, and from English into Latin, without examination upon the ground previously gone over, constitutes a complete and satisfactory 'test of the stu- dent's knowledge, as well as of the power he has gained, it strongly recommends that such twofold translation at sight form, a constant and increasing part of the examination for admission and of the work of preparation.
(7) The Bucolics of Virgil ought henceforth to form no part of the requirements for admission.
(8) In a four-3'ear course, four books of Caesar's Gallic War, or an equivalent, should be completed by the end of the second }Tear, and six orations of Cicero and six books of the Aeneid during the third and fourth 3^ears. The Conference makes no recommendation upon the question whether Cicero should precede Virgil, or Virgil Cicero ; but suggests that, if Cicero precede, four orations be read, then six books of Virgil, followed b3r the remaining two orations.
(9) A portion of the Lives of Cornelius Nepos should be substi- tuted for a part or the whole of Caesar's Gallic War, and, as an introduction to the reading of these authors, such books as the Breviary of Eutropius, Gradatim, and Viri Romae, are strongly recommended.
LATIN. 75
(10) The subject of Latin should be treated in the same way, whether students intend to go to college, to a scientific school, or to neither.
/^(ll) The wanting of Latin should be carried on, throughout the preparatory course, concurrently with the reading of prose. The main training in syntax should be given in connection with work in writing Latin ; and, during the reading of the text, questions upon syntax should generally be confined to points in which a clear recog- nition of the nature of the construction is essential to the under- standing of the passage. The basis of the exercises in Latin cpmposition should be limited portions of the text of authors read, — • perhaps not more than forty or fifty pages. And, finally, the tests in writing Latin at admission examinations should be limited to the subject-matter of the authors studied in the preparatory course.
(12) Elementary books for the study of Latin should contain no sentences written in an un-Latin order.
(13) Except in unusually skilful hands, the so-called Inductive Method of teaching Latin should be used with extreme caution.1
(14) The importance of the elementary instruction in Latin should be emphasized, and the necessity of a high grade of scholarship in teachers of the lower classes should be strongly insisted upon.
1 NOTE. — On the general question here involved the chairman reserves his opinion, waiting for fuller experimental evidence from the schools, and from examinations for admission.
WM. GARDNER HALE, Professor of Latin in
the University of Chicago, Chairman. WM. C. COLLAR, Head-Master of the Ro^bury
Latin School, Secretary. CHARLES E. BENNETT, Professor of Latin in
Cornell University. FREDERICK L. BLISS, Principal of the Detroit
High School. JNO. T. BUCHANAN, Principal of the Kansas
City High School. "JOHN S. CROMBIE, Principal of the Adelphi
Academy. JAMES H. DILLARD, Professor of Latin in
Tulane University. WM. GALLAGHER, Principal of the Williston
Seminary. JOHN C. ROLFE, Acting Professor of Latin in
the University of Michigan.
JULIUS SACHS, Principal of the Collegiate In- stitute for Boys, New York City.
* Mr. Crombie took an active part in the deliberations of the Conference, and later gave his assent to the Report as it here stands. His official connection with it was therefore concluded. His associates, however, desire to append a record of his untimely death on the 16th of April, 1803; and to express their deep regret at the loss of a colleague of singular thoughtfulness, tact, and charm.
GREEK.
To THE COMMITTEE OF TEX : —
The Conference on Greek met with every member present at Ann Arbor, Michigan, December 28th, 29th, and 30th, 1892.
In its discussions and recommendations the Conference has been guided by the existing conditions of the study of Greek in the schools and by the admission requirements of colleges, as well as by its desire to recommend some ideal plan of study. It is well known that the time and attention given to Greek vary greatly in different sec- tions of the country, so that a recommendation that is simply a state- ment of the existing conditions for schools in some sections may be for a school in a less favored community — for the time — an unattainable ideal.
However unfortunate it may be thought, the fact remains that few schools will do more for their pupils in preparation for college than the college requirements for admission demand, BO that the col- lege determines in large measure the amount of work done in the school, as well as controls to some extent by the rigor or laxitjr of its entrance examinations the quality of the preparatory instruction.
Influenced then by these considerations, the Conference has aimed to make recommendations that may tend to unify methods of the study of 'Greek in the different sections of the country. The Confer- ence would not have its recommendations regarded as restrictive in any sense ; it believes that under favorable conditions more can be accomplished than the amount proposed below (sees. II., III.) — many schools are doing more to-day ; but the Conference recommends an amount of work that every school can do in the timfe proposed. Schools that are favored in the early training of their pupils and in other ways, can accomplish more.1
The following votes and recommendations were made by the Con- ference : —
Voted : That in making the following recommendations this Conference desires that the average age at which pupils now enter college be lowered rather than raised, and the Conference urges that no addition be made to the more advanced requirements in Greek now prescribed for admission to college.
1 The statement of a headmaster of long experience will not be without interest, as showing the possibilities of increase in the amount of work done, without extra time or a sacrifice of thorough teaching. He says that some years ago his classes read three books of Homer in the senior year; as he received pupils better trained and secured better instruction, the amount read was increased to five books ; then to eight ; and he hopes in the same way to increase thp amount read still further.
GREEK. 77
I. PERIOD OF STUDY.
The Conference recommends that the study of Greek be begun at least three years before the close of the course preparatory to college, and that to the subject be given five recitations per week, of at least forty-five minutes each, the first year, four recitations per week the second year, and four recitations per week the third year.
It will be seen that the Conference recommends as a minimum school course in Greek about 490 recitation periods. Most schools in which Greek is studied during two years only, give 360-400 recitation periods to the study, so that for such schools the time recommended amounts to an increase of little more than a half-year's work. It is believed by the Conference that this increase can be made in many cases without serious difficult}'. On the other hand this amount of time recommended as a minimum is less than the time already given in most schools where Greek is studied three years. Of twenty-five representative schools having three-year courses in Greek, two only give less than the minimum number of hours pro- posed (490), while twelve devote to Greek 550 hours or more, one school giving 658 hours in three years.
While the Conference recommends three years as the minimum time for the study of Greek in schools, it would not have a pupil begin to study the language without a knowledge of the elements of Latin ; so that the Conference would limit the study of Greek to two years in a school in which Latin is studied but three.
II. COURSE IN ATT!C GREEK.
The Conference recommends that the course in Attic Greek consist of four books of the Anabasis, or of two books of the Anabasis and an amount of the Hellenica, or of other Attic Greek, equivalent to two other books of the Anabasis.
The members of the Conference urge that the Anabasis be no longer retained in our schools as the only text-book in Attic Greek ; they feel that as the events chronicled in the Anabasis had little effect on subsequent history, it is well for pupils to read more impor- tant works. The Hellenica, especially Books I. and II., has more historic value than the Anabasis, and the narrative portions of Thucy- dides may well be read in schools. The Conference believes that by such substitution of portions of the Helleuica and of Thucydides the pupil's interest in his work will be increased, and that better results can be obtained.
78
GREEK.
III. HOMER.
The Conference recommends that three books of the Iliad, or its equiva- lent, four books of the Odyssey, be the prescribed work in Homer, sug- gesting that the Odyssey be preferred.
The demand is being made in some quarters that Homer be no longer studied in schools, thus limiting the stud}' of Greek to the Attic dialect. While the Conference cannot favor this plan for schools in which Greek is studied during three years, and believes that the withdrawal of Homer from such schools would be a misfor- tune, it advises that schools which limit their courses in Greek to two years, make no attempt to teach Homer.
The charge that Homer is poorly taught in the schools seems to the Conference an argument against poor teaching, not against the subject taught. No one proposes to remove English Composition from the list of school studies, — and yet, if we can judge from current educational literature, men have great differences of opinion as to the best methods of teaching English Composition, as well as believe that there is much poor teaching of this subject. Poor instruction should be made the basis of attack upon the individual teacher who is at fault, or upon the wrong methods employed, not against the subject in which poor instruction is given. The Con- ference does recognize, however, that as a result of poor teaching a pupil may leave the preparatory school with neither the definite knowledge of Attic Greek that he can be expected to have, nor a clear understanding of the relation of the Epic to the later Classical language. This may come from an attempt to teach the pupil two dialects, whereas all instruction in Greek grammar and language should aim to fix in the pupil's mind by repetition and comparison some fundamental knowledge of Attic Greek. Homeric grammar, in the opinion of the Conference, is a subject for study in the College or University, not in the Preparatory School ; the Iliad and Odyssey of all books must be studied as literature ; sufficient instruction in the grammatical peculiarities of their language, however, should be given to insure a correct understanding of the text. (By continuing com- position and the reading of Attic texts throughout the course the Conference seeks to avoid neglect of the Attic dialect during the study of Homer. — Sections IV. and VII.)
It appears from the experience of members of the Conference, and of others, that the prospect of reading Homer is no small inducement to pupils to study Greek ; in schools where children have been en- couraged to read translations of Homer, the number beginning Greek has been considerably increased. The Homeric poems appeal to the
GREEK. 79
pupil's imagination and arouse his interest in the life and thought of the Greeks. It does not seem wise to the Conference to remove these works from the schools and thereby delay the time when pupils can begin their real acquaintance with the two greatest poems the Greeks have left us. If the study of Homer is relegated- to the college, many graduates of our schools, both those who do not go to college and those who fail to continue their Greek after entrance, will know nothing of Homer in the original — and probably little through translation.
The Conference holds that the Odyssey is much to be preferred to the Iliad for school boys and girls. The Odyssey deals with fairy land, enchantment, and human effort : it is a story of the same class with, and can be compared to, the Arabian Nights and Robinson Crusoe. The Iliad, on the other hand, treats of deeds that belong to Gods and heroes, the conflicts seem far from us, and lack the human interest that Odysseus' adventures have. Young children read trans- lations of the whole Odyssey eagerly, but are interested in scattered
episodes only of the Iliad.
•
IV. TRANSLATION INTO GREEK.
The Conference recommends that instruction in the translation of Eng- lish into Greek be based upon the Attic prose Greek read, and that simple exercises of this nature, both oral and written, based upon the lesson of the day, be frequently given; that some manual of "Greek Composition," in which connected discourse is employed and the subject of syntax is topically treated, be used ; and the Conference urges that the exercises in translation, into Greek be continuous throughout the preparatory course.
It is well agreed, in theory, that Greek Composition is valuable as a means to secure the better understanding of the texts read, and there is no wide difference of opinion as to the desirability of basing exer- cises for translation on the Attic prose read, and of holding frequent exercises in re-translation. There is, however, great variety of practice : in some schools no exercises in re-translation are given after the first book ; in many schools pupils are required to use text books in which the sentences and longer exercises are based solely on the author's ingenuity and fancy ; and, furthermore, exercises in Greek Composition are neither taught by the instructor nor regarded by the pupil as a regular part of the school work but as an unfortu- nate and useless task devised by college teachers and inflicted by college entrance requirements. The Conference, therefore, wishes to emphasise the importance of Greek Composition, and urges that it be a part of each week's work. Each teacher must decide whether a portion of each recitation hour, or a separate hour each week, shall be given to such exercises.
80 GREEK.
V. GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, ETC.
The Conference recommends that in the reading of -the classical texts, the Geography, History, Mythology, and Antiquities connected with the subject matter read, receive proper attention.
VI. SIGHT EXAMINATIONS.
The Conference recommends that pupils be prepared for an entrance examination in reading simple Attic prose at sight, and the Conference suggests that as a substitute for an examination on a prescribed portion of Homer, an examination in Homer at sight, with questions on the passage set for examination, may be given.
The Conference regrets that so few colleges through their entrance examinations encourage " reading at sight" in schools. Twenty-nine colleges only offer or require sight examinations for entrance ; but nine have sight examinations in Homer ; in two sight tests are the only ones required. As school work is little better than college requirements compel, the atnount of sight reading done in schools can be readily estimated. In most schools, it is true, spasmodic exer- cises are held, but comparatively few schools seem to regarcj " sight work " as an exercise to be constantly practised.
It is quite evideut that pupils who have read only 1500 verses of Homer are not prepared for examination in Homer at sight ; but those who have studied 2500 or 3000 verses, and have been steadily trained in sight reading, should be allowed to take a sight examina- tion in place of an examination on a prescribed portion of the text, or as a supplement to it.
(In recommending entrance examinations at sight and thereby the practice of sight reading in schools, the Conference wishes to avoid an overestimate of the value of such exercise, and does not urge its practice to the exclusion of carefully prepared work. A fuller state- ment of the views of the Conference on this subject will be found under section X.)
VII. DIVISION OF ENTRANCE EXAMINATIONS.
The Conference recommends that the preliminary examination for col- lege be upon the essentials of grammar (forms and syntax) and four books of the Anabasis or its equivalent ; the final examination to be upon Attic prose at sight, Homer, and Greek Composition.
The Conference does not favor any examination upon grammar apart from questions suggested by the text set for translation, and urges that the questions asked aira to determine the, applicant's
GREEK. 81
knowledge of the regular and more common inflections and construc- tions.
It is recommended that the examination in Greek Composition form part of the final examination, as the Conference believes that practice in translation into Greek should be continued throughout the school course. Since Attic Greek must be the basis of all gram- matical study of Greek in schools, it follows that the reading of Attic prose ought to be continued parallel with the work in Homer and in connection with the composition exercises. By this means a model for composition is secured by the pupil, and his knowledge of Attic Greek is increased both by the reading and by the comparisons drawn between the Homeric and Attic dialects.
Vill. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF STUDENTS.
The Conference recommends that no difference be made in the treatment of Greek for the three classes of students named in the seventh question suggested by the Committee of Ten.
Before making any recommendations as to methods of teaching Greek in the preparatoiy course, the Conference adopted the follow- ing statement as a definition of its conception of the purpose of the study of Greek in that course :
The suggestions which the Conference has to make concerning methods of instruction in the preparatory course are primarily determined by its conception of what constitutes the distinctive work of this course. This work it conceives to be the teaching of the language of standard Attic prose through instruction in Attic grammar and reading of Attic texts, and the awakening of interest in the literature and thought of the Greeks through the reading of Homer.
IX. INTRODUCTORY WORK.
The Conference recommends that the work in Greek, preceding the reading of connected discourse, aim to secure for the student a mastery of the common forms of the language, facility in the use of as full a vocabu- lary as possible, and an acquaintance with the simpler principles of syntax.
In the opinion of the Conference a thorough knowledge of the ordi- nary forms of Greek words can best be obtained by the use of some manual containing the more common paradigms, short and simple sentences for translation from Greek into English and from English into Greek, and also statements of the simpler principles of Greek 6
82 GREEK.
syntax. The Conference urges that written as well as oral work be constantly required iu the class room that both the eye and the ear may be appealed to in fixing firmly in the pupil's mind the forms of the language ; and that in all exercises special attention be paid to correct pronunciation of the Greek. This Conference cannot give its approval to any scheme for imparting a knowledge of Greek inflec- tions, which contemplates the learning of them from isolated examples as they chance to occur in the connected text of a classical author. It believes that any such attempt involves unnecessary difficulties that can be easily avoided by requiring pupils to memorise together those forms that are closely connected in form and meaning, as exhibited in the paradigms usually given in text books. The Confer- ence feels that as the time for fixing forms by repetition is limited, a logical and systematic order should be followed in their acquisition ; and while the Conference believes in the use of the reasoning powers and of inductive methods in teaching language, it cannot view with favor any effort to introduce into our schools Greek text books based exclusively on the so-called u Inductive Method."
The Conference cannot urge too strongly that special attention be given to the acquisition of a vocabulary, and suggests that this may best be accomplished by a careful memorising of the vocabularies connected with the exercises and by a systematic study of groups of allied words. By a judicious selection of "root-words" and the mastery of the meaning of terminations, a vocabulary, adequate to the student's needs at this stage, may be acquired without much difficulty. Thus a necessary foundation for easy and rapid transla- tion will be laid, and the habit — in the opinion of the Conference a very important habit — will be established of associating related words in groups, instead of regarding them as isolated and discon- nected elements of the language.
This introductory work in Greek should include also a study of the simpler and more common usages of syntax. While the Con- ference would not have grammatical knowledge considered in any sense as an end in the study of Greek, yet it does regard such knowledge as an essential means to an end, and therefore urges that it be not neglected during the introducton^ period of the study. The simpler constructions of the cases of nouns and of the moods and tenses of verbs should be stated in the manual placed in the hands of the pupil. These constructions should be made familiar by repeated reference to them ; but whatever is unusual, exceptional, or abstruse iu ay well be postponed to a later period of the study. In all this work the pupil should be encouraged to draw upon his knowledge of Latin syntax for illustration and comparison.
GREEK. 83
X. READING, TRANSLATION AT SIGHT, AND TRANSLATION PROPER.
The Conference recommends that intelligent reading of the Greek text in class be regarded as an indispensable part of the work, and that for this careful preparation on the part of the student be required ; that reading aloud in the class by the teacher, as well as by the pupil, be employed as a means of training the ear, and of gaining ability to grasp readily the thought of a passage ; that from the outset sight translation go hand in hand with the prepared translation, and that for this purpose the text of the succeeding lesson or lessons be preferred to that of a separate work ; that there be also some translation from hearing, of both prepared and unprepared work ; that there be frequent practice in the reading at sight of easy passages of Greek without translation, and that, in order to be sure that the meaning of the passage is grasped, the pupil be required to state the substance of the passage read ; that translation of the Anabasis, or its equivalent, be begun, at latest, in the last half of the first year, idiomatic English being demanded, and the questions on the text being asked before or after the connected translation of the whole passage, preferably before.
Reading of the Greek text is too often neglected in schools with the result that the average student on entering college cannot read a half-page of text intelligently. The reader's attention is so fully absorbed in his effort to pronounce the separate words that he gives little or no thought to the relation of the words in a sentence, or of the sentences in a paragraph. Indeed, it is not too strong a state- ment to say that the average pupil does not associate the reading of a sentence in Greek with the determination of the meaning of the same sentence ; to his mind these are two separate processes, whereas he should regard the reading of the text as a necessary means to the understanding of the passage read. Therefore .the Conference urges that reading of the text be constantly practiced by both teacher and pupil; that no attempt to translate any Greek " in advance " be made until the passage has been caref ull}T read ; and that teachers require from their pupils no less intelligent reading of the text than accurate translation of the same.
Without underestimating the discipline which is gained from the study of Greek, or disregarding the training in English obtained by careful and studied translation, the Conference conceives that one of the chief objects in the study of any language is to secure for the student the power to appreciate the form and substance of that lan- guage. The facts of a literature can be translated, but the form, the something that makes every translation of Homer or Dante inadequate, cannot be alienated from its proper language. In the opinion of the Conference, therefore, the teaching of Greek from the
1 '^M/fy^x.
TIV°ERSITT
CALIFORNIA
84 GREEK.
first should aim to give the pupil, so far as possible, the ability to read and understand 'simple Greek as he reads. To obtain this power the student must, first of all, be supplied with a thorough knowledge of the common inflections and syntactical constructions of the language, and, secondly, he must gain skill in using this know- ledge by reading as large amounts of text as possible. Two exer- cises should be constantly employed : careful preparation of text by the pupil outside the class-room and reading and translation at sight in the class. The first increases the pupil's knowledge of the language and secures to him independence in working, while " sight work" in the class gives him a free opportunity to use the knowledge he has gained, stimulates his interest, and quickens his perceptive faculties, at the same time allowing the instructor to teach the best methods of approach and imparting to the learner a sense of increasing power, — which last seems to the Conference a most important result.
As stated above, the Conference believes that reading of the text should precede any attempt at translation, and it would have a clear distinction made between the determination of the meaning of a passage and its translation. If from repeated readings of the text the meaning of the passage in hand is not clear, the pupil should be taught to approach the passage in the order of the original, and to determine its meaning word by word by noticing the inflectional end- ings, the force of compounds, and the relation of ideas implied in the position of words and phrases. Only when the meaning of a passage has been fully grasped, should the pupil be allowed to attempt a translation, and then idiomatic English should be required. The Conference believes that if translation be kept distinct from the earlier process of ascertaining the meaning of a passage, and if in translation only the best English of which the pupil is capable is accepted, the translation dialect, with its injury to the mother-tongue, can be made to disappear.
While reading at sight may fix knowledge already gained and gives skill in using such knowledge, it adds few new facts to the pupil's fund of knowledge. The meanings of words, new constructions and forms must be dwelt upon to be fixed in his memory. Therefore it is recommended that this sight practice be given on the passages which follow the day's lesson, and that the text read thus hastily form part of the succeeding day's work ; by this method the new facts presented during the sight reading can be fixed in the pupil's mind by his own study.
As the teacher's main purpose in asking questions on the text is to obtain proof that the pupil understands the passage in hand and is prepared to translate it intelligently, the Conference advises that
GKEEK. 85
such questions be asked before translation is begun, and, since noth- ing can be devised to destroy all interest in the subject matter read more thoroughly than the habit of having a lesson translated in small portions of a few lines each, the translations interrupted with questions, with no uninterrupted translation of the whole, the Con- ference urges that during some part of each recitation hour a connected translation of the whole lesson be made.
XI. PROSODY.
The Conference recommends that in the study of Homer attention be given from the beginning to the rhythmical reading of the text ; that the teaching of prosody be limited to instruction in the mast essential elements in the structure of the verse ; and that the pupil be taught to use the know- ledge already gained from the metrical reading of Virgil.
To get an adequate appreciation of any kind of Greek poetry, it must be read rhythmically. This is especially true of the Homeric poetry, which was originally composed to be heard rather than read. The practice of translating Homer without reading the text in its metrical form ought not to be tolerated. The teacher of Homer should at the outset read the text to his pupils and enable them to appreciate the effect of a rhythmical recitation. The details of the structure of the verse will best be learned and remembered from constant practice in metrical reading.
Voted : To concur with the Latin Conference in its recommendations as to the age at which the study of Latin should be begun.
The above is respectfully submitted as the report of the Conference on Greek.
(Signed.) MARTIN L. D'OOGE, Professor, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., Chairman.
CLIFFORD H. MOORE, Phillips Academy, An-^ dover, Mass., Secretary.
E. W. COY, Principal of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, 0.
A. F. FLEET, Superintendent of the Missouri Military Academy, Mexico, Mo.
ASHLEY D. HURT, Head Master of the High School, Tu lane University, New Orleans, La.
ROBERT P. KEEP, Principal of the Free Acad- emy, Norwich, Conn.
ABBY LEACH, Professor, Vassar College, Pough- keepsie, N. Y.
WILLIAM H. SMILEY, Principal of the High School, Denver, Colo.
CHARLES FORSTER SMITH, Professor, Van- derbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.
BENJ. IDE WHEELER, Professor, Cornell Uni- versity, Ithaca, N. Y.
ENGLISH.
To THE COMMITTEE OF TEN : —
The Conference on the Study of English has the honor to submit the following Report : -
The Conference was called to order on Wednesday, December 28th, 1892, at quarter of eleven A.M., by Professor Allen. Principal Thurber was elected Chairman and Professor Kittredge, Secretary. The Conference remained in session till half past three o'clock Fri- da}*, December 30th, when it adjourned sine die. Every member was present at the deliberations and took part in debate. The results embodied in the present Report were arrived at after much discus- sion, and represent in all but a few points of minor importance the unanimous opinion of the Conference. The subjects which the Con- ference thought were included in its commission are those usually taught in schools under the names of English Language, English Grammar, Composition, Rhetoric, and English Literature. Elocution appeared to lie outside of the subjects which the meeting was con- vened to discuss.
The main direct objects of the teaching of English in schools seem to be two: (1) to^ enable the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others and to give expression to thoughts of his own ; and (2) to cultivate a taste for reading, to give the pupil some acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him with the means of extending that acquaintance. Incidentally, no doubt, a variety of other ends may be subserved by English study, but such subsidiary