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/, Journal! OF the: -

Bombay Natural History Society |

ms
ips | Vol. 65, No. |

Editors
H. SANTAPAYU, S.3.,
ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

APRIL 1968

Rs. 18 (Inland), Sh. 30 (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published
_ elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a
place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where
identification has been authentically established by comparison of
specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification
is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8°205°60 cm.
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be
given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders
for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be
received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance
of ne manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and
packing.

EDITORS,
Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural
Opp. Lion Gate, | History Society.

Apollo Street, Fort,
Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 65, NO. 1—APRIL 1968

Date of publication : 31-5-1968

CONTENTS

REPORT ON WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEsT INDIA. November-
December 1966. By J. Juan Spillett. (With five plates and four maps)

Heteromysis zeylanica TATTERSALL (CRUSTACEA : MySIDACEA), AN ASSOCIATE
OF MADREPORARIAN CORALS IN SOUTH INDIAN WATERS. By N. Krishna
Pillai. (With twenty-six text-figures)

RECORDS OF RARE FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY. By
B. F. Chhapgar and J. K. Jatar. (With five text-figures)

PREFERENCE OF CASTOR VARIETIES FOR FEEDING AND OVIPOSITION BY THE LEAF-
HOPPER, Empoasca flavescens (F.) (HOMOPTERA, JASSIDAE) WITH PARTICULAR
REFERENCE TO ITS HONEYDEW EXCRETION. By S. Jayaraj. (With two text-
figures)

OBSERVATIONS ON AGE AND GROWTH OF Tachysurus sona (Ham.). By Vijai D.
Singh and M.S. Rege. (With eight text-figures) i

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA. By N. D. Kamat. (With a map)

THE BIOLOGY OF THE WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK, Mycerobas carnipes HODGSON
IN KAZAKHSTAN. By I. A. Dolgushin, E. I. Gavrilov, and E. F. Rodionov.
(With six plates and a text-figure)

Coccips (COCCOIDEA : HEMIPTERA : INSECTA) AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR
(INDIA). By S. Mohammad Ali

SEA ANEMONES (ACTINIARIA) OF BOMBAY. By Arun Paruleker. (With two plates
and a map)

THE NESTING ACTIVITIES OF THE VESPOID POTTER WASP Eumenes campaniformis
esuriens (FABR.) COMPARED WITH THE ECOLOGICALLY SIMILAR SPHECOID
Sceliphron madraspatanum (FABR.) (HYMENOPTERA). By S. D. Jayakar
and H. Spurway. (With two figures)

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
History Socittty—1l. By Humayun Abdulali

REVIEWS :
1. Nature’s Paradise (L.F.)

. Mongooses—their Natural History and Behaviour (H.A.)

General Entomology for Agricultural Students (N.T.N.)

2

3

4. Ecological Energetics (D.N.M.)
5. Seaweeds and other Algae (E.G.)
6

Common Birds (U.G.) ..

47

58

64

ik)

88

105

120

138

148

182

200
201
202
203
205
206

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Notes on the Bihar Drought. By Anne Wright (p. 208). 2. Can Young
Bats communicate with their parents at a distance? By Lt. Col. A. David
(p.210). 3. Noteson the Common Palm Civet or Toddy Cat Paradoxurus herma-
Dhroditus (Pallas), with special reference to the age at shedding of the Milk Teeth.
(With two plates). By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway (p. 211). 4. Notes on
the Malabar Spiny Dormouse, Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth, 1859, with new
distribution record. By P. K. Rajagopalan (p. 214). 5. Occurrence of the
Reef Heron [Egretta gularis (Bosc.)] in Hyderabad District. By George F.
Neavoll (p. 215). 6. The female of Molesworth’s Tragopan Tragopan blythi
molesworthi Baker. (With a plate). By Biswamoy Biswas (p. 216). 7. Occur-
rence of the Little Crake, Porzana parva (Scopoli), in Bombay. By Salim Ali and
Humayun Abdulali (p. 217). 8. Southward extension of the range of the
Slenderbilled Gull (Larus genei Breme). By Br. A. Navarro (p. 218). 9. Sap
Sucking by Indian Woodpeckers. (With a photograph). By Humayan Abdulali
(p. 219). 10. Occurrence of the House Martin Delichon urbica (Linn.) in
Saurashtra, Gujarat. By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 221). 11. Wire nests
of Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus). By B.S. Lamba (p. 222).
12. Cettia montana versus C. fortipes (Aves: Sylviinae). By Allan R. Phillips
(p. 223). 13. Some Bird Records from Kutch. By Maharao of Kutch (p. 225).
14. Some interesting Migrants in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 225).
15. Recovery of Ringed Birds. By Editors (p. 226). 16. Notes on two species of
Hemidactylus (Gekkonidae: Reptilia) in Bhubaneswar. By S. D. Jayakar
(p. 229). 17. Observations on the Limbless Lizard Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray)
from Shillong, Assam. (With a plate). By B. K. Tikader (p. 233). 18. Paro-
xyurichthys laterisquamatus (M. Weber): First record from Indian Waters.
(With a photograph). By P. K. Talwar and T.K.Sen (p. 234). 19. Mural-
thoondi, a gear for Halfbeak Fishes. (With a text-figure). By P. K. Talwar
(p. 235). 20. A note on the use of Croton tiglium Linn. seed as a Fish poison
in Ponds. (With a photograph). By B. R. Bhuyan (p. 236). 21. Notes on Animal
Relationships : Dromiid Crabs, Cryptodromia tuberculata pileifera Alcock, 1899
sheltering beneath commensal sponges. By A. Daniel and V. K. Premkumar
(p. 240). 22. Gregariousness and Mimicry during Cocoon stage by the Butter-
fly Eurema hecabe (L.). By B. K. Tikader (p. 242). 23. On the seasonal fluctua-
tions and biology of Anaphothrips flavicinctus (Karny) on Panicum maximum in
Madras. (With six text-figures). By T. N. Ananthakrishnan and A. Jagadish
(p. 243). 24. Further data on Host-plants of Lac Insects (Tachardiidae, Homo-
ptera). By R.K. Varshney (p. 249). 25. Parasites, predators and other natural
enemies of Sugarcane pests in Maharashtra. By S.K. Dorge, V. P. Dalaya and
A. G. Pradhan (p. 251). 26. A new spider of the genus Jschnothyreus Simon
(Family Oonopidae) from India. (With five text-figures). By B. K. Tikader
(p. 257). 27. On the abundant occurrence of Desmopterus gardineri Tesch 1910,
(Thecosomata: Mollusca), in the Indian Ocean. (With a map). By
M. Sakthivel (p. 259). 28. Additions to the Flora of Bombay. By G. L. Shah,
R.J. Patel and M. H. Patel (p. 260). 29. The spirality of main stem and its
relationship to that of off-shoots in Euphorbia antiquorum Linn. (With a text-
figure). By T.A. Davis (p. 262). 30. Notes on Boerhavia. By M.R. Almeida
(p. 266). 31. Three new plant records for West Bengal. By A. K. Mukherjee
and L. K. Banerjee (p. 268). 32. Tetralocular Fruits in Cleistanthus collinus
(Roxb.) Benth. Ex Hook. F. (With a photograph). By G. R. Kumari (p. 269).
33. Algae of Simla. By N. D. Kamat (p. 271).

GLEANINGS
NOTES AND NEws
ANNOUNCEMENT

278
281
282

JOURNAL
OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1968 APRIL Vol. 65 No. 1

A Report on Wild Life Surveys
in South and West India
November-December 1966

BY

J. JUAN SPILLETT

INTRODUCTION .. abs ac ae sei i i
WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN ANDHRA PRADESH oF hs 3
WILD LIFE IN GUJARAT STATE oe oe Be we 1S

1WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MYSORE STATE
1WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MADRAS STATE

INTRODUCTION

This is a continuation of the ‘ Report on Wild Life Surveys in North
India and Southern Nepal, January-June 1966’, [J. Bombay. nat. Hist.
Soc. 63 (3) (December 1966)]. As before, these surveys in the States of
Andhra Pradesh, Mysore, Madras and Gujarat were officially sponsored
by the World Wildlife Fund (Morges, Switzerland), assisted by the Johns
Hopkins University Center for Medical Research and Training, approved
by the Government of India and financed by the Foundation Volkart
Brothers of Switzerland.

Mr. E. P. Gee made all the necessary arrangements with the Govern-
ment of India and with the State Forest Departments concerned, super-
vised the whole project, and collected and edited the reports of each

* The reports on sanctuaries in Mysore and Madras States will be published in
subsequent issues of Vol. 65—Eds.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

State—incorporating the suggestions received from the State Forest
and Wild Life Officers concerned. I particularly want to thank him for
his assistance and advice.

It was intended to include Kerala State, particularly the Periyar
Wild Life Sanctuary, in the surveys. But a reply could not be obtained
from that Forest Department until it was too late and the whole prog-
ramme had been finalised. It is to be hoped that at some future date
the valuable wild life resources of Kerala can be included in a similar
survey.

My thanks are again extended to all concerned for their assistance,
co-operation and kindness so willingly given to me throughout the
surveys. Without this co-operation the surveys could not have been
undertaken.

J. JUAN SPILLETT

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Wild Life Sanctuaries in Andhra Pradesh!

BY

J. JUAN SPILLETT

(With a plate and two maps)

INTRODUCTION

THE PAKHAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY
Introduction
Ecology.. 5 ote s;
Visitor Facilities and Forest Department Proposals
Discussion

THE ETURNAGARAM WILD LIFE SANCTUARY
Introduction
Ecology..
Visitor Facilities
Discussion

OTHER WILD LIFE AREAS IN ANDHRA PRADESH ..
The Qawal Wild Life Sanctuary
Kolleru oe ar
The Pocharam Wild Life Sanctuary
Nehru Zoological Park

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

TABLE

1. Names of some animals inhabiting the Pakhal Wild Life Sanc-
tuary, Andhra Pradesh, and a relative index of their abundance. .

OoOnnt RP HL

10
10
10
11
12

13
13
13
13
13

14
14

8

1This survey was Officially sponsored by the World Wildlife Fund, Morges,
Switzerland. The project was also assisted by The Johns Hopkins University and
its Center for Medical Researchand Training, Calcutta, India, and Baltimore, Maryland
(U.S.A.).Mr. E. P. Gee, member of the Indian Board for Wild Life, made the necessary
arrangements with the Government of India and the Forest Department of Andhra
- Pradesh, both of which extended their fullest co-operation.

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)
I. INTRODUCTION

Mr. Mazharuddin Ahmed (Deputy Chief Conservator of Forests)
met me on my arrival in Hyderabad on November 17, 1966, and kindly
accompanied and assisted me throughout my 6-day tour in Andhra
Pradesh. We travelled by car to Hanamkonda, 90 miles north-east of
Hyderabad, and there met Mr. M.S. Khan (Warangal Circle Conservator
of Forests) and other Government and Forest Department officers for
that area. We discussed at length the wild life of Andhra Pradesh, the
problems confronting these valuable resources and the possibility, through
intensive management, of the State’s wild life becoming a tourist attrac-
tion and a major source of revenue.

II. THE PAKHAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

INTRODUCTION

Pakhal Lake is situated in a beautiful forest setting 28 miles east of
Hanamkonda (Warangal) in the Narsampet Taluk of Warangal District.
An area of almost 350 square miles surrounding the lake was declared a
wild life sanctuary in 1953. However, apart from the prohibition of
legal shooting, this area has been a sanctuary in name only. Forest
produce of all types has been extensively exploited and domestic livestock
grazing has been permitted throughout most of the area. Much of the
sanctuary has been severely overgrazed. In addition, encroachment or
settlement and cultivation by villagers inside the sanctuary has continued
almost completely unabated. To remedy this situation, the Forest
Department presently proposes that a 75-square-mile area, including the
8°07 square-mile Pakhal Lake and the adjacent forest areas, be constituted
and preserved as a true wild lifesanctuary. Inshort, the Forest Depart-
ment now proposes to maintain this unit as a real ‘Sanctum Sanctorum’.

Pakhal Lake was formed by the construction of an earthen dam
during the Kakatiya Dynasty in the early 1600’s. The dam was renovated
by the Public Works Department (P.W.D.) in 1918 and the lake presently
provides water for the irrigation of almost 9000 acres of fertile agricultural
land to the south-west. The forest areas surrounding the lake served as
a hunting reserve for the Nizam when Hyderabad was a princely state.
The area was then renowned for its numerous tigers, as well as for large
mammals such as chital, sambar, blackbuck, nilgai, four-horned antelope
and chinkara. In 1948, shortly after Independence, this area came
under the jurisdiction of the Government of India and the Forest Depart-
ment.

The preservation and management of Pakhal as an inviolate wild life
sanctuary will fulfill a multi-purpose objective. First, it will help to

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 5

preserve a part of India’s unique and once vast, but now fast disappearing,
wild life heritage. In turn, through proper management, the sanctuary
should shortly become a notable tourist attraction and a valuable
economic asset both to the State and to the Nation. Also of importance,
the catchment areas surrounding the lake will now be protected, thus
helping to prevent erosion of the forest slopes and ensuring a stable
water supply for the agricultural lands of Warangal District.

All forest exploitation, including the grazing of domestic livestock,
will be excluded from the proposed 75-square-mile “ L-shaped’ sanc-
tuary as of April 1967 (Map 1). The sanctuary will also be clearly
demarcated from surrounding areas by clear-felling and maintaining an
approximately 50-foot-wide boundary line along the perimeter. A single
road enters the sanctuary near the forest rest house and bisects it south
of the lake. Entrance into and activities within the sanctuary should
therefore be quite easily controlled by a relatively small Forest Depart-
ment staff.

Three small forest villages inside of the proposed sanctuary (Durgarum,
Dabirpet, and Timmapur), with a total population of less than 300
people, will be resettled elsewhere on Forest Department lands. A
number of villages north and east of Pakhal Lake were too large to permit
such action. Therefore, they will be excluded from the sanctuary by
the boundary line. Initially the exclusion from the sanctuary of almost
4000 head of livestock from these villages may present some difficulties.
However, there are sufficient grazing lands available for these animals
either in the immediate vicinity of the villages or in Forest Department
lands south and east of the sanctuary. There is no justifiable reason
why domestic livestock should not be completely and permanently ex-
cluded from the entire sanctuary. Such problems should be met and
permanently settled as soon as possible.

ECOLOGY

The Pakhal Wild Life Sanctuary is located at an elevation of 850 feet
above sea-level. There are no perennial streams in the area. However,
the lake, which attains a maximum depth of 18 feet, is fed by a number of
ephemeral streams. Rainfall is monsoonal (June-September) and the
average annual precipitation is about 40 inches (1000 mm.). The maxi-
mum temperature during summer (March-June) is 114°0° F. (45°5° C.)
and the minimum during winter (November-February) is 59°20 F.,
(ia; 1° C.).

Flora
The forests in the sanctuary area, according to Champion’s classifi-
cation, are of the southern dry mixed deciduous type and their density

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

varies from 5 to 7. The forest height is generally from 30 to 40 feet,
but along the ravines or nullahs the trees often attain a height of about
60 feet.

The predominant species of trees are : maddi (Terminalia tomentosa),
tirman (Anogeissus latifolia) and nalla kodsha (Cleistanthus collinus).
Also common are: anduk (Boswellia serrata), billu (Chloroxylon swietenia),
' tooki (Diospyros choloroxylon), sundra (Acacia sundra), tapsi (Sterculia
urens) and kondagogu (Cochlospermum religiosum). Teak (Tectona
grandis) is common in some parts of the sanctuary and numerous other _
tree species are relatively common in others. Theega moduga (Butea
superba) and parki (Acacia caesia) are the most common climbers. There
are very few shrubs or bushes in the area.

Fauna

Numerous species of birds were observed during my brief visit.
Among the more obvious noted were: peafowl, grey junglefowl, both
grey and painted partridge, ring doves, green pigeon, mynas, babblers,
egrets, grey hornbills, roseringed and blossomheaded parakeets, cormo-
rants, herons, Indian rollers and woodpeckers, as well as many smaller
species. Other animals observed or reported to inhabit the sanctuary
and a relative index as to their abundance is given in Table 1. Gaur or
Indian ‘bison’ (Bos gaurus) are not found in the sanctuary, but are
common in the forests of the Salvai and Pasra ranges approximately
5 miles to the north-west. Among the fish that inhabit Pakhal Lake are
‘katla’ (Catla catla), ‘rohu’ (Labeo rohita) and‘ marul’ (Ophice-
phalus striatus).

VISITOR FACILITIES AND FOREST DEPARTMENT PROPOSALS

The nearest commercial airport to the Pakhal Wild Life Sanctuary
is at Hyderabad (Begumpet), 118 miles to the south-west. Flights from
other major cities in India arrive there daily. There is also an airstrip
at Mannoor, about 30 miles from the sanctuary near Warangal. Private
or chartered planes may land there by special permission. Railway
stations are located at Kazipet (Warangal), which adjoins Hanamkonda,
and at Nekkonda, which is 20 miles from Pakhal. Public transport
can be taken from either of these places to the sanctuary. The first
21 miles of road from Hanamkonda to Pakhal is blacktopped and the
last 7 miles is a good metalled road. Although the sanctuary is readily
accessible by car throughout the year, the best season for visitors is
from October until March.

There are presently less than 10 miles of forest roads within the
proposed sanctuary. However, the Forest Department proposes to
build a ‘ringroad’ around the lake, as well as ‘feeder’ roads to

J. Bompay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) oe PrAte |

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above : Pakhal Lake as seen from the Sarovihar Rest House; Below: A male
four-horned antelope.

(Photos ; Author)

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WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 7

six watchtowers in the interior of the sanctuary, by the end of 1971. In
addition to the road that now bisects the sanctuary south of the lake,
the ringroad will entail the construction of another 15 miles of road.
The feeder roads leading to the watchtowers will average about 2 miles
each. Artificial salt licks also will be constructed in the vicinity of the
watchtowers. These improvements should permit visitors to view wild
life, particularly during the summer when the animals are concentrated
around Pakhal Lake which is the only available source of water during
the dry season. The Forest Department also plans to provide a jeep
and to have a riding elephant stationed at the forest rest house for the
use of visitors.

Pakhal Lake has the potential of becoming a noted fishing area, as
well as a recreational site for boating, camping, and picnicking. The
Forest Department presently has a row-boat stationed at the lake for the
use of visitors and plans to have a motor-boat available in the near future.
Some forest areas adjoining the lake, particularly the area just below the
dam, are excellent picnic sites and their development as such should be
considered.

There are two rest houses within the sanctuary. Both have magnifi-
cent views of Pakhal Lake and are located along its shores. One (Saro-
vihar) is located across the dam on the western shore. It has four suites
and is presently under the control of the Tourist Department (Directorate
of Publicity and Information), but should come under the jurisdiction
of the Forest Department during the early part of 1967. A cook and
modern conveniences, such as electricity provided by a small generator,
are available here. The other rest house is located about a half-mile
south of Sarovihar, a short distance from where the road from Hanam-
konda enters the sanctuary. This Forest Department Rest House has
three suites, but presently is not provided with modern conveniences.
The Forest Department proposes to renovate the building and to provide
the services of both a cook and an electric generator priorto 1968. Infor-
mation concerning the sanctuary or reservations for accommodations
can be obtained from either the Divisional Forest Officer, Mahbubabad,
Warangal District, or from the Chief Conservator of Forests in Hydera-
bad.

The most important of the Forest Department’s proposals are the
strict prohibition of domestic livestock grazing and the discontinuation
of forest operations, including the collection of minor forest produce,
inside the sanctuary. Plans for clearly demarcating the sanctuary and
providing amenities for visitors, i.e., accommodation, roads, transpor-
tation, and so forth, are also noteworthy. Among other improvements
envisioned are: the provision of six watch-towers near artificial salt licks,
road blocks to control movements inside the sanctuary, the construction
of quarters for the sanctuary staff, the provision of a library on wild life

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

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WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 9

in one of the rest houses, and the purchase of equipment which will better
enable members of the sanctuary staff to perform their duties, 1.e., a type-
writer, binoculars, bicycles for the Assistant Game Wardens and Game
Trackers, etc. A detailed working plan and budget for the implemen-
tation of the proposals and for the maintenance of the sanctuary staff
has already been submitted to the State Government by the Forest

Department.

DISCUSSION

The scenic beauty of Pakhal Lake in its sylvan setting is sufficient
grounds for setting this area apart as a park or recreational site. The
wild life may be classified as an added attraction. Although relatively
few wild mammals were observed during my visit, their numbers should
soon increase if the proposed measures to prohibit all livestock grazing
and forest exploitation inside the sanctuary are fully implemented. The
possibilities are very good that within a few years visitors may readily
observe numerous animals such as chital, nilgai, sambar, and so on.

It is to be hoped that in the implementation of the measures proposed
by the Forest Department the sanctuary will be retained in as natural a
state as possible ; that an excessive number of roads will not be cons-
tructed ; that the areas surrounding the rest houses or the quarters of
the administrative staff will not be permitted to become virtual villages
within the sanctuary ; and that the recommendations of the Indian
Board for Wild Life (Gee 1962) and other international organizations
concerned with conservation will be carefully considered and as closely
adhered to as possible in the development of this outstanding area.

Administrative personnel for the Pakhal Wild Life Sanctuary should
be carefully chosen. Men witha genuine interest in wild life conservation
should be given preference. If at all possible, the staff members should
also become acquainted with some of the basic concepts of wild life
management. Once the basic amenities for visitors are available at the
sanctuary, a publicity programme should be initiated to help as many
people as possible become aware of what this area has to offer. A conti-
nued programme of conservation education should also be maintained.
Competent biologists should be encouraged to conduct scientific studies
of the sanctuary’s wild life. Check-lists of the flora and fauna should
also be compiled, both for the information of visitors and the Forest
Department staff. A visitor’s book should be maintained so that all who
enter the sanctuary may record their observations concerning the sanc-
tuary’s wild life.

A wild life sanctuary is an investment in the future. Like any sound
business it requires a capital outlay, upkeep, and proper management
before a substantial return may be realized. In my opinion, the present
proposals of the Forest Department are a major step in the right direction,

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

III. THE ETURNAGARAM WILD LIFE SANCTUARY |

INTRODUCTION

A 310-square mile area 40 miles north of Hanamkonda in the Warangal
Forest Division, Warangal District, was constituted in 1953 by the
Government of the State of Hyderabad as the Eturnagaram Wild Life
Sanctuary. This extensive area covers the entire forest blocks of Chittal
and Tadvai. The Godavari River forms the eastern boundary of the
sanctuary and the other three sides are demarcated by boundary lines
through the forests. However, similar to the situation in the Pakhal
Wild Life Sanctuary, little more has been done for the protection or
management of the Sanctuary’s wild life than to prohibit legal shooting.
Extensive forest exploitation, domestic livestock grazing and other
activities have been and are presently being practiced inside the sanctuary.
There are 44 villages, with a total cattle population of almost 10,000 head,
in Eturnagaram. In addition, a few professional graziers also operate
in this area. In spite of these many activities, many parts of the sanctuary
are still relatively little spoiled by man and provide prime wild life
habitat.

Itis presently proposed by the Forest Department that the Eturnagaram
Wild Life Sanctuary be reduced in size to a more manageable unit. This
would consist of an approximately 150-square-mile area, the Tadvai
Forest Block, south of the Laknavaram River. The Laknavaram would
then form both the northern and western boundaries of the sanctuary
and the Godavari River the eastern boundary. The Tadvai Reserved
Forest would adjoin the sanctuary to the south (Map 2). The Chittal
Forest Block north of the Laknavaram is relatively inaccessible, parti-
cularly during the monsoon season. It also contains a larger number
of forest villages than does the Tadvai Block. The main road from
Hanamkonda passes through the Tadvai Block and the sanctuary’s
three forest rest houses are located along this road. Therefore, it appears
that the Forest Department is wise in attempting to concentrate their
efforts in the preservation and management of this more restricted area ~
as a true wild life sanctuary, rather than to retain a more extensive area
as a wild life sanctuary in name only.

ECOLOGY

The Eturnagaram Wild Life Sanctuary is located at an elevation of
about 251 feet above sea-level. Although there are a number of ephemeral
streams inside the sanctuary, the Godavari and Laknavaram rivers are
the only source of perennial water. Rainfall is monsoonal (June-Septem-
ber). Data as to the average annual precipitation, and maximum and

ETURNAGARAM WILD LIFE SANCTUARY
WARANGAL FOREST DIVISION

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Map 2. General Map of the Eturnagaram Wild Life Sanctuary, Andhra
Pradesh. It is presently proposed that the sanctuary be
reduced in size to include only the Tadvai Forest
Block south of the Laknavaram River.

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WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 11

minimum temperatures for this area are not available. However, the
more luxuriant vegetation indicates that Eturnagaram receives more
rainfall than does Pakhal, even though it is only about 30 air miles
away.

Flora

The forests of Eturnagaram are classified as southern dry mixed
deciduous, the same as for Pakhal, but they are more dense and have an
average height of 40 to 60 feet. Second and third class teak, maddi and
tirman are the predominant tree species in Eturnagaram. In contrast,
teak is relatively uncommon in most parts of Pakhal. The proportion
of other tree species, such as anduk, billu, sundra, tapsi, and so forth,
are more or less the same for the two areas. However, the undercover
is more dense in Eturnagaram and Dendrocalamus Strictus predominates.

Fauna

In general, animal life (including birds, mammals, and reptiles) is
similar for both Pakhal and Eturnagaram Wild Life Sanctuaries. How-
ever, large mammals are presently more abundant and more readily
seen in Eturnagaram. Also, gaur are common in Eturnagaram while
absent in Pakhal, and blackbuck are probably absent in Eturnagaram
but present in Pakhal. Little is known concerning the species of fish in

the Godavari and Laknavaram Rivers in the vicinity of Eturnagaram.

We observed fair numbers of sambar, chital, and nilgai during the
afternoon and evening of November 19. The presence of gaur was also
very much in evidence. The following morning the Forest Department
conducted a beat or haka along the western edge of the sanctuary. We
arose prior to 4 o’clock in the morning and quietly took our positions
as ‘counters’ in machans along a cleared line through the forest.
At dawn, over 500 men (some 450 villagers + 50 Forest Department
personnel) moved systematically through a one-square-mile forest area.
‘Stoppers’ had been placed at strategic locations along the sides and
the 19 ‘counters’ recorded the animals that crossed the cleared line
to the right of their machans. The operation was the third conducted
in this area during the past four years. Such checks give an indication
of trends in wild life populations and should be repeated at yearly inter-
vals. Everything was well-planned and executed. The total count for
large mammals in this square mile was : 1 barking deer, 8 chital, 5 sambar,
1 male gaur, and 2 sloth bear.

VISITOR FACILITIES

The city nearest to the Eturnagaram Wild Life Sanctuary is Hanam-
konda, 40 miles south of the western boundary. The nearest railway
Station is at Kazipet (Warangal) adjoining Hanamkonda. The road from

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Hanamkonda to the western edge of the sanctuary is black-topped and the
P.W.D. road, which crosses the southern part of the sanctuary to the
Eturnagaram Forest Rest House, is metalled. There are an additional
10 or 12 miles of metalled roads inside the sanctuary, as well as an
estimated 160 miles of jeepable roads or cart tracks. At present the
only means of transport to or within the sanctuary is by private vehicle.

There are three rest houses in the Eturnagaram Sanctuary area.
Tadvai has one suite and Eturnagaram and Salvai each have two. In-
formation concerning the sanctuary or reservations for the forest rest
houses at Tadvai or Eturnagaram can be obtained from the Warangal
Divisional Forest Officer in Warangal. Salvai, as well as the Traveller’s
Bungalow with four suites and all facilities in Hanamkonda, is under the
jurisdiction of the P.W.D. Divisional Engineer in Warangal. In addition
to the rest houses at Eturnagaram, there are also residential quarters and
17 Forest Guard Stations for the sanctuary staff, which consists of a
Deputy Range Officer and 15 Forest Guards.

DISCUSSION

Eturnagaram has the potential of becoming an outstanding wild life
sanctuary. However, primarily due to its relatively inaccessible location
and the fact that there are no notable scenic or archaeological attractions
near-by, the immediate development of this area as a major tourist attrac-
tion probably should not be initiated at the present time by the Forest
Department. Nevertheless, immediate steps should be taken to preserve
and protect this area so that it may some day achieve its full potential
as one of India’s notable wild life sanctuaries. Such measures should
entail: the strict control of livestock grazing within the sanctuary ; if
possible, the forest villages inside the Tadvai Forest Block should be
relocated outside the sanctuary or at least settled or cultivated areas in
the sanctuary should be restricted to their present limits; that the sanc-
tuary staff be indoctrinated in the basic concepts of wild life conser-
vation and be made aware of the value of the wild life resources under
their jurisdiction ; and that existing facilities, ic. roads and rest houses,
be maintained and gradually improved. Also, if forest exploitation is
continued within the sanctuary, wild life should be carefully considered
in the Forest Department’s working plans. Wild life is an important
and integral part of the State’s forest resources and like the trees should
be managed for the greatest benefit for the greatest number of people in
thelongrun. Visitor books, as well as a record of wild life observations
by the staff, should be maintained in the sanctuary. Wild life studies
should be encouraged in this area and regular inventories or checks, such
as the ‘ hakas’ conducted during recent years, should be continued so
that the Forest Department will have a sound basis upon which to for-
mulate management plans, |

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 13
IV. OTHER WILD LIFE AREAS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

THE QAWAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

A 200-square-mile area in the Jannaram Forest Range, Mancherial
Division of Adilabad District, was declared a wild life sanctuary in June
1964. The nearest airport is at Hyderabad (Begumpet) 180 miles to the
north. The nearest railway station is at Mancherial, 40 miles to the
South-east. Regular scheduled buses are available from Mancherial to
the sanctuary. Forest rest houses are available at Jannaram and
Birsaipot. Information or reservations can be obtained from the
Jannaram Divisional Forest Officer in the Adilabad District. Although
I did not have the opportunity of visiting this sanctuary, it is reported
that tiger, leopard, sloth bear, wild boar, sambar, chital, barking deer,
nilgai, and blackbuck are among the animals that inhabit this area.

KOLLERU

Kolleru Lake in the West Godavari District, which is under the juris-
diction of the Public Works Department, is a notable area for water
birds. Of particular interest are the large concentrations of spotted-
billed or grey pelicans, as well as migratory waterfowl during the winter,
on or in the vicinity of this lake.

The pelicanry is situated between the towns of Ganapavaram and
Undiin West Godavari District. Itis 7 to 8 miles from Kolleru Lake.

December to February is the best season to visit the pelicanry.

Accommodation for visitors is available at Ganapavaram, Undi,
Akkivedu and Bhimavaram in the existing travellers’ bungalows.

THE POCHARAM WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

This sanctuary could be developed into a bird sanctuary. There is
a tank in the notified area and efforts are being made to develop it into
a bird sanctuary. Pocharam is in Medak District.

NEHRU ZOOLOGICAL PARK

The Nehru Zoological Park in Hyderabad is not, strictly speaking, a
wild life area. However, over 135 species of wild birds have been re-
corded during recent years within its 302-acre walled-in enclosure. Good
numbers of waterfowl may also be observed in the zoo’s ‘ bird sanctuary ’
during the migratory season. I also observed several free roaming
troops of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) within the zoo’s confines.
However, the large number of both endemic and exotic forms of animal

14. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

life belonging to the garden deserves mention. To a great extent these
animals are housed in modern enclosures, rather than in cages.

The zoological park is supervised by the Forest Department. AlI-
though it was started only recently in 1959 and is still in the develop-
mental stages, it already presents a notable collection of animals. The
setting is unique. A 13,200-foot solid masonry wall encloses a beauti-
ful desert scrub forest and on one end abuts the Miralam Tank, a 400-
acre lake formed by an arched masonry dam built in 1806. Added
attractions include : a swimming pool, boat, elephant, camel, goat cart
and pony rides ; a house-boat available for parties on the lake and two
well-furnished guest houses overlooking the lake. Reservations for the
house-boat or guest houses may be made through the Curator stationed
in the park.

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Mr. P. S. Rao (Chief Conservator of Forests) and the
Forest Department for their assistance and gracious hospitality during
my brief tour of some of the notable wild life areas in Andhra Pradesh.
Particularly I am grateful to Messrs. Mazharuddin Ahmed (Deputy Chief
Conservator of Forests), M. S. Khan (Warangal Circle Conservator of
Forests), A. V. R. G. Krishnamurthy (Karimnagar East Divisional
Forest Officer), P. Kumar (Curator, Nehru Zoological Park), as well as
to other Forest Department personnel too numerous to mention indi-
vidually. Without exception all were very hospitable, patiently answered
my numerous questions, and attempted to give me a true picture of the
status of the wild life in the areas under their jurisdiction.

VI. REFERENCES

Geez, E. P. (1962): The Management National Parks. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and Soc. 59 (2) : 453-466.

Wild Life in Gujarat State’
BY

J. JUAN SPILLETT

(With four plates and two maps)

I. INTRODUCTION a, 3% me se Mid 6
II. THE Gir WILD LIFE SANCTUARY ... ae te we Vel 7
Introduction ai oe fe se SHEET:
Ecology.. ae ay unt AE fe 17

Flora Le a ae at m1 7118

Fauna ah SP 34 1), eo

Visitor Facilities .. i of: ov Ee 19
Discussion a: a ui he Neo |
Livestock Grazing Ee at i Tea S

Forest Exploitation ts ae at See ae a:

Poaching Mir Bt 5 of AGL WL BAP de

Fire Fe a; a: ne Sta THOT.

Wild Life Management .. a i area Ie |

III. THE WILD ASSES OF THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH e fee 30
Introduction aS a a ate se OO

The Little Rann... e: as = Stora
Vegetation ee Me ay igs ppd ie 9

Fauna A wn ne ms acta ite 6

The Indian Wild Ass * a; he pe Sa
Description .. “fe Ae a ae ag

Group Size .. a ws ms Brae |)

Populations .. ie ay ie a hie (5

Disease ie ay ed = eee eT)

Human influence es As, ae SO

Discussion and Recommendations Be oH bers. |

IV. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ie cs at mah 92
Introduction By aps He * ve 42

The Great Indian Bustard As bie ie, o> 42

V. NAL SAROVAR en oe BG os a: .. 44
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. Ate ae oe: ee
VII. REFERENCES ie re . - is... 46

_ 4This survey was officially sponsored by the World Wildlife Fund, Morges,
Switzerland. The project was also assisted by The Johns Hopkins University and its

enter for Medical Research and Training, Calcutta, India, and Baltimore, Maryland
(U.S.A.). Mr. E. P. Gee, member of the Indian Board for Wild Life, made the necessary
arrangements with the Government of India and the Forest Department of Gujarat,
both of which extended the fullest co-operation.

ié JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)
TABLES

Table 1. Names of some of the mammals inhabiting the Gir Wild Life Sanc-

tuary, Gujarat : De a2
Table 2. Indian Wild Asses observed in the Little Rann of Kutch in December
1966 Aas ae st be 502 36

I INTRODUCTION

The State of Gujarat in north-western India comprises three geogra-
phical regions : (1) the Kathiawar Peninsula, jutting out into the Arabian
Sea and traditionally known as Saurashtra ; (2) Kutch, the lowlands in
the north bordering West Pakistan and Rajasthan, including the barren
desert wastes of the Little and Great Ranns; and (3) the mainland of
Gujarat, between the rivers Banas and Damanganga. Typical natural
vegetation for most of the State is desert scrub. The Gir Forest, a dry
deciduous stunted or scrub forest of relatively little commercial value, is
the only extensive forest area in this part of Gujarat. Annual rainfall
varies between 25 and 50 inches (65-127 cm.) for most of the State. The
arid zones of Surendranagar and north Gujarat receive even less.
Mountainous regions are comparatively lacking, although steep, barren
and rocky hills dominate the skyline in many parts. |

Relatively little wild life is presently found in Gujarat. However,
the State has the distinction of harbouring three extremely rare faunal
species. The Gir Forest in the Junagadh District, is the last stronghold
of the Asiatic Lion [Panthera leo persica (Meyer)]. The Indian Wild
Ass (Equus hemionus khur Lesson) is almost completely restricted to the
Little Rann of Kutch. The Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps
Vigors) was formerly distributed throughout most of the Indian Union,
but now appears to be restricted to a few isolated areas in Gujarat and
neighbouring States. In addition, the Great Rann of Kutch is the only
known nesting ground in India of the Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus
Pallas).

The last ‘ census’ of the Gir lions was conducted in 1963. At that
time the total population was determined to be about 285 lions.
Mr. E. P. Gee undertook a survey in 1962 to determine the status of the
Indian Wild Ass. He then estimated a total population of 870 asses,
of which all but about 10 permanently resided in the Little Rann. The
Great Indian Bustard is extremely rare and apparently on the verge of
extinction. Facts concerning its present or even recent distribution and
numbers are not available.

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WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 17

II. THE GIR WILD LIFE SANCTUARY =

INTRODUCTION

The Gir Forest covers an area of over 500 square miles (1,334 sq.
km.) in the centre of the Kathiawar Peninsula of Gujarat. Over 480
square miles (313,459 acres) of Reserved Forest were officially designated
as the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary in September 1965 (Agriculture and Co-
operation Department, Notification No. GH-KH/97-WLP/660/62848-P,
Sachivalaya, Ahmedabad, 18 Sept. 1965).

Besides being the only extensive forest tract in this part of Gujarat, the
Gir is particularly noted for being the last stronghold of the Asiatic
Lion. Lions appear to have ranged over the whole of Central Europe
in prehistoric times. During historical times they were spread from
Greece and Palestine, throughout the Middle East, including
Mesopotamia, Persia, and Baluchistan. In India they inhabited practi-
cally the whole of the northern and central parts of the country, extend-
ing from Sind to Bengal and from the Ganges and Indus to the banks
of the Narbada. During the early 1800’s they were still abundant in
many parts of India, but by the latter part of the century were only
sporadically reported from a few areas in northern and western India.
It appears that by the early part of the 20th century most of the few
Asiatic Lions that remained were confined to the vicinity of the Gir Forest.
Measures were finally taken to halt the indiscriminate slaughter of the
lion. Asa result, their numbers have gradually increased until presently
it is claimed that there are about 285 in the Gir Sanctuary.

Rather than keep all their ‘ lions in one basket’ the Forest Depart-
ment captured three specimens (one male and 2 females) and released
them in the Chakia Forest south-east of Banaras in Uttar Pradesh in 1957.
This is within the precincts of the Chandraprabha Wild Life Sanctuary
and was reported to be a favourable area for the re-introduction of the
lion. Although this attempt did not prove as fruitful as was expected,
there are reliable reports of lion being sighted in this area as late as the
fall of 1966 and the transplant may yet prove successful.

ECOLOGY

The terrain of the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary consists of steep, rocky
hills with deep ravines or nullahs. The maximum elevation is 1741 feet
above mean sea-level. The primary sources of perennial water are the
Hiran, Singoda, Ardak, Machhundra and Rawal rivers. The Hiran
passes near the Forest Bungalow at Sasan and the Raval is located in the
southern part of the sanctuary. In addition, a number of scattered
water-holes provide water during much of the year. These are located

y}

i8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

along the rocky nullahs, which serve as watercourses for the numerous
ephemeral streams. Wells and water troughs have been provided in
many parts of the sanctuary by the graziers for their livestock. In 1958
the Kamleshwar Dam was constructed across the Hiran River several
miles upstream from Sasan. This normally impounds a several square
mile lake, but was practically dry during my visit.

The average annual rainfall in the Gir is normally about 35 inches
(889 mm.). However, only 20 inches of precipitation were recorded dur-
ing 1965 and 17 inches during 1966. Rainfall is monsoonal and, although
somewhat irregular, the rains generally begin in early July and end by
late October. Occasional showers often occur in January and February,
but at least six months of the year are usually completely dry. The
maximum and minimum temperatures are 106°F. and 46°F. in May
and January respectively. However, temperatures of over 100°F.
(37°8°C.) are common during the summer (April-July) and minimum
temperatures during the winter (November-March) rarely drop below
55 ol ey),

Flora

The Gir is predominantly a dry mixed deciduous forest. Near the
extremities it becomes an open thorny scrub type, comparable to the
vegetation in many desert areas of the State. Teak-(Tectona grandis),
‘although poor in size and quality, accounts for over 50 per cent of the
tree stand on the better soils. Babul (Acacia arabica) is also abundant
‘and probably accounts for about 25 per cent of the total tree growth.
Other species present include : sadad (Terminalia tomentosa), behda (T.
belerica), tendu or timru (Diospyros melanoxylon), haldu (Adina cordifolia),
sissam (Dalbergia sissoo), khair (Acacia catechu), karanj (Pongamia
pinnata), siris (Albizzia lebbek), krangsa (A. procera), mahuda (Madhuca
indica), anvla (Phyllanthus emblica), aritha (Sapindus emarginata), gar-
mala (Cassia fistula), jamun (Syzygium cumini), khakra (Butea monos-
perma), kudi (Wrightia tinctoria), aal (Morinda tinctoria), salie (Boswellia
serrata) and some patches of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) in moist
areas along the nullahs. Also,-a few Eucalyptus have been planted by
the Forest Department. There are few climbers, but thorny bushes
or shrubs are commonly intermingled with the trees. These consist
primarily of Acacia spp., ber (Z Peas mauratiana), guggal (Core

mukul), and so forth.

The trees in the Gir Forest, with very few exceptions, lose their leaves
during the dry season (December-July). The scattered * Flame of the
Forest’ or khakra (Butea monosperma), simul or semal (Bombax ceiba,
formerly Bombax malabaricum), and kadaya. or karaya-(Sterculia urens)
are then particularly evident because oftheir bright red blossoms, wee
contrast markedly with the stark-absence of leaves. :

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 19

Fauna

Bird life is abundant in the Gir Sanctuary and most of the species
found here are ably described in K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji’s book BIRDS
OF SAURASHTRA (1955). Among the more obvious birds observed during
my short visit were : Bonelli’s eagle, crested hawk eagle, white scavenger
vulture, whitebacked vulture, Indian pond heron or paddy bird, Indian
black ibis, common grey partridge or francolin, Indian roller, cattle
egret, wood sandpiper, redwattled lapwing, Indian roseringed parakeet
(nest in the Forest Bungalow), Indian spotted dove, peafowl, common
green bee-eater, hoopoe, blackheaded cuckoo-shrike, Dharmakumars’
small minivet, drongo, Indian brownbacked robin, Indian magpie robin,
redbreasted flycatcher, Jungle crow, treepie, jungle babbler, redvented
bulbul, pied bushchat, yellowheaded wagtail and common myna.

Reptiles present in the Gir Sanctuary include ; common cobra (Naja
naja), Indian python (Python molurus), monitor (Varanus sp.), mugger
(Crocodilus palustris), as well as undetermined species of lizards and
turtles. A number of small species of fish were also observed in the
Hiran River, but none of these would be of importance either commer-
cially or for sport.

Mr. P. K. Pandya, the Tourist Department Receptionist at Junagadh,
has been conducting tours to the Gir since January 1964. During his
numerous visits to the sanctuary he has observed many species of
mammals and has become acquainted with their local or gujarati names.
With his aid a table was compiled listing the mammals of the Gir Wild
Life Sanctuary and their local names (Table 1). _

VISITOR FACILITIES

The nearest airport to the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary is at Keshod, 42
miles (67 km.) by jeepable road north-west of the Forest Bungalow at
Sasan. A better road is via Veraval, 61 miles. Four flights per week
(Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday) arrive at Keshod from
Bombay. Transportation to Sasan and return may be arranged by prior
notification to the Sanctuary Superintendent. Sasan may also be reached
by overnight metre-guage train from Ahmedabad, via Khijadia Station.
The railway station at Sasan is only several hundred yards from the Forest
Bungalow. Regularly scheduled Tourist Department tours of the sanc-
tuary may likewise be takenfrom Junagadh, approximately 50 miles north
of Sasan via Mendarda.

' The Forest Bungalow at Sasan has 16 double rooms and modern
facilities, including electricity. Both food and lodging are provided at
nominal fees. A dormitory that can accommodate up to 40 people was
added recently to the facilities at Sasan. Reservations for food and/or
lodging at Sasan and transportation to and within the sanctuary should.

»

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

be made by writing to the Sanctuary Superintendent in Sasan-Gir at
least two weeks prior to arrival. Two vehicles are presently provided

TABLE 1
NAMES OF SOME OF THE MAMMALS INHABITING THE GIR WILD LIFE SANCTUARY,
GUJARAT

English Local or Gujarati Scientific
Common Langur Vandara Presbytis entellus
Asiatic Lion Untia Bagh (camel tiger) Panthera leo persica

Sinha (male)

Sinhan (female)
Leopard or Panther Dipado (male) Dipadi Panthera pardus

. (female)

Jungle Cat Bilado (male) Felis chaus

Biladi (female)
Small Indian Civet Vaniyar Viverricula indica
Common Mongoose Noliyo Herpestes edwardsi
Striped Hyena Jarakh Hyaena hyaena
Wolf Varu Canis lupus pallipes
Jackal Siyal Canis aureus
Indian Fox : Lonkadi Vulpes bengalensis
Ratel or Honey Badger Ghorkhodiya Mellivora capensis
Five-striped Palm Squirrel Khisakoli Funambulus pennanti
Indian Porcupine Shahudi Hystrix indica
Indian Hare Sasalu Lepus nigricollis
Chinkara or Indian Gazelle §Shikara Gazella gazella
Blackbuck or Indian Antelope Kaliyar Antilope cervicapra
Four-horned Antelope or Ghatudu Tetracerus quadricornis

Chousingha

Nilgai or Bluebull Rose (male) Rasadi (female) Boselaphus tragocamelus
Sambar Sabar Cervus unicolor
Chital or Spotted Deer Tipkivalaharan Axis axis
Indian Wild Boar Suvar Sus scrofa
Indian Pangolin Salvo Manis crassicaudata

for the use of visitors. Most of the sanctuary’s 300 miles of roads are
metalled and are maintained by the Forest Department. Although the
sanctuary can usually be reached throughout the year, travel sometimes
becomes difficult on these fair-weather roads during the monsoon (July-
October). Crossing on some of the ravines or nullahs become parti-
cularly uncertain. A tar road leads from Veraval to Talala, 14 miles
south of Sasan, as well as from Junagadh to Veraval via Keshod. The
next closest tar road ends at Mendarda, 24 miles north-west of Sasan.

The best season for visitors to the Gir is from January until May.
Weather conditions are rather uncertain during June. Although good
weather can generally be expected during November and December,
because of the high grass and dense undergrowth, the animals are usually
rather difficult to observe during these months. The best time to see the
maximum number of wild animals is during the dry season. However,
temperatures from April until the monsoon breaks in late June or early
July often exceed 100°F. (38°C.).

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 21

The ‘ lion shows ’ are the outstanding attraction in the Gir Sanctuary.
These are scheduled for a minimum fee of Rs. 80 per group of from 1 to 8
visitors. Each additional person is charged Rs. 10. On the second
Sunday of each month the fee is Rs. 10 per person, regardless of the
number of visitors in the party. Prior to July 1966 the minimum fee
was Rs. 150 per ‘ lion show’ for each group of 20 or part thereof. The
number of ‘lion shows’ presented to visitors increased from 192 in
1963 to 236 in 1964 and 292 in 1965. The number of visitors recorded
by the Forest Department varied from 3,645 for 1963-64 to 3,530 for
1964-65 and 4,377 for 1965-66. The decrease in 1964-65 can be attri-
buted to the Indo-Pakistani conflict. In all cases less than 10 per cent of
the total were foreigners. Tourist Department, tours from Junagadh
also brought over 2,000 Indian and 240 foreign visitors to the sanctuary
in 1965.

Twelve ‘shikaris’ are permanently employed in the Sanctuary to
track or locate lions for visitors. The ‘shikaris’ are assigned regular
beats and during the morning attempt to locate groups or prides of lions
within a 15-mile radius of Sasan. If necessary, they lead the lions with
a bait to an area more easily accessible to visitors. Then, during the
afternoon or early evening, they guide the visitors to the lions. The
‘ shikaris ’ are excellent trackers and claim to ‘know’ about 30 indi-
vidual lions within the vicinity of Sasan. These lions can usually be
observed and photographed by visitors on foot at distances of less than
50 feet.

The historic temple of Somnath near Veraval is of interest, as well
as the two near-by holy places of the Hindus—Bhalka Teerth and
Dehotsarga. The earthly remains of the most popular God of the
Hindus, Lord Krishna, were supposed to have been cremated here.
Three Hindu temples are also located in the Sanctuary. Satadhar is
approximately 16 miles north-east of Sasan. Kankai is about 17 miles
south-east. And Tulsishyam is also south-east about 50 miles. Free
board and lodging are reportedly provided for pilgrims to these shrines.

Forest Department personnel assigned to the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary
and charged with assisting and providing for the needs of visitors consist
of a Sanctuary Superintendent assisted by other officers and staff
totalling 42.

DISCUSSION

The Gir Wild Life Sanctuary presents one of the most interesting wild
life areas in India. Besides being the last stronghold of the Asiatic Lion
and the only extensive forest area in this part of Gujarat, its numerous
faunal forms are impressive and deserve major consideration. It is
true that some of the lions prey upon domestic livestock. However,
other wild animals, such as deer, antelope, and pig, form the basic food

Da JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

supply for the lion and without their presence in fair numbers the survival
of the lion would be highly jeopardized. Thus, the preservation of the
Gir lions entails the proper management of all the sanctuary’s wild life,
including the floral as well as faunal forms.

The 1965 Act which designated the major portion of the then Gir
Reserved Forest as a wild life sanctuary is highly commendable.. How-
ever, aS was recommended by the Indian Board for Wild Life in 1963,
it is hoped that shortly the Gir will be upgraded to the official status of a
national park. This action of merely converting the status of the
sanctuary would provide two basic advantages. First, a national park
necessitates an Act of the State Legislature and can only be unmade by
an Act of that legislature. On the other hand, a sanctuary can be formed
by a gazette notification and can as easily be unmade. Therefore, a
national park is much more immune to adverse changes in policies and to
political expediency. Second, designating an area as a national park
gives it greater prestige and indicates, particularly to foreign tourists,
that it is an area of national significance. The Gir has the potential of
being one of India’s outstanding national parks and this potential should
be realized as soon as possible.

The ideal faunal national park is as free as possible from foman
activities, such as settlements, cultivation, forest exploitation, livestock
grazing and so forth. These problems will be discussed briefly. How-
ever, it does not follow that because some of them are present in an area
it cannot become a national park.

Cultivation

The present human population within the confines of the Gir Wild
Life Sanctuary, in my opinion, is not excessive. Although located in the
Gir Forest, 3,000 acres belonging to the Dharmada Institution of
Tulsishyam and 863 acres pertaining to the villages of Sasan, Najanpur
Chhataria, Karasangadh and Gundiyah were excluded from the sanctuary
when it was established in 1965. Of the latter 863 acres, 87 pertain to
village sites and 776 are cultivated lands. These lands have been demar-
cated and are limited to their present size.

Major crops are cotton, millet, corn or maize, and wheat. The soils
in this region are rocky and for the most part can probably be classified
as submarginal agricultural lands. Therefore, there is little justifiable
reason to permit additional lands to be cleared for cultivation. If the
cultivated areas are strictly limited to their present confines, they should
not be a deterrent to the establishment of the Gir Sanctuary asa national
park. Probably of greater significance than cultivation are other
practises of the people within the sanctuary, such as the grazing of live-
stock, the use of “ crop protection ’ guns and the occasional use of poisons
or other means for killing lions and other wild life.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA Pie,

Livestock Grazing |

In addition to permanent village sites, temporary villages or camping
places called ‘nesses’ are common throughout the Gir Sanctuary.
Graziers or ‘ maldharis’ centre their extensive livestock grazing opera-
tions around these. Some of the sanctuary’s principal ‘ nesses’ are
Kansia, Sandhbeda, Devalia, Kapuria, Gadakia and Dedakdi.
Although their number is presently specified, they may be shifted from
- one site to another by permission of the Range Forest Officer.

It is estimated that there are over 500 families of ‘maldharis’ in the
Gir and that they graze over 15,000 head of livestock. Goats and sheep,
with the exception of a special permit for about 200 goats near Sasan, are
supposedly prohibited. However, I counted over 300 head in two flocks
west of Sasan. The number of cattle or buffalo is not specified. The
only requirement is that a very nominal grazing fee for adult animals (50
paise per adult buffalo and 25 paise per adult cow) must be paid to the
Forest Department. Young or immature animals are permitted free of
charge. There are no further restrictions as to the number of cattle or
buffalo that are grazed, as long as the grazing fees are paid.

Where there is good grazing for wild ungulates there is also good
grazing for domestic livestock. If domestic livestock grazing cannot
be excluded from an area dedicated to the preservation of wild life, then
the problem is to reconcile the two diverse objectives. This demands that
grazing be controlled and regulated under a policy of wise land use.
And, in most cases, this means a reduction in the number of domestic
animals. There were some areas observed in the Gir which appeared
to be almost completely untouched by domestic livestock. However,
almost RU exception, areas surrounding the permanent villages and
‘nesses’ were severely overgrazed for considerable distances into the
forest. The recent and prolonged drought is undoubtedly a factor to be
considered. Nevertheless, in any case the carrying capacity of the forage
should never be exceeded. Forage resources should be carefully and
periodically evaluated and measures then taken to ensure that the carry-
ing capacity is not surpassed by either domestic or wild ungulates.

When nature is abused she often retaliates with drastic actions.
Once choice lands throughout much of the world are now barren and
rocky deserts because of the abuses of man and his livestock. Parti-
cular care must be exercised in arid areas, such as the Gir Forest. Only
a year or two of excessive overgrazing in such areas may result in habitat
destruction that may take nature a century or more to repair—even with
complete protection.

Good forage conditions will result ; in better production of both milk
and work by domestic animals, as well as help to maintain the animals
‘in a healthy and vigorous condition. The incidence of diseases and
parasites in both domestic and wild animals likewise will be reduced.

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Also, the maintenance of good numbers of wild ungulates will reduce the
number of domestic animals taken by lion. This in turn will reduce the
amount of compensation that the Forest Department has to pay to
villagers or ‘maldharis.’ Thus, Rs. 7000-8000 per year, paid for livestock
compensation during 1965, could be put to better use in developing the
sanctuary. In short, there is much to be gained through proper land
use, which includes the control of livestock numbers. But, literally all
can be lost if the present trend of ever increasing numbers of domestic
livestock is permitted to continue.

Forest Exploitation

Wild life is an integral part of any natural forest. As such it deserves
full consideration in all forest operations or exploitation. Forest
management involves wild life management and vice versa. Under
proper management both the forests and their wild life are managed so
as to provide the greatest benefits to all concerned over a sustained period
of time. Nevertheless, proper management will vary remarkably from
one area to another. For example, forest produce will rightfully receive
prior consideration in some areas, while wild life may be considered only
as a by-product. In other areas, particularly those set aside as wild life
sanctuaries or national parks, the wild life should receive major
consideration and the forests in many cases may not be exploited at all for
produce. Generally speaking, however, the relative values of forest
produce and wild life should be carefully considered. Then, in so far as
is possible, both should be managed-on a sustained yield basis.

The forests of the Gir Sanctuary are extensively exploited for produce.
Although very few of the trees have much commercial value for lumber,
they are utilized primarily for fire wood and small timber, which is used
for light construction. Selected * coupes’ are clear-felled and frequently
replanted with teak. Livestock grazing is prohibited for several years on
these recently cleared or teak plantation ‘coupes’, but grass cutting is
permitted on a contract basis. Minor forest produce is also of im-
portance and includes such items as wild fruits, soap nuts, “‘tendu’ leaf
(used instead of paper for rolling cigarettes), gums, wild honey and so
forth. These are usually collected on a permit basis by people living
in or near the sanctuary.

I feel that it is impractical and illogical to advocate the cessation of all
forest exploitation in the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary. However, the wild
life should receive major consideration and all forest exploitation should
be managed so as to interfere as little as possible with the function of the
area-as a wild life sanctuary.

It would be desirable if the Forest Department would demarcate and
maintain a fairly extensive area free from all forest exploitation, includ-
ing the grazing of domestic livestock. In other words, an inviolate

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA Zz

‘Sanctum Sanctorum’, which would provide a refuge for wild animals
where they should be relatively immune to the disturbances of man.
Preferably, this would be within the vicinity of the Forest Bungalow at
Sasan. It would also permit visitors to view the unique wild life of this
region in almost a pristine setting.

Poaching

The extent to which poaching is a problem in the Gir Wild Life
Sanctuary is not known. It is difficult even to assess the severity of
violations in an area as complex as the Gir. First, the Gir covers over
500 square miles of steep rocky terrain. Then, there are over 300 miles
of roads within this area. These are used extensively as a thoroughfare
or for removing produce from the forest, as well as by local villagers with
their bullock carts and livestock. Thirdly, villages or ‘nesses’ are
distributed throughout the forest and ‘ maldharis’ and their livestock
are found almost everywhere. The Forest Department staff is limited.
Even if it were not, it would not be economically feasible continuously to
patrol this vast area. Complex as the situation is, practical measures
should still be as fully implemented as soon as possible to halt poaching
and other illegal activities in the Gir Sanctuary.

The sanctuary staff claims that the most common form of poaching
is from vehicles along the roads. Therefore, road blocks and periodic
inspections of all vehicles passing through or leaving the sanctuary, parti-
cularly at night, would probably help to check violations of this type.
Farmers within the sanctuary have ‘crop protection’ guns in their
possession. These villagers should be made to understand that these
guns are to be used only for their intended purpose and then only on
private lands. Even the carrying of arms in the sanctuary proper should
be considered as an offence. Likewise, except during the crop season,
the use of ‘ crop protection’ guns should be completely prohibited.

The use of pesticides or poisons by villagers to kill lion and other
carnivora has been greatly reduced by a livestock compensation policy.
Since 1964 the Forest Department has paid compensation for livestock
killed by lions. When an animal is killed under particular circumstances,
i.e., livestock must be corralled at night and accompanied by a herder
while in the forest during the daytime, the owner must report the incident
to the Forest Department. The Range Forest Officer must then inspect
the kill to ascertain that it is a bona fide claim and to assess the true value
of the animal. He then sends a claim to the Divisional Forest Officer,
who reimburses the villager or ‘ maldhari’ for his loss. The value of
animals killed is based upon their utility and is said to be about half of
what the owners generally claim. An average of between Rs. 250 and
300 per animal or a total of over Rs. 7000 was paid on claims during 1965.

All claims for livestock losses should be dealt with as fairly and as

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

quickly as possible so that the former methods of predator control will
not be reverted to. The Forest Department should also work closely
with the Agriculture Department to ensure that toxic materials are not
indiscriminately distributed to villagers. Although the particulars were
not available, it was reported that there were two or three cases of
pesticides (including rat poison) being used to kill wild life in the Gir in
1965. There should be little reason for such incidents in the future if
villagers are made aware of the policy of remuneration and if claims are
justly dealt with. Nevertheless, precautions should be taken to ensure
that they do not arise. —

Three lion cubs were reported killed in. August 1966. It was
reported that villagers stoned and then drove their buffalo over the cubs,
but this could not be proved. Another report stated that only one lion
cub was killed. Therefore, the case could not be prosecuted. Laws
should always be practical and just. Then the common people should
be informed as to what the laws are, how they will benefit by abiding by
them and the punishment involved in their violation. When evidence is
sufficient, law breakers should also be prosecuted to the fullest extent
of the law so as to serve as a deterrent to future infringements.

Each of the 12 ‘ shikaris ’ or Game Keepers employed in the sanctuary
is provided with an ancient muzzle-loading rifle. . These arms are sup-
posedly for the protection of visitors. However, those which I inspected
probably provide little more than a false sense of security. These
weapons should either be completely discarded or replaced with modern
rifles that would effectively protect a visitor should, for some. reason, a
usually docile lion suddenly becomes violent.

Shots were heard on two occasions during my first visit to the Gir in
1965 and once in 1966. While investigating one of these a ‘ shikari’
came out of the bushes from which I had heard the shot. I was unable
to communicate with him and I never did determine whether or not it
was he that had fired the shot and if he had, for what purpose. T his,
however, raises a point. Muzzle-loaders use black powder, which is
quite readily obtainable. Cartridges, on the other hand, are carefully
controlled and accurate records of their sale are kept on file. Therefore,
if the Forest Department replaced their maa Meee with ede
arms, their use could easily be checked.

Leopards are relatively common in many parts of iB Gir. Although
only infrequently seen, they are reported to visit Sasan and other villages.
almost- nightly. © On the other hand, lions rarely enter the villages.
Leopards are also noted for being particularly fond of goats and dogs.
Concerning the latter, the villagers in Sasan claim that because of their
fear of. leopards the dogs i in the village take refuge at night either in the
houses or on the roofs. What advantage a dog ona roof would have as
compared to the climbing ability of a leopard I do not know. But I did

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA. 27

observe that although there were numerous dogs around the village
during the daytime, they all seemed to disappear at night. This is rare
in Indian villages where dogs are commonly underfoot.no matter what
the time of day. The villagers further claimed that leopards are prob-
ably the greatest enemy of young lions and that lion cubs are killed by
leopards whenever they have the opportunity. If after careful investi-
gation this proves to be the case, the Forest Department in some cases
might be wise to control leopard numbers.

Fire

The Gir Forest is almost completely dry for at least six months of the
year. During this period fires often become a problem. The primary
sources of fire are sparks from the coal-burning trains, which pass
through the sanctuary, and villagers or ‘ maldharis ’, who sometimes set
fires with the belief that it will improve grazing conditions during the
coming year for their livestock. Some fires also appear to be accidental.
The only means presently available for bringing these fires under control
is the use of the sanctuary staff to fight them. An extensive area north
of Sasan had burned prior to my arrival. As a result, the ground was
completely barren and would not provide any forage or habitat what-
soever for either domestic or wild animals for at least another six months.

The Forest Department, during recent years, has wisely initiated a
controlled burning programme along the railroad right-of-way. This has
greatly reduced the number of fires from this source. Although almost
‘any burning in an area as arid as the Gir is undesirable, it is a matter of
limited burning under controlled conditions early in the season with
relatively few adverse effects versus the possibility of devastating and
extensive fires later. Villagers and ‘ maldharis ’ should be indoctrinated
as to the deleterious effects of burning and discouraged from setting
fires in the forest. Those that malici ously set fires should be ae ae

Wild Life Management

It has been demonstrated that it is ieptactivally dnpaesible to kiana
completely some animal species from their natural habitats so long as
they. are provided near ideal conditions in abundance—including food,
water, cover, and other necessities. Regretfully, the lion is not one of
these species. His behavioural and other characteristics make him
extremely vulnerable to modern man with the means of destruction
which he has at his command. The lion in his natural state had no
reason to fear any of the other animals. Asa result he did not develop
a secretive or silent attitude as is so common with many mammals.
He also found that ‘in unity there is strength’ and that his needs for
food could be more readily acquired with the assistance of others of his
kind. Thus he became a social animal and is only infrequently found

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

alone. However, both his lack of fear and his social nature in the
presence of man have helped to eliminate him from the greater part of
his former range. Nowthat man has shown his‘ prowess’ in eliminating
the lion from the whole of Europe and almost the whole of Asia, is it
not time that he showed his benevolence to the remnants of this great
beast? Without the aid and protection of man, the mere existence of
the lion is imperilled, even in its last remaining stronghold in Asia—the —
Gir Wild Life Sanctuary.

The management of wild life is critically dependent upon available
resources. Therefore, the first step in proper management in a wild life
sanctuary is usually a wild life inventory or census. This may be simply
a survey to discover what species are present in the area, regardless of
numbers. Or it may be an enumeration, as well as a determination of
the sex and age class composition of the species. The collection of such
data is dependent upon the availability of trained man-power.

Forest Department personnel assigned the responsibility of managing
a wild life sanctuary should be carefully selected. Only men with a
genuine interest in wild life should be chosen. If at all possible, they
should have at least some training in the basic concepts of the specialized
field of wild life management. Sanctuary staff members, particularly
senior members, should also be appointed for sufficient periods of time
so that they can become intimately acquainted with the wild life and the
problems in the areas under their jurisdiction. Likewise, they should
have sufficient time and authority to remedy the problems which they may ©
encounter and to initiate long-range improvement or management plans.
The present Sanctuary Superintendent in the Gir has been posted less
than a year and the Sanctuary Inspector just over a year. All too often
men are transferred to other positions before or shortly after they have
become oriented to the overall situation and prior to the time that they
have been able to make genuine contributions to the management of their
areas. Literature concerning wild life management should be made
available within the sanctuary and the staff encouraged to become
acquainted with it. The staff should also consult and work with wild
life experts whenever the opportunity arises.

According to Forest Department reports the total lion population of
the Gir was less than a dozen in the early 1900’s. However, according
to the Jam Sahib of Nawanagar, as reported by Gee (1964), the lowest
number was probably not less than 100. The shooting of lion was finally
prohibited in 1913, although official permits were still given to V.I.P.s
to shoot specified quotas of lions. Fortunately this custom has been
- stopped and lions, as well as all members of the deer family, are now
fully protected by the Government throughout Gujarat.

The first lion census in the Gir was conducted in 1936 and resulted
in a total count of 287 lions, Further censuses carried out in 1950, 1954,

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) Prane il

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above: The “shikaris”’ in the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary claimed that this adult
male lion, whom they called “Bhuria” was about g years old ; Below - An adult
lioness ‘Mala Sinha”’ reported by the “‘shikaris’’ to be about 7 years old.

(Photos : Author)

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) Prate IIT

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

° Pipa:

Above: A herd of Indian Wild Asses at the edge of the Little Rann Kutch ;
Below : Close-up of two Indian Wild Asses running at a speed of over 30 miles
per hour in the baked-mud surface of the Little Rann.

(Photos : Author)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 29

and 1963 determined the populations at about 227, 290, and 285 respec-
tively. The sex and age class composition break down for the latest
figure of 285 was 82 adult males, 134 adult females, and 69 young.

Lion enumerations in the Gir have been supervised by the late M. A.
Wynter-Blyth, formerly principal of the Raj Kumar College at Rajkot.
Mr. R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, a notable authority on wild life, has
also assisted. A method of counting tracks was employed in all cases.
This was based upon three facts or assumptions : (1) Different lions can
be identified by the pug marks of their front feet, i.e., the tracks of any
two lions can usually be distinguished. (2) Lions generally walk along
paths or roads through the forest, rather than cross-country. (3) Lions
drink at least once during every 24-hour period. Thisis basically a sound
method and should give fairly reliable estimates as long as enumerations
are carefully planned and executed with well-trained personnel. How-
ever, without expert trackers and strict supervision the results may be
subject to gross errors.

A number of reliable people of Gujarat who are well-versed in wild
life have expressed the opinion that instead of 285 lions in the Gir Sanc-
tuary there are probably only about 100 to 150. I am likewise of the
same opinion. Although I saw only 14 different lions during my short
visit to the Gir, I base my opinion primarily upon the relative scarcity of
prey species which I observed. For example, during my 4-day visit I
travelled over 250 miles by jeep inside the sanctuary. Most of this was
during the early morning or evening when the opportunities for seeing
wild life are generally quite good. However, the sum total of my obser-
vations were : 20 chital, 9 wild pig, 5 sambar and 11 four-horned ante-
lope. . Chinkara, nilgai or blackbuck were neither observed during my
1965 or 1966 visits. The ‘ shikaris’ also claim to be acquainted with
only about 30 lions within about a 15-mile radius of Sasan. Many of
these prey upon domestic livestock. In my opinion, prey populations
in the Gir presently do not appear to be large enough to support even 200
lions, let alone 300. Enumerations of prey species in the Gir have been
grossly neglected and, in so far as I am aware, have never been attempted.
The Forest Department has been conducting their lion censuses at
approximately 5-year intervals. It would be commendable if enumera-
tions of other species, such as chital, sambar, etc., were conducted at the
same time. The results would be of interest and of value if the enume-
rations are properly conducted. It would also be interesting to compare
the results of a ‘ direct count method ’ with lion, as advocated by M. A.
Rashid, Conservator of Forests in Gujarat, as compared to the pre-
viously employed ‘ track count method.’

- Other forms of wild life in the Gir Sanctuary should not be neglected.
In addition to periodic enumerations of lions and other large mammals,
checklists of birds, reptiles and smaller mammals in the sanctuary should

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

be compiled and made available both to the staff and to visitors. Like-
wise, wild life observations by both visitors and staff should be syste-
matically recorded and kept on file inside the sanctuary. Scientific in-
vestigations concerning the sanctuary’s wild life by qualified investi-
gators should be encouraged. ‘Their findings should be utilized in for-
mulating management plans, as well as made available to the general
public.

General maps depicting roads and places of interest in the sanctuary
should be made available to visitors, as well as detailed maps depicting
vegetation types, etc., for the staff and scientific investigators. Postcards,
folders, booklets and other general information and propaganda should
be compiled and distributed through the Tourist Department and other
agencies so as to help people become aware of whatithe sanctuary has to
offer. Preferably these should be sold at reasonable rates and would
prove as an additional source of revenue for the sanctuary. Lions are
admittedly the Gir’s outstanding attraction, but its other attractions
should not be overlooked. For example, many people would be in-
terested in seeing mugger or crocodile in the Kamleshwar Lake or the
Hiran River, as well as other wild life species, such as the four-horned
antelope, chital, sambar and so forth. The near by temples or even some
of the ‘ nesses’ may be of interest, particularly to foreign visitors.

The Forest Department of Gujarat is to be commended for its role
in the preservation of the Gir Forest as a Wild Life Sanctuary. A firm
base for future management has already been established. The task
now is both to maintain and improve upon this base so that the Gir will
attain its full potential and the distinction of being one of India’s out-
standing wild life areas, which it rightfully deserves. The ultimate goal
should be perpetually to protect and preserve the wild life of the Gir,
while at. the same time providing as many people as possible the unique
experience of observing wild life in its natural state.

il. THE WILD ASSES OF THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH
INTRODUCTION | 1,

The Indian Wild Ass apparently was once common in much of north-
western India and what is now West Pakistan and south-eastern Iran,
formerly known as Persia. It is now extinct in Iran and, with the excep-
tion of a few animals which may occasionally stray into south-eastern
West Pakistan, it is presently restricted to the Little Rann of Kutch.
Concerning its near relatives, Talbot (1960) considered the Syrian Wild
Ass (Equus hemionus hemippus \. Geoffroy) as extinct and claimed that
the wild asses of Egypt, the Sudan and other parts of Africa are probably
feral rather than true wild asses. Salim Ali (1946a) reported that in

WILD LIFE. SURVEYS. IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA - 31

1945 the Kiang or Tibetan Wild Ass (E.h. kiang Moorcroft) was common
or abundant on the 15,000 foot-high Barkha Plain and in the neighbour-
hood of the lakes Manasarowar and Rakhas Tal in western Tibet. How-
ever, Since the Chinese invasion little 1 is known about the status of this
species.

Valuable infdimagion concerning the Indian Wild Ass also was re-
ported by Salim Ali in 1946 when he conducted an expedition to the
Little Rann. Wynter-Blyth (1956) described how six asses were captured
for the Indian Army to be used for breeding purposes with mules.
However, I have been unable to find out the results of this project.
Dharmakumarsinhji (1959) likewise described the wild ass and presented
observations concerning it and possible methods of censusing its
numbers. In 1960 Salim Ali reported the death of a number of asses to
E. P. Gee. Some deaths of wild asses in 1958 were confirmed to be a
result of surra!. Further deaths from surra in 1960 and the report of an
epidemic of African Horse Sickness? in November and December. 1961
prompted E. P. Gee to undertake the first real survey to determine the
status of the Indian Wild Ass. This survey was initiated in February
1962 under the auspices of the IUCN (International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) and the World Wildlife
Fund. The present report is a continuation of the survey initiated by
E. P. Gee. | |

THE LITTLE RANN

The Little Rann of Kutch in north-western Gujarat has to be seen to
be believed. Weird mirages are continually visible in this flat sterile
desert which covers an area of approximately 1,000 square miles.
Although a vast barren waste, the Rann has a. unique enchantment.
Heat shimmer in the intense sunlight of the dry season (October-June)
obscures anything beyond about half a mile. Visible objects beyond
several hundred yards often appear to float in the air and assume peculiar
shapes. Wild asses often appear to be walking in a shimmering sea with
their reflections mirrored below. Many objects are also greatly magni-
fied and take on grotesque proportions. For example, we once sighted
what appeared to be a long line of large animals in the distance.

1Surra—an arthropod-borne disease of horses and other animals caused by a
protozoan blood parasite Trypanosoma evansi. The disease is usually fatal to horses
unless an injection of arsenical preparations is given. Prophylactic doses give an
immunity of about six months. Common vectors are horse-flies of the family
-Tabanidae.

“African Horse Biclenesoeld virus disease of equines which has been known fot a
long time in Africa. However, in recent years it spread across the Middle East and
first entered India in either 1959 or 1960. It is generally transmitted by biting midges
of the genus Culicoides. Horses may be made immune to ‘the disease for periods of
about six months by inoculation. Those which recover from the disease : are , also
immune. - Ss .

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (i)

Approaching closer with the jeep these figures assumed major propor-
tions and appeared much like a series of large block houses. Finaily,
upon closer examination it was determined that they were nothing more
than the tracks of wild asses and the irregularities caused when they
crossed the table-flat desert surface when it was muddy.

Only a few scattered hillocks or islands, locally called ‘ bets ’, break
the monotony of the flat, salt-cracked terrain of the Little Rann. The
largest of these is the somewhat centrally located 18 to 20-square-mile
Pung Bet. Salim Ali considered this ‘bet’ as the ‘headquarters’ for
the Indian Wild Ass during his 1946 expedition. However, he also stated
that the relatively small ‘ bets’ of Vachhda and Jhilandan were probably
the only source of perennial water within the Rann and the asses shifted
to them from Pung Bet about the middle of March. Other ‘bets’ include
Nanda, Mardakh or Merdhak, Kesmari and Zilanand or Jalander, as
well as a number of smaller * islands’.

Rainfall in this region is only 5 to 15 inches per year. A number
of rivers, such as the Banas, Rupen, Bambhan and Mechhu, flow into
the Rann, but then they disappear below the surface. However, during
the monsoon season (July-October) and for a few months thereafter the
flood waters of these rivers combine with the waters blown up from the
sea by the strong winds from the south-west. Much of the Little Rann,
which is only a foot or two above mean sea-level, then becomes flooded
and forms somewhat of an estuary to the Arabian Sea. Although parts
of the Rann are never completely dry, by November or December ex-
tensive areas have a caked and salty crust upon which vehicles can safely
travel until the monsoon again commences. The flat, cracked surface
actually provides a ‘ super highway ’ during most of the dry season upon
which vehicles can smoothly and safely travel at high speeds, as long as
the darker or softer patches are avoided.

Vegetation

The wild asses habitually forage at night upon the ‘bets’ or the
shores of the Little Rann. Then during the daytime they retire to the
desert wastes. With the exception of the ‘ bets’, there is no vegetation
in the Rann because of the impregnation of salt and other compounds.
The sparse vegetation of the ‘ bets’ consists primarily of low scattered
trees, mostly babul (Acacia arabica) and some grasses, such as kharib
(Aelurops villosus). Staple grasses along the shores of the mainland
include thegado (Cyperus capillaris), dabhado (Eragrostis cynosuroides),
zinzvo or jinjro (Andropogon spp.) and chaktadun (Eragrostis amabilis).
Nearby cultivations also contribute to the diet of the asses during the
crop season. According to Gee (1962) they raid, in order of preference,
the following crops: gram, wheat, cotton, millet, and jowar. These
crop depredations may be influenced by the apparent lack of other

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 33

suitable forage. Nevertheless, all of the asses which I observed were
robust and appeared to be in good condition—a marked contrast to
emaciated domestic animals in the same areas.

A wealthy land owner living in Ahmedabad, but with extensive hold-
ings near Kharaghoda and Patadi, petitioned the Government in the
spring of 1966 to reduce the number of wild asses because of crop depre-
dations. However, Forest Department personnel reported that when
the local Divisional Forest Officer met this man and explained the im-
portance and need for protecting this unique species, he withdrew his
petition.

The planting of mesquite(Prosopis juliflora),locally called vilayatibaval,
was initiated along the fringes of the Little Rann in 1954. These trees
were originally introduced from Mexico, although some seed stock has
also been obtained from the south-western United States. Seedlings
are being planted along the shores of the Rann primarily to prevent the
spread of the desert, but also to improve the soil fertility and to provide
a wind-break and firewood.

Small trenches about three feet long, a foot or two wide and about a
foot deep are dug at 15-foot intervals in selected sites during the dry
season. Seedlings are then planted at the start of the rainy season.
Some plantings do not take, particularly in areas that become flooded
during the monsoon. However, the majority of the trees grow quite
rapidly and many exceed 20 feet in height in about 10 years. Although
domestic and wild ungulates, with the exception of goats, rarely feed upon
the mesquite bushes or trees, the dry seed pods appear to be relished.
As a result, seeds disseminated through the animal’s droppings have
planted additional areas, which in some cases are relatively distant from
the plantation sites. The Forest Department has planted an average of
about 2,000 acres per year since the initiation of the programme. Thus,
the total area of mesquite plantations along the edge of the Little Rann
now exceeds 22,000 acres.

Fauna

In so far as wild life is concerned, the Indian Wild Ass is the predo-
minant species in the vicinity of the Little Rann. Blackbuck, chinkara
and nilgai were formerly abundant along the shores of the mainland.
Salim Ali observed some blackbuck during his 1946 expedition, but
claimed even then that they had been all but exterminated in many parts
of the Rann and Gujarat where they were abundant only a few years
previously. In 1962, E. P. Gee observed only a single ‘ frightened ’
blackbuck in the vicinity of Zilanand Bet and two or three nilgai on the
mainland. We observed no blackbuck, but saw two chinkara and four
nilgai in the Rann north-west of Tikar. However, we witnessed the
ruthless gunning down of one of these by some ‘sportsmen’ in a jeep

3 |

34. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

and had the unpleasant task of apprehending the culprits. Except for
wild asses, no other wild mammals were observed within the vicinity of
the Little Rann.

Domestic livestock numbers, on the other hand, are excessive along
the fringes of the Rann. Large herds of cattle were frequently encoun-
_ tered, as well as flocks of sheep, goats, and donkeys. With very few
exceptions, all the areas which we visited were severely overgrazed. A
lack of forage was already evidenced by the condition of most of the
animals and it was difficult to imagine what would sustain them during
the next six months until the monsoon rains. Mesquite appeared to
be the only plant species relatively unaffected by the abuse of too much
domestic livestock.

I am certain that if livestock numbers were properly controlled along
the Little Rann the natural vegetation would better provide the benefits
expected from the mesquite plantations. Although the cost of these
plantings was formerly Rs. 56 per acre, the cost is now about Rs. 100 per
acre or a total of approximately Rs. 200,000 per year. However, until
livestock numbers can be brought under control, I feel the Forest Depart-
ment is wise in continuing their present plantation programme. It was
also explained that a few years ago about 200 acres of Eucalyptus was
experimentally planted west of Dhrangadhra. Livestock grazing was
excluded from the plantation in order to permit the seedlings to take
hold. However, the local villagers rebelled against this infringement
upon their ‘rights’ and during a single night they drove all of their live-
stock through the area. What seedlings were not destroyed by their
livestock were then pulled up by hand. -

Bird species within the vicinity of the Rann observed during our visit
appeared to be restricted to a relatively few species. Several eagles and

the omnipresent vultures were observed. By far the most common birds |

were small larks, which were encountered in flocks of 50 to 100 or more.
Demoiselle cranes were frequently seen along the mainland and an occa-
sional pair of sarus cranes. Flamingos were also observed flying over-
head, but none were observed to light. North of Tikar, however,
thousands of flamingo tracks were evident on a mud flat within the Little
Rann.

THE INDIAN WILD Ass

Description

The Indian Wild Ass or Onager somewhat resembles a zebra in build.
The ears are relatively short, particularly in comparison to those of a
donkey or mule. The neck appears to be on the thin side as compared
to the stockiness of the rest of the body. The short mane remains erect
and the dark medio-dorsal stripe that extends to the base of the tail

AP

pee

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 35

often gives the appearance of a continuous mane along the entire back.
The tail is not thickly haired and, excluding the brush or tuft of coarse
hair at the end, extends only to the hocks.

Specimens measured by Salim Ali (1946b) indicated that the normal
adult head and body length slightly exceeds seven feet, the tail is approxi-
mately one foot long, the ear-length is 7-8 inches and the average shoulder
height is just over four feet. The adult males which he collected weighed
just over 500 lb. and females about 450 lb. Dharmakumarsinhji
(1959), however, stated that females are usually ‘stouter’ than males.
I found that these animals are extremely difficult to sex in the field. They
rarely allow one to approach closer than séveral hundred yards and the
testes of the males ascend into the body cavity when they are running.
However, most of the animals which I distinguished as males appeared
to be somewhat larger than the females. Once we spotted a solitary ass
sprawled out in the desert, which appeared to have recently died. While
approaching I thought, ‘ At last Pll have the opportunity to examine
closely a wild ass.’ I even had my tape out to take measurements, but
when we came within.20 feet of the animal, it staggered to its feet and ran
off. It had only been sleeping.

The coloration of the Indian Wild Ass is particularly striking. The
tips of the ears and the tail, as well as the short mane and medio-dorsal
stripe are dark amber brown to almost a brownish-black. The face and
jaws, the top half of the neck, fore part of the shoulders, the saddle and
sides of the rump (posterior to the flanks) are a bright reddish buff to
fawn—almost a palamino colour. The muzzle, throat, lower half of the
neck, most of the tail, and the underparts are white.

The bright coloration, larger and stockier build and the more stately
manner immediately set the Indian Wild Ass apart from its long-eared
and dingy grey or brown-coloured domestic relatives. There is little
resemblance to the much smaller domestic donkeys common through-
out northern India. While it may sound absurd to some or perhaps trite
to others, about the best description that I can give of the Indian Wild
Ass is that it is a beautiful and magnificent beast.

In contrast to the local domestic donkeys, which breed during any
season of the year, the wild ass is reported to mate from August through
October. It is claimed that during this time the males fight viciously
for the females. The gestation period is roughly 11 months. Thus,
the young are born from July through September. With the exception
of one small male that was less than a month old, the foals which I ob-
served during the latter part of December were of uniform size and
appeared to be about 33 to 41 months old. If correct, this would mean
that they were born in August or September, which would have been
during the latter part of the normal foaling season.

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

Group Size

Salim Ali reported that the sexes live apart in separate herds or troops
until the foals are about three months old. Although I observed some
males with females and young, a few smaller groups appeared to be all
males. Not including two solitary males nor a solitary female with her
young foal, the average size for 14 troops totalling 186 asses was just
over 13 (3-31). The average size for seven troops with young was 19 or
an average of 15 adults + 4 young. These latter figures approximate
the 6-8 young per group of 20-30 as observed by Salim Aliin March 1946.
But my overall totals indicate a ratio of less than one foal for every five
adults. Group sizes observed are presented in Table 2.

TABLE 2

INDIAN WILD ASSES OBSERVED IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH IN DECEMBER 1966

Adults Young Total
December 20 (Jesda to Kharaghoda) .. a 8 ou
26 5 31
1 1 (less 1 mo.) z
8 — 8
18 4 22
1 (male) — 1
13 2 15
a — 7
December 21 (Tikar to Khuda) i 4 11
10 2 12
1 (male) —- 1
9 4 13
3 — 3
5 — Ss
11 — 11
14 — 14
‘Potal -<.. 160 30 190

Populations

The total Indian Wild Ass population for the Little Rann was esti-
mated by Sdlim Ali in 1946 to be between 3,000 and 5,000. He also
believed their numbers were ‘increasing year by year.’ Wynter-Blyth
estimated a total population of about 4,000 in 1956 and claimed that
groups were then ‘ always in sight’ once one entered the Little Rann
north of Dhrangadhra. He also reported that some herds numbered
over 200 head. The numbers of wild asses had apparently been deci-
mated by disease prior to E. P. Gee’s survey in 1962. He estimated a
total of only 860-870 in the Little Rann proper plus 10 along the border
of West Pakistan and the Great Rann.

Regretfully, neither time nor facilities permitted me to undertake a
full-scale census or survey of the present status of the wild ass. However,

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 37

intensive counts or transects from Tikar to Kharaghoda resulted in
counts almost exactly the same as those reported by Gee. The wild
asses feed at night on the fringes or near-by croplands of the Little Rann.
They then retreat into the Rann during the day, which enables one both
readily and accurately to census them. Therefore, I am inclined to
believe that the present status of the Indian Wild Ass is similar to what
was reported in 1962. —

There is the possibility that the number of wild asses has been slightly
reduced during the last four years. The Range Forest Officer at Halvan
claimed that in recent years there have been no wild asses in the vicinity
of Khakhrechi. Gee reported 20 for that area. We were not allowed to
enter the area west of Tikar because of military restrictions. Kesmari
Bet and the adjacent parts of the Little Rann are used by the military as a
firing range. However, the Forester stationed at Tikar reported that
only occasional troops of asses are seen there. Gee reported approxi-
mately 100 for that area.

Disease

The Forest Guard in charge of mesquite plantings along the southern
boundary of the Little Rann claimed that there was an epidemic among the
wild asses in October and November of 1964. Also, he claimed to have
seen about 100 dead asses between Jesda and Malvan and that most of
these were ‘old’ animals. Since then he has not observed any more
dead asses while supervising plantation operations in that area. The
Forester at Tikar likewise reported that there was an epidemic of African
Horse Sickness among the domestic horses in that area during October
and November 1964. He stated that ‘hundreds’ of horses died in the
vicinity of Tikar at that time, but he did not observe any dead wild asses.

I met the Veterinary Officer at Dhrangadhra, Dr. S. H. Kamboya, the
evening of December 21. Dr. Kamboya claimed that the last major
epidemic of African Horse Sickness in the Surendranagar District, which
includes Thaluka and Dhrangadhra, was in November 1963. About 300
horses in the District were reported to have died as a result of this
epidemic. But there were no official reports of deaths among wild asses,
nor were the domestic asses or donkeys affected to any appreciable extent.
Although Dr. Kamboya was posted to Dhrangadhra in 1965, he was
formerly stationed in the District at Siyla, about 40 miles from
Dhrangadhra. .

' Dr. Kamboya further vated that the horses in the District have been
vaccinated against African Horse Sickness between October and
November each year since 1961. Although this programme is operated
at Government expense, some owners will not allow their horses to be
injected. Vaccinated animals should be allowed to rest for 8 to 14
days after the injection and some owners claim they cannot afford to

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

have their animals idle for such a long time. It was also claimed that
surra had not been observed in recent years in the Surendranagar District.
However, there were authenticated reports in 1958 and 1960 of deaths
of both horses and wild asses from this disease.

Rinderpest is present among the cattle of the district and a vaccinat-
ing programme is in operation. There was also a single case of anthrax.
reported in 1963. Rinderpest and anthrax probably have little effect
upon the wild ass, but may be of importance in so far as other wild life
in the vicinity of the Little Rann is concerned. Coupled with poaching
and habitat destruction, disease may be the ‘coup de grace’ for species
such as blackbuck, chinkara and nilgai.

Human Influence

The majority of the villagers living in the vicinity of the Little Rann
are strict vegetarians and appear to have a high regard for animal life.
With the exception of driving the wild asses from their cultivations during
their night-time raids, it is doubtful that these people ever molest the
asses.

There are scattered villages of crude shelters located within the Rann
during the dry season. These are inhabited by people operating salt
wells under lease from the Revenue Department. They dig large open
wells from 10 to 15 feet in diameter and from 30 to 40 feet deep. The
saline waters are then drawn up in skin bags by teams of bullocks. The
water is run into pans and after evaporation the crystalline minerals are
taken by lorry or bullock cart to collecting points, such as Khuda or
Kharaghoda. Considerable revenue is realized by the government from
these salt works and from taxes levied on the minerals collected.

A railroad from Ahmedabad to Kandla, a distance of approximately
180 miles, is presently being constructed primarily to further exploit this
mineral resource. The railroad right-of-way passes through some of the
areas frequented by wild asses. Whether or not this disturbance will
have an adverse effect upon the ass populations remains to be seen.
Also, it is not known whether or not the salt workers in the Rann molest
the wild asses. However, their donkeys, horses and perhaps bullocks are
a potential source of disease. Therefore, it would be desirable that the
salt workings at least be restricted to certain specified sites, rather than
allowed to cover extensive areas throughout the Rann.

There is apparently no poaching of wild asses, although Salim Ali
(19466) found their meat quite agreeable. Likewise, there appear to be
no natural predators that presently prey upon the asses. A number of
people in Dhrangadhra told us of how they occasionally chase the wild
asses in vehicles just to watch them run. Except during the foaling sea-
son and unless carried to excess, this probably does little harm.
However, a ‘ trigger-happy’ shooter in a jeep could easily decimate a

»

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 39

major part of the present population in a one-or two-day period.
Measures should be taken to insure that this does not occur and that the
Indian Wild Ass is protected and preserved. |

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The responsibility of protecting and preserving the wild ass and other
wild life species in the vicinity of the Little Rann rests primarily with the
State Forest Department. The chief danger to the wild ass at present
appears to be their susceptibility to diseases contracted from domestic
livestock. Therefore, all possible precautions should be taken to
eliminate and prevent the incidence of disease among domestic animals.
The present policy of annually vaccinating horses against African Horse
Sickness during the epidemic season should be continued and also more
strictly enforced. Owners who do not permit their horses to be injected
should be penalised. A systematic method of reporting outbreaks of
disease among wild asses, as well as domestic horses and donkeys, should
likewise be initiated. _

Overgrazing and human disturbances adversely affect the wild asses
and other wildlife. Measures should be taken to halt the all too common
trend throughout most of India of ever-increasing numbers of useless
domestic livestock. When I asked a local veterinarian if my estimate
that 50 per cent of the livestock in the vicinity of the Little Rann was use-
less, he stated that my estimate was too conservative. He was positive
that no more than 25 per cent (of the cattle) in this area were useful and

that the remaining 75 per cent were completely worthless. People should

be educated as to the importance and value of natural resources, such as
wild life. Luckily, most of the villagers near the Rann are in sympathy
with the wild ass. It is regretful that more of the general public are not
of the same disposition in so far as wild life is concerned.

Poaching is undoubtedly a major factor in the disappearance of such
wild life species as blackbuck and chinkara, which formerly inhabited
the vicinity of the Little Rann in abundance. Such small numbers of
these animals now exist that there is no reason why shooting cannot be
strictly prohibited throughout the entire area. The military, specifically
those in charge of the establishment near Tikar, should be contacted and
their aid enlisted in the protection of wild life. The public should also
be made aware of laws which afford wild life protection and of the penal-
ties involved if these laws are violated. A system of rewards for infor-
mation leading to the arrest of law-breakers should encourage the assis-
tance of the local people.

Little is known about the basic ecology of the Indian Wild Ass and
qualified personnel should be encouraged to study this unique and magni-
ficent beast. Although the Indian Wild Ass could be easily and

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

accurately censused, its present numbers or true statusis not even known.
A census should be conducted every year, or at least every two years.
If well planned, this could probably be accomplished in less than a week
by jeep. There is also the possibility that an accurate aerial census could
be conducted over the entire Rann in a matter of a few hours. These
figures would be invaluable in assessing the status and trends of the wild
ass populations, as well as indicating measures which may be of value in
preserving this species.

The Junagadh Zoo has two adult male wild asses. In addition, two
young wild asses were captured by the Forest Department in the fall of
1966 for this zoo. Unfortunately, both were males and one died within
a few weeks. Mr. Gee reported that the Ahmedabad Zoo had three
head in 1962. However, it appears that there are no other zoos in the
world (with the exception of the Maharaja of Baroda’s zoo) with a
breeding pair of Indian Wild Asses, although Gee (1962) reported that
they were successfully bred in Paris in the mid-1800’s. Young wild
asses are easily captured and are reported to become tame within a
relatively short time. There is no reason why several pairs of young
asses should not be captured, under the supervision of the Chief Conser-
vator of Forests who is also the State Wild Life Preservation Officer,
and breeding groups established in some of the reputable zoos in India.
These would also provide a reserve in case something happened to the
wild populations.

Finally, as has been advocated by the Chief Conservator of Forests
and other members of the Forest Department, an inviolate sanctuary
for the Indian Wild Ass should be established. This sanctuary would
also provide refuge for other forms of wild life. It should include a
sufficiently large area of both the Little Rann and the adjoining mainland
so as to constitute an ecological unit. One or more sources of perennial
water should be included and, if at all possible, domestic livestock and
human disturbances, such as salt works and agriculture, should be com-
pletely excluded. Sufficient forage would then be probably available
within the sanctuary to help deter the wild asses from making forays into
the surrounding crop lands. Initially it should also be realized that the
isolated location of the Little Rann would prevent the wild ass sanctuary
from becoming a major tourist attraction in the forseeable future.
Nevertheless, this is no excuse for not establishing and maintaining a
sanctuary for the preservation of the wild ass.

If the wild asses and the presently available accommodations in
Dhrangadhra were publicised, some tourists would undoubtedly come
primarily for the sake of seeing these animals in their unique habitat—
the Little Rann. Facilities presently available consist of a Public Works
Department Rest House in Dhrangadhra, which can accommodate a
party of upto six people and which provides complete services, including

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 41

a cook. The Dhrangadhra Chemical Works also has a first class guest
house adjoining the Indian Ornithological Garden. Although privately
_ owned, perhaps prior arrangements could be made by tourists desiring
to see both the Garden and the wild asses.

I was informed after leaving Gujarat that the construction of a dam
across the entrance to the Little Rann has been proposed. Some people
apparently feel that if the waters of the Arabian Sea were excluded from
the Rann during the monsoon season, perhaps some of the Rann could
eventually be devoted to agriculture. This possibility seems improbable
because of the high mineral content of the soil throughout the Rann.
Perhaps by using tremendous quantities of water to flush these minerals
from the soil some areas could be made suitable for crops. However,
no such source of water exists in the vicinity of the Little Rann. On the
other hand, the construction of such a dam probably would change the
entire ecology of the Rann and the results may prove disastrous. Not
only may the wild asses be affected, but existing agriculture, salt works,
and so forth also may be adversely affected. In general, it is wise not to
tamper with the ecological balance of nature until thorough scientific
investigations have been made.

In summary, I make the following recommendations :

1. That domestic livestock grazing in the vicinity of the Little
Rann be brought under control and scientifically managed, particularly
on the Forest Department lands.

2. That the Government programme of inoculating horses for
African Horse Sickness be continued and that a systematic method of
reporting outbreaks of disease among both wild and domestic animals
be initiated," =

3. That all shooting within the vicinity of the Little Rann be prohi-
bited. Firing on the military range near Tikar would, of course, be an
exception.

4, That the wild asses be regularly censused and that Bhecr ations
concerning them and their populations be kept on file with the Forest
Department.

5. That competent people be encouraged to conduct thorough
ecological studies of both the wild ass and the Little Rann as soon as
possible.

6. That young wild asses be humanely captured and breeding
groups established in reputable zoos in India.

7. That a sufficiently large part of the Rann and the adjoining
mainland be constituted as an inviolate wild life sanctuary, primarily
for the preservation of the Indian Wild Ass.

8. That projects which may upset the ecological balance of the
Little Rann may not be undertaken until it has been definitely established
that their benefits would outweigh their possible deleterious effects.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

IV. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

INTRODUCTION

There are 22 species of bustards occurring in Africa, Europe, Asia and
Australia. The Great Indian Bustard is one of the largest and most
stately of these. Formerly it was found locally from West Pakistan
throughout the Indian Union (excepting Bengal and Assam) south to
Mysore. However, this magnificent bird has become very rare and now is
restricted to a few secluded areas in Gujarat and neighbouring states.
In all cases it is extremely rare and it is only with a great deal of luck or
perseverance that it may be encountered.

The Indian Board for Wild Life placed the Great Indian Bustard
upon its list of rare faunal species! and gave it full protection in 1952
because of its increasing rarity. Nevertheless since that time definitive
measures have not been taken to preserve or to protect this endangered
species. In contrast, I have been told that when Dhrangadhra was a
princely state a fine of Rs. 1,000 and/or imprisonment for a period of up
to six years was levied against anyone found killing this royal bird. The
Great Indian Bustard is an endemic species. In other words, it is found
only.in India and in no other country. Therefore it is the duty of the
State and Central Governments of India, as well as the Indian people, to
preserve the remnants of this great bird as a part of their nation’s heritage.

THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

The Great Indian Bustard is a large, turkey-sized bird weighing up
to 40 lbs. It stands about three feet high. The sexes are alike. They
have a distinctive black crest on the head and black and white markings
on the breast and underparts. A large whitish patch near the tip of the
wings is also prominent. The back and upper surface of the wings are
buff, finely vermiculated with black. It is a heavy ground bird and is
usually encountered alone or in pairs, although small groups numbering
up to 25 or 30 birds were reported in former days. The cock is poly-
gamous and to ‘ woo’ his harem he does a puffed-up strutting display,
similar to many of the grouse. __ | é. ern ale

The habitat of the Great Indian Bustard has been drastically reduced
in recent years due to the spread of cultivation. This has continued
unabated even though its former haunts are generally considered as sub-

_. 2 Other faunal forms in India which are included on the Indian Board for Wild
Life’s list of endangered species are: Indian wild ass, Indian lion, snow leopard,
clouded leopard, cheetah (probably extinct), Indian one-horned rhinoceros, Kashmir
Stag, musk deer, brow-antlered deer, pygmy hog, pinkheaded duck (undoubtedly
extinct) and the whitewinged wood duck. :

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 43

- marginal agricultural lands. In addition to habitat destruction,
characteristics which have further added to its decline include: it is
considered as a gourmet’s delicacy and all too many people who are
acquainted with this great bird are primarily interested in collecting it
for the table. Its large size makes it relatively conspicuous in its pre-
ferred grassland habitat. Its size and conspicuousness coupled with its
heaviness in initial flight also make it exceptionally vulnerable to the
gun. It is, however, a good runner. Finally, the female generally lays
but a single egg. Even if the singleton does survive, it does not attain
breeding age in the case of a hen until about four years old. In the case
of a cock, it does not mature until 5 or 6 years of age. _

We were informed by S. P. Patel, a photographer in Dhrangadhra,
the evening of December 21 that a farmer had reported seeing a pair of
Indian bustard on his land about 8 miles south-west of Dhrangadhra.
Therefore we decided to attempt to locate these rare birds. The follow-
ing morning the farmer accompanied us (Messrs. Patel, Karnik, two of
the local Forest Staff and myself) to the site where the bustard had been
seen a few days previously. Although we spent the better part of the
day combing the entire area, the only trace of bustard that we encoun-
tered were a few tracks of a solitary bird that had apparently visited a
waterhole the previous night. This was in an area in which
K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji claims it used to be possible to see dozens of
bustard in a single day’s search. Incidentally, besides being a noted
wild life enthusiast and conservationist, Shri Dharmakumarsinhji is
also undoubtedly the world’s leading authority on the Great Indian
Bustard. At a previous meeting in New Delhi he had expressed to me
his grave concern about the precarious situation of the bustard. Also
he is one of the few persons who has ever photographed the Indian
bustard on its nest or for that matter who has even been successful in
photographing this rare bird in recent years.

The terrain in the vicinity of Dhrangadhra consists of low un-
dulating rocky hills. Small patches of short grass are intermingled with
rocky outcroppings and scattered bushes or thorny shrubs. Small
patches of cultivation are usually located wherever the soil is not too
rocky. Dry season crops of wheat or cotton are grown on most of these.
Many patches were still in cotton during my visit in December, but the
patches of wheat had been harvested earlier in the season and had been
or were being ploughed. Although it was claimed that the rains had
been exceptionally heavy this year and that this was a much better than
usual crop season, the cotton in most cases appeared to be very poor.
Few of the cotton plants exceeded two feet in height and many were
under a foot tall.

We encountered people, bullock carts and livestock wherever we went.
Some of the people were tending their cultivations or livestock, but many

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

were cutting and collecting thorny shrubs, such as Zizyphus mauritiana
and Acacia leucophloea. These bushes are used to construct corrals
and livestock fences around the villages. What little cover that remains
for wild life is disappearing rapidly. Perhaps equally disconcerting
were the numerous jeep tracks which we encountered almost everywhere.

According to authoritative descriptions, the areas visited were for-
merly prime Indian bustard habitat. They should harbour a fair number
of birds even now. However, with the ever-present and excessive human
disturbances it is doubtful that few, if any, larger forms of wild life will
be able to survive long. The only wild mammals observed during our
excursion were four extremely wary nilgai (a male, 2 females and a
yearling) and a solitary hare. We made inquiries of many of the villagers
whom we encountered concerning bustard and other animals. Most
did not even know what a Great Indian Bustard looked like. The few
that did were those who remembered them from the olden days. They
usually wanted to know if we were interested in shooting this big bird.
When we explained that we were not, they appeared unable to compre-
hend why we were then so interested in this bird. Many villagers, how-
ever, told us of how ‘sportsmen’ and military personnel often came
here in jeeps to shoot. One farmer and his son explained that they saw
some ‘ sportsmen’ in a jeep a few days previous shoot a large black and
white bird that was ‘sleeping’ on the ground. In the afternoon we
finally considered the search for bustard as futile and returned to
Dhrangadhra.

No bird species has reportedly become extinct since 1945. However,
unless decisive action is soon taken, the Great Indian Bustard may soon
be added to that all too long list of faunal forms that have succumbed
to the depredations of man.

Vv. NAL SAROVAR

Almost at the junction of the mainland of Gujarat and Saurashtra or
the Kathiawar Peninsula lies an extensive flood plain. This: flat plain
was formed by silt carried down from the Chotila Ranges of the
Surendranagar District by the Baman, Bhogavo and other rivers.
Because of annual flooding there is little natural vegetation, but the rich
clay-loam soils on many of the flats are utilized during the dry season for
growing winter crops, such as cotton and wheat.

A vast shallow lake is formed during the monsoon season. This
lake is located about 40 miles south-west of the city of Ahmedabad,
along the eastern boundary of the Surendranagar District and the western
boundary of the Ahmedabad District. The excess waters from the Nal
Sarovar Reservoir then drain into the Sabarmati, after passing through
the Bhal area of Dholka-Dhandhuka. The water surface of the flooded

Wild dS C704 d)

‘97S Jerelny ul peqepouyy fo }Sam-YIMOs sayrut OF “IAOILS [WN He $00) WOUTUIOD pue soSuTUTEL J

SAQAING FIT PTLM : eds

[ie en dh th eet Seo [LENG RY ESO RSL GS ONE Re HEE SO Se a Os

J. BomBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE W)
Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above : The spectacular blackbuck has become increasingly rare during recent
years throughout Gujarat State ; Below : The chinkara is becoming rare through-
out its range in India.

(Photos : Author)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 45

area often exceeds 100 square miles during the peak flood season in July
or August. The lake is then 5 to 6 miles wide and from 18 to 25 miles
long. However, by December (the migratory bird season) it usually is
reduced to a total area of less than 80 square miles. Although much of
the lake is surrounded by barren shores or flats, along the higher fringes
are scattered trees, such as Salvadora sp. and Prosopis sp., and desert
scrub.

The primary attraction of Nal Sarovar is its vast concentrations of
water birds. Particularly of note are the migratory species that arrive
from the north during late November or early December and usually
remain until late March. Included among the more conspicuous water
birds that may be observed are: flamingoes, spottedbilled or grey
pelicans, whitenecked and blacknecked storks, white and painted storks,
sarus, common, and demoiselle cranes, spoonbills, black and glossy ibis,
herons, coots, moorhens and numerous species of waterfowl. Predatory
or carrion eating birds such as eagles, vultures and kites are also present,
as well as numerous lesser species, such as kingfishers, lapwings, babblers,
bulbuls, barbets, sunbirds, tailor birds and so forth.

Nal Sarovar is readily accessible throughout the year, although
December through March is the best time for observing migratory birds.
A good black-topped road from Ahmedabad passes near the lake and
daily bus service is available. Facilities include a tourist hut near the
lake and a boat. Reservations may be obtained from the Director of
Information for Gujarat at Sachivalaya, Ahmedabad-15.

It was recently proposed that Nal Sarovar be constituted as a bird
sanctuary. Also, that facilities be developed so that it may become a
major tourist attraction. Itis to be hoped that these proposals will be
fully realized in the near future.

VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks go to Mr. R. D. Joshi (Chief Conservator of Forests)
and the Forest Department of Gujarat for their courteous assistance and
kind hospitality during my visits to the Gir Wild Life Sanctuary and the
Little Rann of Kutch. Particularly I wish to thank Messrs. P. B. Vyas
(Sanctuary Superintendent), J. Singh (Sanctuary Inspector), and
G. R. Karnik (Rajkot Divisional Forest Officer). Messrs. Vyas and
Singh accompanied and assisted me during my 5-day visit to the Gir
Wild Life Sanctuary. Mr. Karnik then accompanied and assisted me
during the 5-day period in which we visited the Little Rann of Kutch,
Other Forest Department personnel, too numerous to mention indi-
vidually, were likewise most helpful and their assistance is greatly
appreciated.

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

I am also grateful to Messrs. G. C. Jain (Manager of the Dhrangadhra
Chemical Works), Kumar (Public Relations Officer) and P. Kannan
(Honorary Director of the Indian Ornithological Gardens) for their
hospitality during our stay in Dhrangadhra.

Finally, I must express my heartfelt appreciation to Mr. E. P. Gee of
the Indian Board for Wild Life for making the necessary arrangements
with both the Central and State Governments and for his always wel-

comed assistance.

The company of both he and his sister, Mrs.

Romanes, during our visit to the Gir was most enjoyable.

VII. REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM. (1946a): Drag marks made

by the Kyang (Equus hemionus). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 (3) : 396.
(1946b): The wild ass of
Kutch. op. cit. 46 (3): 472-477.
(1961) : The book of Indian
birds. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay. 158 pp.
DHARMAKUMARSINHIJI,

Ke SS; 20955) 2

Birds of Saurashtra. Times of India
Press, Bombay.

(1959): A_ field guide to

big game census in India. Leaflet No. 2,

Indian Board for Wild Life, Ministry of

Food & Agriculture, New Delhi. 94 pp.

GEE, E. P. (1956): The management -

of India’s wild life sanctuaries and
national parks. Part III.- J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 54 (1): 1-21.

—— (1962): The management of
India’s wild life sanctuaries and national
parks. Part IV. op. cit. 59 (2): 453-

466.
211963) : The

Indian wild

ass: a survey (February 1962). op. cit.
60 (3) : 517-529.

——— (1964): Wild Life of India.
Collins. London. 192 pp.

PRATER, S. H. (1965): The Book of
Indian animals, 2nd ed., Bombay Natural
Hise Society, Bombay. 66-67, 227-
228.

Rasuip, M. A. (1965): The Gir lion.
Cheetal, J. Wild Life Preservation Soc.
India, 8 (1) : 26-37.

RAMANIJULU, B. V. (1966): The great
Indian bustard in Gujarat State.
Peacock, Indian Ornithological Garden,
Dhrangadhra (Gujarat State). 3 (4):
161-164.

TALBoT, L. M. (1960): A look at
threatened species. Fauna Preservation
Soc., London. 133 pp.

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1956): An
account of the wild ass and a brief history
of the Indian lion. Indian Forester
82 : 644-648.

(to be continued)

Heteromysis zeylanica Tattersall
(Crustacea : Mysidacea), an associate
of Madreporarian Corals in South

Indian Waters

BY

N. KRISHNA PILLAI
Marine Biological Laboratory, University of Kerala, Trivandrum-7

(With twenty-six text-figures)

‘Mysids are predominantly free living marine animals more abundant
in comparatively shallow water. No species has so far been recorded
as a parasite. However, as early as 1879, Hilgendorf recorded Hete-
romysis harpax as an associate of hermit crabs inhabiting gastropod
shells. Nothing was known about the nature of this association until
Clarke (1955) published very interesting observations on the association
between H. actineae and the sea-anemone Bartholomea annulata. Since
then O. S. Tattersall (1962) reported H. harpax as an associate of her-
mit crabs of the genus Dardanus, H. gymnura from the arms of an ophiu-
roid and H. zeylanica from a sponge.

While washing corals for collecting their copepod associates my
colleague Sri M. J. Sebastian obtained a number of specimens of
H. zeylanica W. M. Tattersall (1922). This probably indicates that a
majority of the species of Heteromysis live in association with inverte-
brates. I, therefore, give below a short résumé of the available infor-
mation on the genus Heteromysis as it may help those who take up the
study of the ecology of these mysids. A detailed study of the speci-
mens collected has shown that a few interesting features in the mor-
phology of H. zeylanica have so far escaped notice, therefore the
Species is redescribed. |

HisTORY OF THE GENUS Heteromysis

The genus Heteromysis was created by S. I. Smith (1873) to describe
H. formosa collected from the coastal waters of North America. Sub-
sequently this species was recorded from several localities in European
waters. G. O. Sars (1877) created the genus. Chiromysis to describe

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

C. microps collected from the coastal waters of Africa. To the latter
genus Hilgendorf (1879) added a second species C. harpax. Later on
G. O. Sars (1885) described H. bermudensis collected from Bermuda and
also admitted that his Chiromysis is a synonym of Heteromysis. Walker
(1898) described H. odontops from North American waters and Holmes
(1900) added another species, H. spinosus. The latter was, however,
found to be synonymous with H. odontops Walker. Bonnier & Perez
(1902) created the genus Gnathomysis to describe G. gerlachei collected
from the Red Sea. They published a short description without figures.
W. M. Tattersall (1922) examined the unpublished illustrations made by
Bonnier and concluded that G. gerlachei is a synonym of H. harpax and
that Gnathomysis Bonnier & Perez is the same as Heteromysis S. 1.
Smith.

The discovery of more species followed in quick succession. From
the Gulf of Mannar, south India, W. M. Tattersall (1922) described
H. proxima, H. zeylanica and H. gymnura. Verrill (1922) described
H. antillensis from Dominica but this was later found to be a synonym
of. H. bermudensis G. O. Sars. While describing a collection of mysids
from Australia W. M. Tattersall (1927b) added H. waitei and H. tas-
manica and a third species H. digitata (W. M. Tattersall 1927a) from the
Suez Canal. From subterranean salt water pools at Canary Islands,
Calman (1932) described H. cotti. More recently Nouvel (1940) des-
cribed H. armoricana and H. tattersalli (Nouvel 1942) from France and
Cape Verde Islands respectively. From the Mediterranean Bacesco
(1941) recorded H. eideri and Pillai (1961) described H. macropsis from
south Indian waters. Clarke (1955) added a very interesting species
H. actineae from Bahama Islands and O. S. Tattersall (1961) described
H. atlantidea collected from African waters. Lastly Ii (1964) des-
cribed H. xanthops from Japanese waters.

Recently Nouvel (1964) examined the original illustrations of
H. gerlachei prepared by Bonnier and concluded, contrary tothe opinion of
W. M. Tattersall, that H. harpax Hilgendorf and H. gerlachei Bonnier &
Perez are separate species and that H. harpax Kossmann (1880) is different
from both. He renamed the latter as H. kossmanni. The genus Hete-
romysis thus includes twenty-one species. :

H. formosa S. 1. Smith, 1873

H. microps (G. O. Sars), 1877

H. harpax (Hilgendorf), 1879

H. bermudensis G. O. Sars, 1885

H. odontops Walker, 1898

H. gerlachei (Bonnier & Perez), 1902
H. proxima W. M. Tattersall, 1922
H. zeylanica W. M. Tattersall, 1922
H. gymnura W. M. Tattersall, 1922

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL 49

. waitei W. M. Tattersall, 1927

. tasmanica W. M. Tattersall, 1927
. digitata W. M. Tattersall, 1927
cotti Calman, 1932

armoricana Nouvel, 1940

eideri Bacesco, 1941

tattersalli Nouvel, 1942

. actinede Clarke, 1955

. macropsis Pillai, 1961

. atlantidea O. S. Tattersall, 1961
1. xanthops li, 1964

H. kossmanni Nouvel, 1964

SEP aaarar

—

ECOLOGY OF Heteromysis spp.

A surprising fact about species of Heteromysis is their comparative
rarity. Most of the species have till recently been described only from
a few specimens accidentally obtained during the course of routine collec-
ting.
As early as 1879 it was known that H. harpax lives in association
with hermit crabs inside gastropod shells. But that this association is
obligatory at least for the mysid has been proved only very recently.
Since Clarke (1955) published his observations on H. actineae evidence
was obtained showing that at least two other species live in association
with hermit crabs, one species with ophiuroids and one with sponges and
corals. As observed by O. S. Tattersall (1962) ‘it is now beginning to
be apparent that the paucity of material may be due not to the rarity
of the different species so much as to their cryptic mode of life’.

The available information on the ecology of the species has been
summarised by Clarke (1955) and O. S. Tattersall (1962). According to
Clarke H. formosa generally lives in small colonies within the empty
shells of large bivalves and gastropods. This shows their natural ten-
dency to seek suitable shelters.

Clarke observed H. dctineae living in small colonies among the ten-
tacles of the sea-anemone Bartholomea annulata. He made detailed
observations both in the field and in the laboratory. The mysids spent
most of their time coursing up and down the length of the tentacles of
the anemone or spiralling around the base of the tentacles and never
strayed away from the anemone. Clarke reported that the anemone was
quite indifferent to the presence or absence of the mysids. Whenever
food was given to the anemone the mysids were never found to take it.
On the other hand every particle rejected by the anemone was at once
seized and eaten. Clearly there is perfect understanding between the
partners and this is a clear case of commensalism.

O. S. Tattersall (1962) reported the collection of H. harpax from

4

50 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

various species of pagurid crabs of the genus Dardanus. She observed
that this ‘is a true commensal with the hermit crabs, receiving protec-
tion from them and feeding upon their faeces, thereby keeping the inner-
most region of the shells they inhabit clean and free from waste matter.’
O. S. Tattersall also reported the collection of H. gymnura from among
the arms of a large brittle star, Astroboa nigra Doderlin.

H. zeylanica was first discovered as free living among the littoral sea
weeds in the Gulf of Mannar. Later it was collected from the central
cavity of a tubular sponge from African waters. During the present
investigation it was found associated with two species of corals, Favia sp.
and Montipora sp., being much more abundant on the latter. As I had
no chance to study them alive nothing can be definitely stated about the
nature of the association. However, the following conjecture may be
made. Mysids generally feed by filtering fine particles of food from the
water or eat large morsels by holding them with their legs. The massive
third thoracic endopods indicate that Heteromysis belongs to the latter
category. Coral polyps are very much like anemones in their method
of feeding. Those with large tentacles are true predatory carnivores but
others with small tentacles entangle the food in mucus and get them
wafted towards the mouth by ciliary current. According to Hyman
(1940) plankton constitutes their main item of food. The undigested
part of the food taken in, collects in the centre of the coelenteron and is
ejected out by convulsive contractions through the wide open mouth.
It is possible that the mysids make use of the ejected particles and also
get protection from the coral polyps just as in the case of H. dctineae.
By removing these particles the mysids assist the corals to remain clean.
Accumulation of dirt has been known to cause the death of certain types
of corals (Hyman 1940). This is also likely to be a case of true com-
mensalism but direct observation is necessary for a definite conclusion.

An intriguing feature of the association between species of Hete-
romysis and other invertebrates is that in every case, except that of hermit
crabs, the mysids were found in the company of caridean shrimps.
Clarke found Alpheus armatus Rathbun, regularly associated with
H.actineae. Bruce (vide O.S. Tattersall 1962) observed H. gymnura with
Periclimenes lanipes Kemp and a wide variety of shrimps were associated
with H. zeylanica. In the present case there were a large number of
small pontoniid shrimps and alpheids. Clarke found no competition
between the shrimps and the mysids. That the shrimps and mysids were
always found together, irrespective of the kind of the host, is interesting.
Identical ecological necessities might have brought them together initially.
This must have later on developed into passive toleration or active co-
operation. That a dangerous animal like the sea-anemone tolerates both
is significant. Obviously the association is old and well established.
This is thus a fertile field for detailed investigation.

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL 51
HeETeROmysis S. I. Smith

Heteromysis W. M. Tattersall, 1922, p.495 ; Clarke, 1955, p.75;0O.S. Tattersall,
1962, p. 234.

The members of the genus Heteromysis can be easily distinguished by
their short robust body, large eyes, oblong fully setose antennal scale
and above all by the massive third thoracic endopods. The near absence
of sexual dimorphism in the pleopods is also characteristic.

The four species hitherto known from Indian waters differ thus :—

la. Peduncle of the eye with a dorsal process, proximal part of lateral border

Oh telsOnmmWitiiy SPiMeS tras. ve so hedie teed gk eats aa Ways, Yoo aha zeylanica
1b. Peduncle of the eye without process, proximal part of lateral border of
Le lSOMeWACMOU i, SINES i cryeier Gerke Vales hea eeate coat onal sr cs Oseh ccs coh ae 2
2a. Antennal scale longer than antennal peduncle; cornea wider than eye
stalk ; endopod of uropod without spines.................. gymnura
2b. Antennal scale not longer than antennal peduncle ; cornea narrower than
eye stalke- cndopod omuropod withtspines...% oy. ov.) sass oss ph eke 3
3a. Endopod of uropod armed with a single spine at the region of the stato-
cyst ; carpopropodus of third thoracic endopod massive...... proxima
3b. Endopod of uropod armed with 8 spines ; carpopropodus of third thoracic
endopode normally; developed tin fick eens. Cale e ss ack macropsis

Heteromysis zeylanica W. M. Tattersall

Heteromysis zeylanica W. M. Tattersall, 1922, p. 499, figs. 27a-e ; O. S. Tattersall,
1962, p. 246.

Female. Body is comparatively short with moderately stout
cephalothorax and slender abdomen. Carapace has a narrow tolerably
deep postero-median excavation and is anteriorly produced into a pro-
minent triangular apically rounded rostrum (fig. 1) which reaches the
middle of the basal segment of the antennular peduncle. Eyes are large
with the cornea narrower than the peduncle. Below the cornea there is
a small cluster of oscelli embedded inside the peduncle. The peduncle
is spiny and dorso-distally produced into a sharp prominent spine-like
process overlapping the cornea (fig. 1). The telson (fig. 9) is elongate-
triangular, about one and a quarter times as long as broad, with a deep
posterior sinus which is a third of the total length of the telson. The
lateral borders of the telson are armed with fourteen pairs of spines, the
first five pairs are nearly of the same size and are separated from the distal
group of spines by a gap. The distal group of eight pairs of spines
gradually increase in length towards the apex; the apex of each telsonic
lobe is armed with two spines which are rather blunt; the outer apical
spine is nearly one and a half times the length of the inner; the distance
between the ultimate lateral spine and the outer apical spine is greater
than the distance between any two of the lateral spines (fig. 9). The

52. . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

apical sinus of the telson is proximally armed with thirteen small spines,
six pairs and a median spine.

124-7 0.3mm.

Text-Figs. 1-8. Heteromysis zeylanica. Female

1. Anterior part of body, dorsal view ; 2. Antenna; 3. First thoracic endopod ;
4. Second thoracic leg; 5. Third thoracic leg; 6. Fourth thoracic leg; 7. Eighth
thoracic endopod; 8. Same, tip enlarged.

The outer distal part of the first segment of the antennule is produced
and carries three to four setae; second segment has a very oblique distal
border and its inner distal part carries a triggered spine and a seta; inner
border of the third segment has a median seta and a distal group of two
setae and a triggered spine. The antennal scale (fig. 2) is rather narrow

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL 33

and elongate-oblong, reaching slightly short of the tip of the antennal
peduncle, it is setose all round and there is a distinct apical partition.
The upper lip (fig. 11) is irregularly circular and not anteriorly pro-
duced, its distal border is spiny. The mandibles (figs. 12-13) are asym-
metrical and the palps are short but stout. Outer lobe of first maxilla
(fig. 14) has three inner distal setae and about eleven strong distal spines
in two rows. Inner lobe is small and ovate. Second maxilla (fig. 13)
is of the usual pattern with the distal segment of endopod rather large.

ST Moiaia

Q0.3 mm.

Q.'mmm.

Text-Figs. 9-18. Heteromysis zeylanica. 9-15. Female. 16-18. Male.

9. Telson and uropod; 10. Inner border of endopod of uropod ; 11. Upper lip;
12. Mandible; 13. Same, cutting edge enlarged: 14. First maxilla; 15. Second
maxilla; 16. Antennule; 17, Third thoracic endopod ; 18. Eighth thoracic leg,

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

First thoracic endopod is somewhat flattened and heavily armed with
strong stiff setae (fig. 3); basal segment is produced into a large inner
lobe; second segment has a small lobe; there is no distinct nail. Second
thoracic endopod (fig. 4) is rather slender; basal segment is slightly pro-
duced at the inner distal part; sixth segment is rounded; there is no dis-
tinct nail. Third thoracic endopod (fig. 5) is only moderately stout;
carpopropodus is shorter than the merus and the distal half of its inner
border is armed with four triggered spines and a few setae; there is an
indistinct partition near the distal end; dactylus is small and carries a
slightly curved nail with three setae near its base. Carpopropodus of
thoracic endopods four to eight is subdivided into several segments;
fourth (fig. 6) has four subsegments and the others (fig. 7) six subsegments;
the dactylus is very small and carries a styliform nail; the last carpopro-
podal segment carries very long characteristically curved setae (fig. 8).
Thoracic legs seven and eight carry a pair of broad lamellae; the brood
pouch generally carries four embryos.

Pleopods are simple flattened plates, first pleopod is very small and
distally faintly bilobed, the remaining pleopods successively increase in
length.

The rami of the uropods are setose all round; exopod is longer than
the endopod; both rami over-reach the telson. Beginning at the region
of the statocyst and extending up to the tip is a row of twelve moderately
sharp spines on the inner border of the endopod, which regularly in-
crease in length distally (fig. 10).

Length 5 mm.

Male. As usual in the genus the male is very much similar to the
female in general appearance. However, the following characters serve
to distinguish it. The rostral prolongation of the carapace is a trifle
narrower and apically more acute than in the female. The third segment
of the antennular peduncle (fig. 16) carries distally on the ventral side a
small lobe carrying long stiff hairs. Third thoracic endopod (fig. 17)
has its carpopropodus comparatively shorter but stouter than in the
female and the spines arming the inner border are stronger. The nail is
more strongly curved. The eighth thoracic endopod (fig. 18) carries a
large appendix masculina which is apically trilobed. Thoracic seg-
ments four to eight carry transversely oblong sternal processes becoming
successively smaller backwards, each process has in the middle a small
spiny prominence (fig. 19).

It is generally assumed that the pleopods are similar in the two sexes,
but Coifmann (1936) described some modification of the setae in
H. digitata and H. harpax. _ i (1964) found the same to be the case in
H. xanthops but did not describe or illustrate it. In H. zeylanica the modi-
fication is very pronounced and easily distinguishes the males from the
females. The third male pleopod (fig. 22) is comparatively longer than

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL 55

in the female. Its proximal half carries normal setae but the distal half
has along its outer border about twelve short modified non plumose
setae. Each modified seta has its distal part considerably thinned out

: 20-26 Qa.!mm

Text-Figs. 19-26. Heteromysis zeylanica. 19-24. Male. 25-26. Female.

19. Thoracic sterna five to eight showing sternal processes; 20-24. Pleopods one
to five ; 25. Pleopod two ; 26. Pleopod five.

so that the setae appear like spines when examined under low magni-
fication. The fourth pleopod (fig. 23) is still more modified. It is rather
broad throughout (not conical as in the female) and near the tip is bent
inwards, the modified setae arming the border are placed so close that

the appendage appears to have a closely serrate border.
Length 4:8 mm,

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Remarks. The original description of this species was based on
two males and two immature specimens collected at Kilakarai, Gulf of
Mannar, south India. They were collected from rock pools using a
hand net. Subsequently O. S. Tattersall supplemented the short original
description with some notes based on twenty specimens collected from a
sponge at Zanzibar. The present study shows that this species is some-
what variable in its characters.

O. S. Tattersall observed sternal processes on the last three thoracic
segments of immature females but none in the male. In my specimens
adult males have these processes on the last five segments but none were
observed in the female. In the type the endopod of the uropod has
eleven spines but O. S. Tattersall mentions only seven to eight, my speci-
mens have up to twelve in female and thirteen in male. The basal part
of the telson is armed with five spines in the female and four in the male,
O. S. Tattersall noticed up to six. According to W. M. Tattersall the
distal part of the lateral border is armed with eight to nine spines arranged
at regular intervals, the gap between the last spine and the outer apical
spine being not greater than that between any other two lateral spines.
This is not so in my specimens.

W. M. Tattersall mentioned four carpopropodal segments in the
thoracic endopods and O. S. Tattersall did not make any mention about
this. In my specimens the fourth Sora) has four subsegments and
the others six subsegments.

The prominent sexual dimorphism of the pleopods has not been
observed before in this species.

REFERENCES

Bacesco, M. (1941): Les Mysidaces HILGENDoRF, F. (1879): Die von

des eaux Mediterrannes de la France et des
eaux de Monaco. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr.
Monaco No. 795 : 1-46.

Bonnier, J. & PEREZ, C. (1902): Sur
un Crustace commensal des Pagures
Gnathomysis gerlachei nov. sp. type d’une
famille nouvelle de Schizopodes. C.R.
Acad. Sci. Paris 134: 117-119.

CALMAN, W. T. (1932): A cave dwel-
ling crustacean of the family Mysidae
from the island of Lanzarote. Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 10: 127-131.

CLARKE, W. D. (1955) : A new species
of the genus Heteromysis (Crustacea :
Mysidacea) from the Bahama Islands,
commensal with a sea-anemone. ANEES.
Mus. Nov. saa 1716 : 1-13.

CoIFMANN, I. (1936) : I misimacei del
Mar Rosso : Studies del materiale rac-
colto del Prof. Magnaghi (1923-24).
R. Comitato Talassografico Italino. No.
233 ; 1-52,

Herrn W. Peters in Mocambique gesam-
melten Crustaceen. Monatsber. Akad.

Wiss. Berlin. 1878, 782-851.

Hoitmes, S. J. (1900) : Synopsis of
California. stalk eyed Crustacea. Occ.
Pap. California Acad. Sci. 7: 1-262.

Hyman, L. H. (1940): The Inverte-
brates: Protozoa through Ctenophora.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York
and London 1: vii, 726. -

Tn, Ne (1964) : Fauna Japonica My-
sidae. Biogeographical Society of
Japan, Tokyo 1-610.

KOSSMANN, R. (1880) : Malacostraca :
In Zoologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in
die Kuestengetrete des Rothen Meeres.
Leipzig. Wilhelm Engelmann. Pt. 2,
No. 1: 1-140.

NoUuvEL, H. (1940) : Observations sur
la sexualite d’un mysidace, Heteromysis
armoricana n. sp. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr.
Monaco. 37: 1-11,

HETEROMYSIS ZEYLANICA TATTERSALL By)

(1942): Diagnoses preli-
minares de mysidaces nouveaux prove-
nant des campagnes du Prince Albert 1
de Monaco. op. cit.39: 1-11.

———— _ (1964): Heteromysis ger-
lachei (Bonnier et Perez) et les especes
actuellement confoundues sous le nom
d’Heteromysis harpax (Crustacea, My-
sidacea). Zool. Meded. Leiden 39 : 37-44.

Prttar, N. K. (1961): Additions to
the Mysidacea of Kerala. Bull. Res.
Inst. Univ. Kerala 8 : 15-35.

Sars, G. O. (1877): Nye bidrag til
Kundskaben om middlehavets inverte-
brat fauna. Arch. Math. Naturyv.
Kristiana 2: 10-119.

— (1885) : Schizopoda : In
Report on the Scientific Voyage of
H.M.S. Challenger during 1873-76,
London. Zool. 13: 1-228.

SmitH, S. I. (1873): Crustacea in

Verrill, A. E. Report upon the inverte-
brate animals of Vineyard Sound and the
adjacent waters, with an account of the
physical characters of the region. Rep.
U.S. Com. Fish. 1871-72. 1: 545-580.

TATTERSALL, O. S. (1961) : Mysidacea

from the coast of tropical west Africa.
Atlantide Rep. 6 : 143-159.
— (1962): Report on a collec-
tion of Mysidacea from African offshore
and coastal waters (1957-59) and from
Zanzibar (1961). Proc. Zool. Soc.
London 139 : 221-247.
TATTERSALL, W. M. (1922): Indian
py he a Rec. Indian Mus. 24: 445
504.

———— (1927a): Report on the
Crustacea Mysidacea. In Zoological
results of the Cambridge expedition to
the Suez Canal 1924. Trans. Zool. Soc.
London 22 : 185-198.

(1927b) : Australian opos-
sum shrimps (Mysidacea). Rec. Austr.
Mus. 3 :235-257.

VERRILL, A. E. (1922): Crustacea of
Bermuda. Schizopoda, Cumacea, Sto-
matopoda and _ Phyllocarida. Trans.
Conn. Acad. Arts. Sci. 26: 181-211.

WALKER, A. O. (1898) : Crustacea
collected by W. A. Herdman F.R.S. in
Puget Sound, Pacific coast of North
America, September 1897. Proc. Trans.
Liverpool Biol, Soc. 12 : 268-287.

Records of rare Fishes of the Family
Chaetodontidae from Bombay

BY

B. F. CHHAPGAR AND J. K. JATAR
Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay —

(With five text-figures)

In his paper ‘ Further records of lobsters from Bombay ’ (Chhapgar
& Deshmukh 1964), the senior author had remarked on the presence of
some species of fishes at Bombay in 1961-62 which do not normally occur
there. In the year 1966 this phenomenon was again repeated, this time
with fishes of the subfamily Chaetodontinae. The only fish belonging
to this subfamily regularly occurring at Bombay is Chaetodon (Chaeto-
dontops) collare Bloch. However, on 8 March, 1966, along with other
marine fishes collected on the foreshore at Cuffe Parade (southern
Bombay) and brought alive for display at the Taraporevala Aquarium,
was a juvenile specimen of the butterfly fish, Chaetodon (Chaetodontops)
lunula (Lacépéde). More specimens of this species were caught within
the next three months. Finally, on 26 May, 1966, along with one speci-
men of this fish, we received one live specimen each of Anisochaetodon
(Linophora) auriga (Forskal), Anisochaetodon (Oxychaetodon) lineolatus
(Cuvier & Valenciennes), and Chaetodon (Rhabdophorus) xanthocephalus
Bennett. All four fishes are new records for Bombay ; Munro (1955)
has recorded only two of them, viz., A. auriga and C. xanthocephalus from
Ceylon. A key to their identification and brief descriptions are given

below.

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF BUTTERFLY FISHES OF BOMBAY

1. Scales uniform, with regularly rounded posterior border (Chaetodon)........ p)
Two kinds of ciliated scales ; large rhombic ones, their posterior border with
unequal sides forming an obtuse angle, at least on anterior part of trunk, and
much smaller, regularly rounded ones elsewhere (Anisochaetodon)........ 4

2. Spinous dorsal fin nearly twice longer than soft dorsal...................-
aise heat Coe rRnake SuaueaeMtcs we eee eles Chaetodon (Rhabdophorus) xanthocephalus
Spinous dorsal fin somewhat longer than soft dorsal (Chaetodontops)........3

FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY 59

3. Lower border of eye below a horizontal line passing through the beginning of
tiercape: Oltmenmouth » lateraliline arches)... oe eae iisa eso woe ase soso
Se Sis cis Cae A SE Pa at a IR Cetera Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) — lunula

Lower border of eye touching or slightly above a horizontal line passing through
the beginning of the gape of the mouth ; lateral line angular..............
eae terres NERO Sueitie Se Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) collare

4. Snout straight, slightly longer than eye....Anisochaetodon (Linophora) auriga
Snout conical,twice longer than eye... . Anisochaetodon (Oxychaetodon) lineolatus

Chaetodon (Rhabdophorus) xanthocephalus Bennett

Chaetodon xanthocephalus, Day, 1887-88, p. 104, 1889, pl. 26; Smith, 1953, p. 239,
pl. 32.

Rhabdocephalus xanthocephalus, Munro, 1955, p. 174, pl. 34.

The body is silvery-grey. The area covered by a line cutting across
from the middle of the dorsal fin to the upper part of the caudal peduncle
is jet black. In front of this is a wide oblique white band. The soft
portion of the anal fin is smoky grey. The borders of the dorsal and
anal fins, as well as the cheeks, and breast are orange. The caudal
peduncle is black, but has orange stripes both before and behind it. A
black vertical stripe passes through the eye. Five narrow black parallel
lines run across the body. In their upper half they are straight and
vertical ; in their middle they suddenly turn and run obliquely backward
so as to form an obtuse angle. The tail fin is colourless and transparent.

Pee
wa ah ise

i \ Ue.
ay

Ie

One juvenile specimen, 65 mm. in total length, was caught at Cuffe
Parade on 26 May, 1966,

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) lunula (Lacépéde)

Chaetodon lunula, Day, 1887-88, p. 108 ; Smith, 1953, p. 238, pl. 31.
Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) lunula, Weber & De Beaufort, 1936, p. 83.

The body is lemon yellow. A black vertical band passes through
the eye ; starting above it, on the forehead, and continuing behind it is
a backwardly curving white collar. Arising from the middle of the
collar and extending backward is a black triangular patch, curving up-
ward but falling far short of the dorsal fin. A dark brown band curves
along the top of the body from shoulder to caudal peduncle, widening at
both extremities. On the trunk is a series of thin, straight, brown lines
running obliquely upward from front to back. The borders of the soft
dorsal and anal fins are lined with black, and there is a thin black line
separating the yellow caudal peduncle from the transparent, colourless
tail fin.

In very young specimens there are two round, white-bordered, black
ocelli, the lower one in front of the caudal peduncle and the other being
slightly above it. As the fish grows, however, the upper ocellus dis-
appears, while between it and the lower ocellus arises a dark grey, curved
line, very thin at the top but widening below. The tips of the spines of
the dorsal fin are black.

Five specimens, ranging from 46 to 110 mm. in total length, were
caught at Cuffe Parade between 8 March and 26 May, 1966,

FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY 61

Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) collare Bloch

Chaetodontops collaris, Munro, 1955, p. 174, pl. 34.
Chaetodon collaris, Day, 1887-88, p. 107, 1889, pl. 27.
Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) collare, Weber & De Beaufort, 1936, p. 91.

Body olive brown, tending to red on the dorsal and anal fins. A dark
chocolate brown vertical band passes through the eye ; in front of and
behind it are vertical white stripes, the latter being broader. The centres
of the scales on the body are paler, giving the appearance of parallel
stripes on the body obliquely ascending from front to back. The soft
dorsal and anal fins are bordered black. The caudal peduncle is car-
mine red, and is separated from the transparent colourless tail fin by a
thin black stripe.

This is the common species of butterfly fish in Bombay, being caught
at all sizes from 35 to 120 mm. in total length.

Anisechaetedon (Linophora) auriga (Forskal)

Chaetodon auriga, Day, 1887-88, p. 106, 1889, pl. 27 ; Smith, 1953, p. 237, pl. 31.
Linophora auriga, Weber & De Beaufort, 1936, p. 103 ; Munro, 1955, p. 175,

pl. 34.

The body is white in the middle, but light golden yellow at all edges
and especially in the regions of the soft dorsal and anal fins and on the
cheeks. The usual black vertical band passing through the cye is present.
Across the upper half of the body are five complete and two incomplete
dark stripes passing obliquely upward from front to back, while on the
lower half of the body are eleven stripes passing obliquely downward

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

from front to back, and meeting the previously mentioned stripes at right
angles. The soft dorsal fin is edged with black. There is an oval black
ocellus in the middle of the soft dorsal fin.

One juvenile specimen, 73 mm. in total length, was caught at Cuffe
Parade on 26 May, 1966. The setiferous extension of the dorsal fin
found in this species is absent in the present specimen.

Anisochaetodon (Oxychaetodon) lineolatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes)

Chaetodon lineolatus, Smith, 1953, p. 238, fig. 601.
Anisochaetodon (Oxychaetodon) lineolatus, Weber & De Beaufort, 1936, p. 114,
fig. 29.

The colour of the body is silvery grey, while the cheeks, the soft
dorsal and anal fins (except at the extreme edge) and caudal peduncle
are yellow. A black vertical band passes through the eye. A series of
16 wavy black vertical lines cross the body from just behind the pectoral
fin up to a dark black patch immediately in front of the caudal peduncle.
These lines extend right up to the base of the dorsal fin above, but stop
short a little distance above that of the anal fin. The anteriormost three
to four wavy bands stop somewhere around the middle of the body. A
black crescent-shaped patch runs along the upper posterior border of
the body from the commencement of the soft dorsal fin up to and in-
cluding the caudal peduncle. ‘The caudal peduncle is yellow, with a
narrow black posterior edge. Behind this the tail fin is colourless and
transparent.

FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY 63

One juvenile specimen, 66 mm. in total length, was caught at Cuffe
Parade on 26 May, 1966. This species has been illustrated by Smith

(1953, p. 238) ; however, in his figure the vertical lines are shown straight.
Day (1888) records the distribution of this fish as Ceylon and Zanzibar.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director, and
Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific Officer, Department of
Fisheries, Maharashtra, for critically going through the manuscript.

REFERENCES

CHHAPGAR, B. F. & DESHMUKH, S. K.
(1964) : Further records of lobsters from
Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61
(1) : 203-207, 1 pl.

Day, F. (1887-88): The fishes of
India 1 : i-xx, 1-816.

— (1889): ibid. 2: 1-11, pls.
1-195.
Munro, IAN, S. R. (1955): The marine

and freshwater fishes of Ceylon: i-xvi,
1-351, pls. 1-56, 19 figs.

SmiTH, J. L. B. (1953): The sea fishes
of southern Africa: i-xvi, 1-564, 107
pls., 1219 figs.

WEBER, MAx & DE BEAUFORT, L. F.
(1936) : The fishes of the Indo-Australian
Archipelago 7: i-xvi, 1-607, 106 figs.

Preference of Castor varieties for
feeding and oviposition by the
Leathopper, Empoasca flavescens (F.)
(Homoptera, Jassidae) with particular
reference to its Honeydew excretion

BY

S. JAYARAJ

Faculty of Entomology,
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Coimbatore

(With two text-figures)

Seshadri & Seshu (1956) reported differential feeding injury on cer-
tain varieties of castor (Ricinus communis L.) inflicted by the leafhopper,
Empoasca flavescens (F.). Further preliminary observations were made
by Dorairaj et al. (1963) and Jayaraj & Basheer (1964) on castor resist-
ance to this insect. Detailed investigations were made by the author
(Jayaraj 1966, 1967a) into the possibility of reducing leafhopper damage
through the use of certain specific castor varieties in a study over three
seasons (1961-1964) and many sowing periods. In exploring the mecha-
nisms of such resistance and susceptibility in these varieties, the pre-
ference-nonpreference component was noted to play an important role.
The present observations were, therefore, initiated to study the prefer-
ence of the leafhopper toward different varieties for feeding and oviposi-
tion and toward leaves of different ages in the varieties. The feeding
preference was further studied in an indirect way by assessing the rate
of honeydew excretion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The observations were made under insectary conditions with tem-
perature ranging from 21 to 24°C., humidity 80%, and sufficient arti-
ficial lighting. Preference for oviposition was studied in respect of four
castor varieties, viz., Dominica (susceptible), C3. Pakistan (tolerant),
R.C. 1098 Baker (resistant), and R.C. 1096 Coonoor (resistant), in large
wire mesh cages. Four plants, one of each variety, were caged together
and 50 adult jassids allowed to oviposit in them over a period of 72 hours.

Ss

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 65

At the end of this period, the adults were killed by ether fumes, and
the plants removed and separately caged. The number of nymphs which
hatched out in each case was taken as the indication for the number of
eggs laid by the leafhoppers. Since the egg stage of the jassid lasts about
eight days (Jayaraj & Basheer, 1964), nymphal counts were commenced
from the eighth day of the experiment and continued up to the 12th day.

Preference for feeding was studied in a similar manner by introduc-
ing fifty freshly hatched nymphs into the cage. The number of nymphs:
found feeding on the plants was considered as having been attracted by
the varieties. The preference of the leafhopper for leaves of different
ages was observed under field conditions with respect to the 20 varieties
mentioned in Table 2. Weekly counts of leafhopper population, both
nymph and adult, were made during the early hours of the morning from
6 a.m. to 8 a.m. with reference to three leaves ineach plant selected from
the top, middle, and bottom of the main shoot. Thus in all, 27 leaves
in nine plants, three in each replication, were examined for each variety
at one time. The observations lasted for a total period ranging from 56
weeks in early-maturing varieties to 66 weeks in late types in two
seasons, 1962-63 and 1963-64.

Honeydew experiments: The preference of the leafhopper for the
four varieties was also tested by observing the frequency of honeydew
excretion as an indication of the feeding efficiency. A small plastic cage
made by placing in juxtaposition two circular, colourless and transparent
plastic dishes held in position by means of rubber bands*was used for the
purpose. One leaf lobe was inserted into the cage at a certain marked
position and a single leafhopper introduced at a time and allowed to feed
for 24 hours. The position of the leaf lobe inside the cage was shifted
once in 6 hours so as to avoid overlapping of the honeydew droplets and
to facilitate easy counting. Data were gathered separately for males,
females, and first instar nymphs in six replications.

The feeding efficiency of the first instar nymph on the four varieties
at different times of the day was studied in another experiment by shift-
ing the leaf lobe position once in two hours, commencing from 6 a.m.
When shifting the leaf position in the night, minimum light was used
for a short time without disturbing the feeding nymph. This experi-
ment was replicated three times.

In assessing the effect of different colours of light on the jassid feed-
ing, cages made out of red, blue, green, yellow, and colourless plastic
dishes were used under fluorescent lighting. The first instar nymph was
allowed to feed for six hours and the number of honeydew droplets
counted. In this experiment the same four varieties were used in four

replications.

2,

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)
RESULTS

1. Preference of the jassid for castor varieties for oviposition and
feeding

The number of nymphs hatched out from each plant was considered
as an index of the preference for oviposition. The results are given
below :

TABLE 1

PREFERENCE OF CASTOR VARIETIES FOR OVIPOSITION AND FEEDING

No. of nymphs hatched No. of nymphs attracted

Variety out from each plant to each plant for feeding
: (Mean of 8 (Mean of 10
observations) observations)
1. DOMINICA 47°549°9 | 19°8+0°8
(Susceptible)
2. C3. PAKISTAN
(Tolerant) 33°0+43°2 15°741:3
3. R.C. 1098 BAKER
(Resistant) 14°142°5 4°6+40°8
4. R.C. 1096 COONOOR 10°4+2°4 5°540°7
(Resistant)
Critical
difference (P=0.05) 16°0 3°0

The susceptible and tolerant varieties were the most preferred for
Oviposition and feeding. While these two varieties were preferred alike
for oviposition, the susceptible variety attracted significantly more
nymphs for feeding. ‘

2. Preference for leaves of different ages in castor

The mean population data of the insect on leaves of different maturity
of 20 castor varieties observed during 1962-63 and 1963-64 seasons under
field conditions are furnished below.

It may be noted from the Table that the jassid population varied
significantly in the different varieties as also on the leaves of three ages.
The middle leaf harboured the maximum number with a mean of 25:9
followed by the bottom leaf which had a mean population of 20°6. The
top leaf had only a mean population of 4°8 jassids. However, when
considering individual varieties, the preference of the insect for the varie-
ties varied in respect of the age of the leaves. In both the bottom and
middle leaves the varieties differed among themselves very much in the
jassid population while most of the varieties behaved alike in the popu-
lation on the top leaf. The top leaf therefore, cannot serve as a sound

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 67

basis for the evaluation of castor varietal resistance. In any case, the
analysis of the population data leaves no doubt that the preference of the
TABLE 2

COMPARISON OF JASSID INCIDENCE ON LEAVES OF THREE AGES
«IN CASTOR VARIETIES

Jassid population

Variety pels Ne lt Mean
Bottom . Middle Top
leaf leaf leaf
Resistant
1. R.C. 1098 Baker ey 3°3 4°5 1°6 3°1
2. R.C. 1094 Cimmerron es 76 10°1 3:0 69
3. R.C. 1096 Coonoor ue 8°8 11°3 2°6 a5
Intermediate (Tolerant)
Group I
4. R.C. 1077 South Africa wi 12°6 19:9 5°0 12°5
5. Mauthner’s Dwarf oy 11°0 21°1 8°3 13°5
6. R.C. 1095 U.S. 74 Pe 16°7 20°0 7 13°5
7. R.C.552/1 Nagpur 13°5 20°4 4°8 12:9
Group II .
8. R.C. 817 Koilpatti res 18°7 18°2 ha | 13°3
9. R.C. 826 Russia a 222. 18°2 2°6 14°3
10. E.B. 26/1 M.P. Pee 23°3 18°3 2°5 14°7
11. T.M.V. 1 172 29°4 6:0 17°5
Group III
12. C3. Pakistan a 28°6 28°2 3°8 20°2
13. R.C. 488 Egypt Bs 27°6 29°3 4°7 20°5
14. R.C. 842 €ddapah Re 25°6 26°7 4°4 18°9
15. T.M.V. 3 oe 42°3 44°7 5°6 30°9
16. Co. 1 es 31°6 33°6 4:7 23°3
7. TMV: 2 4°3 64°0 6°7 38°3
Susceptible |
18. R.C. 1092 Italy 3 14°5 20°8 6'°8 14°0
19. Israel M.E. ae hie 33°5 6°6 19°3
_ Highly Susceptible
20. Dominica aN 25'0 44:9 10°2 26°7
Mean at 20°6 25°9 4°8

Difference between varieties significant at the 1% probability level. C.D. (P=0°05) 2°8.
Difference between leaves significant at the 1% probability level: C.D. (P=0°'05) 11.
Interaction between varieties and leaves significant at the 1° level. C.D. (P=0°'05) 5:0.

jassid is for the susceptible and tolerant varieties. The susceptible
variety, Dominica, and tolerant varieties like T.M.V. 2 and T.M.V. 3
were preferred to resistant varieties like Baker and Cimmerron.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)
3. Honeydew excretion as an index of feeding preference

(i) Excretion of jassid nymph and male and female adults
fed on four varieties

The excretion of the leafhopper, in general, is directly related to the
intake of plant sap. Therefore, the numberof honeydew droplets ex-
creted by the insect in unit time when fed on different castor varieties
is considered as an index for its feeding preference. This assumption
is further based on the earlier findings of Maxwell & Painter (1959) who
reported the possibility of using the rate of honeydew deposition to
measure the degree of resistance of host plants, the rate of ingestion of
plant material, and to serve as a crude measure of the metabolic activity
of the insect. The honeydew excretion of the nymph and male and
female adults was compared and the data illustrated in Fig. 1.

NYMPH

oe FEMALE

is)

Bo E
a MAL

a

160

in 24 hours

80

No. of honeydew droplets excreted

Q
90
on
oo
oa
oo
oa
oa
00
jeje)
els)
00
ac
9a
oG
oo
00

ago0gu00000
qao0o00000qa0
o00000000

DOMINICA PAKISTAN BAKER COONOOR
(Susceptible) (Tolerant) _ (Resistant) (Resistant)

Host variety

Fig. 1. Honeydew excretion of jassid nymph, male and female adults fed on” four
castor varieties.

The results show the markedly higher level of excretion of the leaf-
hopper when fed on the susceptible and tolerant varieties than when fed
on the resistant ones. Irrespective of the stage or sex of the insect, the
jassid excreted on an average 217°8 droplets in a day when fed on
Dominica variety and 155°3 on Pakistan variety as against only 75°9
and 69:6 on the resistant Baker and Coonoor varieties respectively.
Nymphs caused maximum damage excreting 161°8 honeydew droplets

&

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 69

followed by female (126°9) and male (100°3) adults. The feeding and
excretory activity of both the sexes were statistically alike when fed on the
tolerant and resistant varieties, while the female excreted significantly
more than the male when fed on the susceptible variety.

(ii) Influence of colour on excretion

Colour affected the honeydew excretion of this leafhopper. Jassids
confined in transparent plastic cages of different colours reacted
differently in respect of feeding and honeydew excretion. The data of
honeydew drops excreted by first instar nymphs are presented in Table 3

TABLE 3

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT COLOURS ON THE RATE OF HONEYDEW EXCRETION
LEAFHOPPER NYMPHS FED ON FOUR CASTOR VARIETIES

No. of honeydew droplets excreted by a first
instar nymph in six hours (Mean of four
Variety observations)

White Red = Blue Green Yellow Mean

Dominica
(Susceptible) an IRE: 10°3 48°0 67°8 18°3 43°3
2. C3. Pakistan

(Tolerant) Ne 60°5 10°8 47°8 64°5 25 41-0
3. R.C. 1098 Baker
(Resistant) i. 34°0 9°0 29°0 29°0 13°5 229
4. R.C. 1096 Coonoor
(Resistant) a 24°0 8°5 35°0 35°0 13°8 23°3
Mean om 47°7 9°6 39°9 49°1 16°8

Difference between varieties significant at the 1% probability level. C.D. (P=0°05)
65:

Difference between colours significant at the 1% probability level. C.D. (P=0'05)
22:9;

Interaction between varieties and colours significant at the 1% probability level. C.D.
(P=0°'05) 14°5.

Normal feeding activity and excretion were observed on exposure
to green, white, and blue lights. Marked differences in the number of
honeydew drops excreted by the leafhopper fed on the susceptible and
tolerant varieties on the one hand and on the resistant varieties on the
other were noticeable only under these colours. Very low honeydew
deposition was noted in yellow and red lights and all the varieties gave

@

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

like results. Thus, besides indicating the effect of colour on the jassid —
excretion, this experiment also confirmed the preference of the insect for
the susceptible and tolerant varieties in preference to the resistant
varieties.

(iii) Honeydew excretion at different times of the day

The feeding activity of the leafhopper fluctuated at different times of
the day. To estimate this, honeydew deposition by first instar nymphs
fed on four castor varieties was observed at intervals of two hours. The
results are illustrated in Figure 2.

28 -
24
0-+-O DOMINICA
O° x (Susceptible)
wee x :
° . : @— @ PAKISTAN
\ O (Tolerant)
” 20 i Be 7
@ \
& _~-. *
Q \
»
SA) :
E re)
9 ’
>
ly +
= \
4p $<,
= ie? \ Be.
& . @* ° ~*~ BAKER
=e \ t (Resistant)
: ae | N /
(o) nN \ re r . (O== 3
= eas Or 3 ~D COONOOR
8 aah * 4 . (Resistant)
oO \ \@ i ms

6 hee 0” wie 16. 1G PoIG eh 20. pie ou tO 2 4
to to to to to to to to to to to to
840 92 ae ae te IS 20 22) 0.2 Z 6

TIME OF THE DAY ;
Fig. 2. Honeydew excretion of jassid nymphs fed-on tour castor varieties during
different times of the day.

As in the previous experiments the number of honeydew droplets
excreted by the leafhopper was significantly higher when fed on the
susceptible and tolerant varieties than when fed on the resistant varieties.

exces

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 71

Excretion was markedly more during the night than during the day—
100°2 droplets were excreted by a jassid nymph in the night hours from
6 p.m. to 6 a.m. as against only 55°8 from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., taking all the
varieties together. The feeding activity and consequently the excretion
were least during the hotter hours from 12 noon to 4 p.m. and maximum
between 8 p.m. and 10 p.m. (Fig. 2). However, the differences between
varieties in this regard were still maintained. The interaction between
varieties and periods within day and night was not significant.

In all the above honeydew experiments it was observed that the
honeydew droplets excreted by the leafhoppers that fed on susceptible
and tolerant varieties were comparatively big, dark green, and opaque,
while those on resistant varieties were much smaller, pale green to colour-
less, and translucent to transparent. |

DISCUSSION

It is. interesting to note that under field as well as under insectary
conditions, the jassid prefers the susceptible and tolerant varieties for
feeding and oviposition (Tables 1 and 2). The efficiency with which the
preferred host-varieties are discovered by the leafhoppers arouses interest
and curiosity. The plausible explanation for their preference lies among
other factors in the nutritional superiority of the susceptible and tolerant
varieties over the resistant ones as surmised by Lipke & Fraenkel (1956)
for phytophagous insects in general. In other words, the nutritional
requirements of the jassid may have a direct bearing on host selection.
In fact Painter (1958) has pointed out that not much emphasis has been
placed on the use of resistant varieties, particularly resistant and suscep-
tible isogenic pairs, as tools in the study of insect nutrition. The role
played by the chemical senses of the insect in the matter of host selection
may also be of much significance in this connection (Dethier 1953, 1954).

The susceptible variety Dominica and the tolerant variety C3.
Pakistan contain higher quantities of total nitrogen, free amino acids,
and peptides than the resistant R.C. 1098 Baker variety (Jayaraj 1967b).
The resistant varieties were not preferred by the insect owing to their
nutritional inferiority. These varieties had higher concentrations of total
carbohydrates, sucrose and glucose than the susceptible and tolerant
varieties, and in addition had fructose (Jayaraj 1967b). As the leaf-
hoppers have been observed to avoid higher concentrations of sugars,
particularly sucrose (Nuorteva 1952), the increased quantity of sugars
present in resistant varieties may be supposed to repel the jassids.

As reported by Kennedy (1953) in the case of Aphis fabae Scop., the
leafhopper Empoasca flavescens also seems to be capable of discriminating
between different castor varieties and the leaves of different ages within
the variety. The jassids are undoubtedly better adapted and in a better

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

position to do so than the aphids because of their more active habits.
The middle and bottom leaves are generally preferred to the top leaves.
Aphids, however, prefer tender leaves (Kessler et al. 1958; Kennedy
1958).

Maxwell & Painter (1959) reported the possibility of using the rate of
honeydew deposition to measure the degree of resistance of host plants,
the rate of ingestion of plant material, and to serve as a crude measure
of the metabolic activity of the insect. The frequency of honeydew
excretion was significantly higher in E. flavescens fed on the preferred
hosts than when fed on nonpreferred resistant varieties (Fig. 1). Auclair
(1958, 1959) observed that the honeydew droplet volume, the frequency,
and rate of excretion in Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harr.) were generally
proportional to the susceptibility of the pea variety. Maxwell & Painter
(1959) also found increased frequency of honeydew excretion in Toxo-
ptera graminum (Rond.) and Therioaphis maculata (Buck) fed on various
alfalfa clones, and wheat and barley varieties varying in susceptibility
to aphid attack.

The nymphs of E. flavescens excreted more honeydew than adults,
and generally the female caused more damage than the male (Fig. 1).
It has also been found that when the nymph/adult ratio is high, percentage
hopperburn is high (Jayaraj 1967c), a phenomenon, in part, due to the
voracious nature of the nymphs and their ability to drain more plant sap.
The frequency of excretion by the adults of the aphid Tuberolachnus
salignus (Gmelin) was much less than that of the nymphs (Mittler 1958)
whereas in the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harr.) it was higher in the
adults (Auclair 1958).

The higher deposition of honeydew in the night time recorded in the
present studies (Fig. 2) may be because of the increased feeding activity
of the leafhopper which prefers lower temperatures (Jayaraj 1964). The
fact that red light retards the feeding and excretory activities of the leaf-
hopper (Table 3) suggests an explanation for the less preference of the
red-leaved variety R.C. 1092 Italy which is, however, a nontolerant
variety classified under the susceptible category (Jayaraj 1967a).

®
SUMMARY s

In the mechanisms of resistance in castor (Ricinus communis L.) to
the leafhopper, Empoasca flavescens (F.), the nonpreference component
was found to play an important role. Evidence has been presented to
show that for feeding and oviposition the insect preferred Dominica
(susceptible) and C3. Pakistan (tolerant) varieties to the resistant R.C.
1098 Baker and R.C. 1096 Coonoor varieties. The preference among
the 20 varieties was for the susceptible and tolerant types and for the
middle and bottom leaves rather than the top leaves within the plant.

FEEDING & OVIPOSITION BY LEAFHOPPER, E. FLAVESCENS (F.) 73

The nymphs and adults fed on susceptible and tolerant hosts excreted
more honeydew than those fed on resistant plants. The excretion of
honeydew was found to be more frequent in the case of nymphs as com-
pared with adults. Normal feeding activity and excretion were observed
on exposure to green, blue, and white lights, while yellow and red reduced
the excretion. Excretion was significantly more during night than in the
day, and was much retarded during the hotterhours on all the varieties.

The plausible mechanism of the preference or nonpreference is ex-
plained from the nutritional point of view.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study formed part of the thesis submitted to the University of
‘Madras for the Ph.D. degree, and financial support was given by the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. Grateful
appreciation is extended to Prof. A. R. Seshadri, Agricultural College
and Research Institute, Coimbatore, and Prof. R. H. Painter, Kansas
State University, Kansas, U.S.A., for valuable suggestions made during

the course of study.

REFERENCES

Auciair, J. L. (1958): Honeydew
excretion in the pea aphid, Acyrthosi-
phon pisum (Harr.). J. Insect Physiol.
2 : 330-337.

—— (1959): Feeding and excre-
tion by the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon
pisum (Harr.) reared on different varie-
ties of peas. Ent. exptl. et appl. 2:
279-286.

Deruier, V. G. (1953): Host plant
perception in phytophagous insects.
Tages. 9th Int. Cong. Ent., Amsterdam 2:

————. (1954) : Evolution of feeding
preferences in phytophagous insects.
Evolution 8: 33-54.

DorarrAJ, M. S., SAviTHRI, V., &
AryapurRAI, S. G. (1963): Population
density as a criterion for evaluating
varietal resistance of castor to jassid
infestation. Madras agric. J. 50: 100.

JAYARAJ, S. (1964) : Investigations on
the mechanism of resistance in castor
(Ricinus communis L.) to the leafhopper,
Empoasca flavescens (F.) (Homoptera,
Jassidae). Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ.
Madras.

(1966) : Influence of sowing
times of castor varieties on their resis-
tance to the leafhopper, Empoasca fla-

vescens (Homoptera, Jassidae). Ent.
exp. appl. 9 : 359-369.
———— (1967a): Studies on the

resistance of castor plants (Ricinus com-
munis L.) to the leafhopper, Empoasca
flavescens (F.) (Homoptera, Jassidae).
Z. angew. Ent. 59 : 117-126.
—-— (1967b): Effect of leaf-
hopper infestation on the metabolism
of carbohydrate and nitrogen in castor
varieties in relation to their resistance to
Empoasca flavescens (F.) (Homoptera,
ue Indian J. exp. Biol. 5: 156-
(1967c) : Antibiosis mecha-
nism of resistance in castor varieties
to the leafhopper, Empoasca flavescens
(F.) (Homoptera, Jassidae). Indian J.
Ent. 29 : 73-78.
——— & BASHEER, M. (1964):
Biological observations on the castor

leafhopper, Empoasca flavescens (F.)
Coe : Homoptera). Madras agric.
J. 51 : 89.

KENNEDY, J. S. (1953): Host selec-
tion in Aphididae. Trans. 9th Int.
Cong. Ent., Amsterdam, 2: 106-113.

———— (1958): Physiological condi-
tion of the host-plant and susceptibility
i apna attack. Ent. exptl. et appl. 1:

74

KessLer, B., SwirskI, E., & TAHORI,
A. S. (1958): Effect of caffeine and
other purines upon the ribonucleic acid/
deoxyribonucleic acid ratio in leaves,
and the suitability of these leaves for
aphids. Nature, 181: 1595-96.

Lipke, H., & FRAENKEL, G. (1956):
Insect nutrition. Annu. Rev. Entomol.
1: 17-44.

MaxweELL, F. G., & PAINTER, R. H.
(1959) : Factors affecting rate of honey-
dew deposition by Therioaphis maculata
(Buck.) and Toxopetra graminum (Rond.)
J. econ. Ent. 52: 368-373.

MrrTLer, T. E. (1958): The excre-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

tion of honeydew by Tuberolachnus
salignus (Gmelin) (Homoptera : Aphidi-
ae Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond. (A) 33:

“55. ;

Nuor Teva, P. (1952): Die Nahrungs-
pflanzenwahl der Insekten im Lichte von
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Acad. Sci. fenn., A TV, 19 : 1-90.

PAINTER, R. H. (1958): Resistance
of plants to insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol.
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SESHADRI, C. R., & SesHu, K.A.:
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Observations on Age and Growth of
Tachysurus sona (Ham.)’

BY

VusAl D. SINGH? AND M. S. REGE
Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay-1\

(With eight text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The sub-order Siluroidea is represented mainly by the family
Tachysuridae (Ariidae) along the Bombay coast, where itis of considera-
ble economic importance. Its fishery along the coast has improved con-
siderably with the recent introduction of mechanised fishing boats and
motor trawlers which have more or less replaced the use of hook and line
(restricted to the monsoon season only) as the principal mode of capture
of catfishes. Catfishes ranked second in the total marine fish catches of
Maharashtra for the years 1962-63 and 1963-64 (Annual Report 1963-64,
Department of Fisheries, Maharashtra). Of the six species of com-
mercial importance along the Bombay coast, the husky catfish, Tachy-
surus sona locally known as ‘ Shigala’ ranks first, constituting about
60% of the catfish catches. Practically no information is available on
the biology of this fish. The present study, however, deals only with
the age and growth of the fish.

Growth studies of fishes have become an important aspect of fishery
biology investigations in view of their use in population models for
estimating the yield of a fishery. The yield estimate from population
models such as those given by Beverton & Holt (1957) is obtained in
terms of weight of the fish caught, for which a correct knowledge of
growth parameters and length-weight relationship are necessary besides
other vital statistics like catch and effort. The growth parameters
obtained in the present study are based on vertebral reading supplemen-
ted by the evidence obtained from the length-frequency polygons.

2 Part of the Thesis submitted for the M.Sc. Degree of the Bombay University
by the senior author.

2 Present Address :—Central Inland Fisheries Institute, Barrackpore P.O., via
Calcutta.

|

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material which formed the basis of the present study was collec-
ted from the catches of bag-nets (Dol jal), long-lines and trawls at Sas-
soon Dock. Some samples were also collected from different landing
places in Bombay such as Chaupatty and Versova, during the monsoon
months. Samples were collected at fortnightly intervals and care was
taken to collect an unbiased sample of the catch.

Total length of each fish was measured to the nearest millimetre from
the tip of the snout to the tip of the upper lobe of the caudal fin. Weight
of the fish was taken to the nearest gramme by using a Salter pan balance
for smaller fishes but for bigger fishes, weighing one kilogram or more,
a spring balance was used.

For age reading, fifth vertebra which lies behind the ‘ complex ver-
-—tebra’ described by Karandikar & Masurekar (1954) was selected as it
is flat and easy to separate. The use of vertebrae was necessitated by the
absence of scales in T. sona. Pantulu (1961, 1962 & 1963) developed the
use of pectoral spines in medium sized catfishes, while Saigal (1963)
pointed out that vertebrae can also be used in determining the age of the
freshwater catfish, Mystus aor (Ham.). Since T. sona grows to a large
size, the use of pectoral spine could not be made for age reading because
of difficulties in obtaining suitable sections. Many earlier workers have
made use of vertebrae for the study of age and growth of fishes, (Heincke
1908, Appleget & Smith 1951, Partlo 1955, Mather & Schuck 1960).

_ For obtaining the fifth vertebra a portion of the body containing
the first few vertebrae was cut off and boiled in water for about five
minutes so as to remove the adhering tissue. Then the fifth vertebra
was separated from the rest with the help of a scalpel. While separating
the vertebra, all possible care was taken not to damage the margin of
the vertebra. In some cases where the margins were found damaged,
the specimens were discarded. The vertebrae were cleaned in ether so
as to remove adhering fat and then kept in glycerine for about a week
until the growth rings became clearly visible. To discriminate the true
and false rings, a few vertebrae with very clear rings were stained by
Galtsoff’s (1952) method and kept as model specimens for comparison.

The vertebrae showed alternating narrow (dark) and wide (opaque)
concentric zones, around a centre. True and false rings could be easily
distinguished by their circular continuity or discontinuity respectively.

The distance of each ring was measured from the centre along a
radial.plane to the longest axis of the vertebra. Measurement of each
zone was done by a micrometer eye piece. In all fifty-one vertebrae
were examined and growth checks from each were measured, ‘a

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 77

AGE AND GROWTH

The length of 7. sona at the time of formation of successive annuli
was back calculated for each fish by making use of the relationship bet-
ween the radius of the vertebrae and the length of the fish.

ia Rebar. & ons 0

LOG Y =-1-2281 + 12116 LOG x
LOG x = 10869 + 0:7853 LOG Y
r= 0:975433

LOG TOTAL RADIUS CMICRO DIV:-)

2:0 2:2 2-4. | 2:6 2:8
LOG TOTAL LENGTH (mm)

Text-Fig. 1. Relation between vertebral radius and total length of the fish.
Points denote observed values.

This relationship is shown in Figure 1 and was found to be linear
in the logarithmic form which can be expressed as

log y=a-+b log X

where y=radius of the vertebrae and X=length of the fish and ‘a’
and ‘b’ are the two constants. The straight line relationship between
the vertebral radius and length of T. sona is found to be

log y= —1:'2281+1:2116 log X.... (1)
which can be conversely expressed as

los xX — 1°0869--0°7853 log y..-: - 2)
The correlation coefficient ‘ r’ of the two variables is found to be 0:975433,
which is highly significant.

In deriving a formula for back-calculation it was considered more

appropriate to take into consideration the regression of the total length

on radius of the vertebrae (2), (Smith 1955, Pantulu & Singh 1962, and
Pantulu op. cit.). Based on this relationship the following formula for

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

back-calculating lengths, at the time of formation of different annuli,
was used.
log /,=log L;-+b (log r,--log R,).

Where In=length at age n ; Lt=length at the time of capture ; r,=radius
of the vertebra at age n; R,=the total radius of the vertebra at the
time of capture ; and b=slope of the regression line. The advantage
in using this formula is that the estimates are based on a calculated
slope which eliminates any errors arising when a direct relationship is
assumed. The mean values of the back-calculated lengths are presented
in Table 1.

TABLE |

MEAN BACK CALCULATED LENGTHS (MM.) AT THE END OF EACH YEAR OF
LIFE OF ALL AGE GROUPS OF 7. sona

ine ini minal

- Age in years ;
Length at | Number of Ser men REPO, ah. Oe as Far hay
capture Specimens
1 - 2. 3 4 5
205 2 183°2 — — — —
265 3 192°9 298°3 369°2 — —
325 4 228°9 292°7 398°7 — =
345 4 229°6 284°4 299°7 323°2 —
352 6 212°9 287°1 307°0 390°9 —
393 4 270°9 306°8 356°0 393°2
405 2 | 261°0 310°7 373°5 395°6 400°7
413 1 265°5 326°6 a72°2 395°0 —
435 3 271°9 337:0 386°3 408°6 428:0
445 3 — 345°7 380°2 410°4 431°4
450 2 284°4 351°4 393°4 422°6 437°5
460 4 223°6 339°5 395°5 416°2 434°9
465 1 202°1 354°8 | 400:°7 429:0 454:0
470 Wd 2127 342°9 407°4 431°3 4651
500 4 205°6 a tec 4) 433-2 oh
510 1 s 361:3.| 415-9 450°4 475-8
550 3 242°5 379°5 | 405:0 466°5 505°4
570 2 — 318°4 | 403°9 472°0 534°4
Total 51
384°4 417°0 454°0
|

Mean | 229°9 315°6

The length frequency polygons as have been used by many workers

for determining the age of fishes was found to be very useful in the case |

of T. sona which has a restricted spawning season (Singh 1965).

Cassie (1954) made use of the arithmetic probability paper to dis-
sect out different length groups and determine graphically the mean
and the standard deviation of each group. The method suggested by
Cassie (op. cit.) has been followed in the present study. After estimat-
ing the mean and the standard deviation, the frequency distribution was

ibe Sf ed

¥

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 79

—xX
as argument to enter the pro-

6
bability table where (x—x) is the difference between the mean length and
a given value.

The modal values of the length frequency distribution in the first
quarter given in Table 2 and plotted in figure 2, were 212°5, 296°5,

calculated by using the value of as

APRIL TO JUNE

PISH

NUMBER OF

152-5 2325 3125 3925 472°5 552°5 632°5

TOTAL LENGTH IN mm.

Text-Fig. 2. Size frequency distribution of 7. sona for the vag 1963-64 re-
presented quarterly. The year classes have been separated by
probability plot.

#

:
80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

396°5, 472°5, and 544:5 which were designated as ‘A’, “B’,‘C’,‘D’,
and ‘E”’ respectively for convenience of following their subsequent
progression. The mode ‘A’ showed a progression of 20 mm. by the
time it reached the second quarter that is from October to December,
in the third and fourth quarters that is from January to March and from
Aprilto June an increase of 12 mm. and 8 mm. respectively was observed.

TABLE 2

MEAN VALUES OF LENGTH OF DIFFERENT SIZE GROUPS SEPARATED
BY PROBABILITY PLOT AND MODES CORRESPONDING TO VARIOUS CLASSES
GROUP ASSIGNED

Year 1963-64
Expected age. |—=§_-——————_— — — —————_— _

group July to October to January to April to
September December March June
1 (A) 21235 232°5 244°5 252°5
(24:0) (20°0) (15:0)
2 (B) 296°5 32925 330°5 344°5
(26°0) (19°0) (29:0) (26°0)

3 (C) 396°5 404:5 === aa
(36°0) (12:0)

4(D) 472°5 482°5 ; 492°5 500°5
(15:0) (40°0) (36°0) (30°0)
5 (E) 544°5 — — 552:5
(29:0) (5°0)
6 (F) — — — 587°5
(15°0)

Note: The standard deviation is given in parentheses, A. B. C. D. E. F, indicate
modes in Fig. 2.

The progression of the mode marked as ‘ B’ from the first quarter to
the second quarter was found to be 35 mm. showing no substantial pro-
gression in subsequent quarters. The mode ‘C’ showed a moderate
increase from the first quarter to the second quarter, being completely
absent in the samples examined during the remaining period. The
mode ‘ D’ remained at the same value throughout the year whereas ‘ E’
appeared in the first quarter and again in the last quarter and ‘ F’ only
in the last quarter.

The above account does not give any reliable index of the increase in
length from one quarter to the next of each year class probably because
the samples were not large enough to account for shifting of the modes
from one year class to the next. However, it did give a rough estimate
of different year classes in different quarters of the year.

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 81

It may be seen that the younger age-groups below five years were
present only in the samples obtained during October-March, while in the
next half year (April-September) the samples were fairly well represented
by older fish.

When the length frequency distribution of all the samples, obtained
during the period June 1963 to June 1964, were plotted as histograms
(Fig. 3) and the normal curves were fitted to the data, by following the

x
2
U
tL
.@)
fod
u
@
=
>)
z
300 500
TOTAL LENGTH IN MM.
Text-Fig. 3. Size frequency distribution of 7. sona for 1963-64, showing the
various year classes separated by the probability method.
TABLE 3
MEAN VALUES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF DIFFERENT SIZE GROUPS IN
THE POOLED SIZE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Percentage
Year Class m S of total n
1 ZirS 12 8°8 ; WV
2 307'5 49 49°3 95
3 wee wee: ee Wie
4 432°5 40 16°1 Si
5 492°5 33 19°] 37
6 5725 17 6'7 13
100°0 193
snes hc mnie cil a
m=mean.
s=standard deviation.
-f1=number.

82 JOURNAL, ROMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

method described above, the mean values obtained by the probability
plot were 210, 325, 450, 510 and 610 (Fig. 4). These are given in Table 3
along with their standard deviations. The modal values thus obtained
agreed very closely with the back calculated lengths of different year-
classes (Table 4), determined from the zones on the vertebrae. How-
ever, in the third year the modal length 384:4 mm. did not agree well.
This may be probably due to the absence of this year-class in the
length frequency histograms.

692:5

§92°5

re
oO
Wy
Ww

392-5

LENGTH IN mm.

LS)
oO
N
a)

192

5 ;
0:0! 0:05 0205 | 20 30 4050 6& 70 80! 90 95

15-67 84°13

98 99 99:899:'9 99°99

\

CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE

Text-Fig. 4. Probability plot of the length frequency distribution of 7. sona
showing the method of separating the theoretical curve com-
ponents.

TABLE 4

COMPARISON OF MEAN LENGTH CALCULATED BY BACK CALCULATION
AND LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Age in years Vertebral studies | Dan Rene
1 229-9 210
2 315°6 325
3 384-4 ~ } se
4 417-0 450
5 454-0 Be 510 -
6 — 610

The close correspondence between the back calculated average lengths
and the observed modal lengths substantiates the validity of growth
checks on the vertebrae as annular and justifies their use for age deter-

‘mination. In the case of T. sona, the formation of the clear cut growth

rings on the vertebrae may probably be attributed to the stress of spawn-
ing, which is annual and restricted to a short period. In addition to

/ AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 83

that, the habit of buccal incubation of eggs in this fish, leads to a suspen-
sion of feeding which probably acts as a growth retarding factor (Singh

op. cit.).

Empirical Growth
The von Bertalanffy (1938, 1957) growth equation,
P= leo (1 —er-k (t-tp))
where 1, length at age t ; lcoo—maximum length to which the fish can
grow ; K=catabolic coefficient ; t=age of fish ; t,=theoretical value of
age when length is zero, is used for fitting the growth curve of T. sona ;
the value of loo was determined by using the graphical method of
Walford (1946), (Fig. 5). The value of t, is calculated graphically
according to the method given by Ricker (1958) and is shown in Fig. 6,

600

6°O

400 5:6
a
y 52
+ &
K ws
oO 4:8
200 J
ad

° 200 400 600
n
LENGTH IN mm, t

Text-Fig. 5. The length and age data plotted at age t against length at age t+1.
The intersection of the bisector gives an estimate of Loo

Text-Fig. 6. Log (Loo—It) plotted against age ‘ t’ for estimating t,.
The estimated values of loo; k and t, describing the growth of
T. sona are as follows :
loo=525°5, k=0°3507, t= — 0°69.

The von Bertalanffy growth equation of T. sona may be written as,
1,=525.5 ( 1-e —9.3507 (é-(-0.69) )

From the above growth equation the length of a fish at various year-
classes can be calculated. The calculated values of lengths at different
ages are given in Table 5. These were found to agree closely with the
observed lengths at different ages. 7

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Length-weigth Relationship.
The weight of the ungutted fish was taken to the nearest gramme
and the average weight when plotted against 10 mm. size interval

TABLE 5

AVERAGE LENGTHS OF TJ. sona ESTIMATED BY VARIOUS
METHODS CORRESPONDING TO YEAR-CLASSES

Theoretical Modes of length

i ; : frequency
Age in years Vertebra studies growth equation ditabution

1 229 234 210
2 315 i 320 325
3 384 380 ay
4 A417 423 as
5 454 453 450
6 474 —
7 489 ame
8 499 =<
9 506 =

10 12 510

(Fig. 7), gave the relationship of the curvilinear type. This can be des-
cribed by the equation : :
Weal?
The equation can also be written as,
log W=log. a+b log L.
Accordingly, the length-weight relationship of T. sona was found to be as
log W=-4'794868+-2:932107 log L.

The coefficient of correlation ‘ r’=0-9848 is highly significant and
shows that the relationship follows strictly the cube law, which is not
always true in catfishes. Appleget & Smith (1951) gave the value of
‘b’ as 3°66, in channel catfish which shows that weight increases at a
power much greater than the cube of the length, indicating that the
relationship between length and weight deviates from the cube law.

Relative condition

The changes in the condition of the fish or the ‘k’ value largely
depend on the state of the fish and therefore it gives a good indication
of the spawning period. Le Cren (1951), reviewed the limitations of

using the formula K = oa in the case of those fish which do not
3

obey the cube law and suggested a modification to account for the
deviation in the length-weight relationship. The modified formula is
bid where ‘ W ’ is the observed weight and W is the calculated weight

K,, SAT
W

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 85.

according to the length-weight relationship. In the present study the
‘K,,’ values were calculated using this modified formula.

LOG WEIGHT 5
o g o x 2 0 S
a3) ) “ ray) rar) NW N
2100 A : eT oe 1'-SO
11-90
=
O
‘ G)
12-30 ©
O o zZ
b Oe te eee =@)
e j a
poe EE
1500 : sie rat aos a 2°70
3:10
o
=
oe
1000
<
— m
aL
O ad
WwW
=
500
oy 5" =" 297°5 397°5 497°5 597:°5 647°5

TOTAL LENGTH IN ™m.
Text-Fig. 7. Length-weight relationship of 7. sona

(a) Scatter diagram of absolute values.
(b) Log-log—transformation,

>

¢

VALUES

86° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

From the variations in the ‘ K,,’ values at different lengths as shown
in Figure 8, it appears that the fish spawns for the first time when it is

{-2.0

Kn.

(@) ony
Ye]

Oi OG

MEAN
oO
@
oO

205°5 305-5 405°5 O75 605°5
TOTAL LENGTH IN MM.

Text-Fig. 8. Mean ‘ Kn’ values at different lengths of 7. sona.

about 240 mm. in length that is in the second year of its life. Subse-
quent spawnings take place when the fish attains the lengths of about
345, 475, and 525 mm. i.e. in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th year of its life.

SUMMARY

e

Age determination of T. sona was made from the zones on the ver-
tebrae. The back-calculated lengths of each year class were used to
study the growth of fish and to show the accuracy of back calculations.
The results were compared with the length frequency histograms. A
close agreement was obtained between observed and back calculated
lengths. The age-length data were used to estimate the growth para-
meters of the von Bertalanffy growth equation. Length-weight relation-
ship of the fish was determined and the fluctuations in the condition
factor (k) which probably correspond to the spawning were noticed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Director, Institute of Science, Bombay,
for the facilities provided at the Institute and to the Director, Central
Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay, for his constant encourage-
ment during the course of these investigations. The authors also wish
to express their deep sense of gratitude to Dr. S. Z. Qasim for his valuable
suggestions and help in preparing the manuscript of this paper,

AGE AND GROWTH OF TACHYSURUS SONA (HAM.) 87

REFERENCES

ANoNyMous:; Annual Report 1963-

64 Department of Fisheries, Maharashtra |

State.
APPLEGET, JOHN, & SMITH, LLOYD, L.,
gr. (1951): The determination of age

and rate of growth from vertebrae of the _

catfish, Jctalurus lacustris
Trans. Amer. Fish.. Soc., 80:
119-139. : :

BERTALANFFY, L., VON (1938): A
quantitative theory of organic growth,
(Inquiries on growth laws, II). Auman
Biology 10 (2) : 181-213.

——— (1957): Quantitative

channel
punctatus.

laws

in metabolism and growth Quart. Rev.

Bole s2 2217-31.
BEVERTON, R:. J: H., & Hott, S. J.

(1957) : On the dynamics of exploited fish= -

populations. U.K. Min. Agr. and Fish.,
Fish., Invest., Ser. 2, 19 : 533 pp.

Cassig,; R. M. (1954): Some uses_ of
probability paper in the analysis of size
frequency distribution. Australian J.Mar.
Freshw. Res. 5 : 515-522.

GALTSOFF, PAUL S. (1952): Staining
of growth rings in the vertebrae of tuna,
Thunnus thynnus. Copeia No. 2.

HEINCKE, F. R. (1908) : Bericht uber
die untersu. Chungeu des Biologish-
chen Austalt anf Helgoland zur Natur-
geschichte der Nutzfische (1 April 1905
bis 1 Oktober, 1907).

‘ Die Beteiligung Deutschlands and the
- internationalur Meercsporschung.’

IV/V Jahersberchit : 67-155.

(Not consulted in original).

KARANDIKAR, K. R. & MASUREKAR,
V. B. (1954): Weberian ossicles and
other related structures of Arius platysto-
mus (Day). Jour. Bombay University.
XXII part 5 : 1-28.

LE -Cren, E. D. (1951): The length-
weight relationship and seasonal cycle
in gonad weight and condition in perch
(Perca fluviatilis). J. Anim. Ecol. 20:
201-219. “ee Bay

MATHER, |FRANK, J., & SCHUCK,
Howarp, A. (1960): Growth of blue

fin tuna of the Western North Atlantic.
U.S. Fish. Wild. Ser. Fish. Bull. 179.

PANTULU, VV. R. (1961): Determi-

nation of age and growth of Mystus
gulio (Ham.) by the use of pectoral spines,
with observation on its biology and
fishery in the Hooghly estuary. Proc.
Nat. Sci. India 27B (4) : 1-30.
(1962): On the use of pec-
toral spines for the determination of age
and. ._growth of Pangasius pangasius
(Ham.). J. Cons. Inst., Explor. Mar.27:
192-216.

——— (1963): Studies on the age
and growth, fecundity and spawning of
Osteogeneiosus militaris .(Lin.). J.
Cons. Int., Explor. Mar. 28 : 295-315.

——— & SINGH, V. D. (1962):
On the use of otoliths for the determi-
nation of age and growth of Anguilla
nebulosa nebulosa (Mcclelland). Proc.
Indian Acad. Sci., 55 : 263-275.

PARTLO, J. M. (1955): Distribution, .
age and growth of Eastern Pacific .
albacore (Thunnus alalunga Gmelin).
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 12 : 35-60.

RICKER, W. E. (1958) : Hand book of
computations for biological statistics
of fish population. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada, Bull. 119 : pp. 300.

SAIGAL, B. N. (1963): Note on the
use Of vertebrae in age determination of
the fresh water catfish Mystus (Osteo-
bagrus) aor (Ham.) of the Ganga river
system. Sci. & Cult., 29 (6): 306-7.

SINGH, VAI DEV (1965): A study of
Tachysurus sona (Ham.). Thesis sub-
mitted to the Bombay University for
M.Sc. degree (unpublished).

SMITH, S. B. (1955): The — relation
between scale diameter and body length
of Kamloops Trout, Salmo gairdneri
kamloops. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada,
12 : 742-53. ‘

WALFORD, L. A. (1946): A new gra-
phic method of describing the growth
of animals. Biol. Bull. 90 (2) : 141-47.

Algae of Alibag, Maharashtra

BY

N. D. KAMAT
Botany Department, College of Science, Nagpur

(With a map)

In this paper 221 taxa belonging to five classes—Chlorophyceae,
Charophyceae, Euglenophyceae, Chrysophyceae, and
Cyanophyceae are recorded.

In this paper freshwater and brackish water algae collected in October
1960 from different places in the central and northern parts of Alibag
Taluka are recorded.

Alibag Taluka, in Kolaba District, Maharashtra State, lies on the
western coast of India. The geology is essentially that of the Deccan
Trap formations. The average yearly rainfall is slightly over 200 cm.
The minimum and maximum temperatures recorded for the year 1960
were 62°F. in January and 95°F. in May. All the places of collection
lie at mean sea-level.

The collections were made from brackish water in khar paddy fields
-and from fresh water. The khar paddy fields were reclaimed in the year
1870 from a large belt of salt marsh and mangrove swamps between
Rewas and Shahabaj. This land is known as Kharepat or salt lands,
and the paddy fields are known as khar paddy fields. They yield a very.
good crop of rice. Sea water encroaches on the whole of the reclaimed
land at least two or three times during the monsoon. As these paddy-
fields are never ploughed, there is a luxuriant algal growth. The domi-
nant alga of these paddy fields is Chara zeylanica Willd. locally known as
kushya har (a garland of bristles). The alga is a troublesome weed.
The planktonic alga Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Agardh) Kuetz.
is also common.

The freshwater collection areas were ponds, pools, and paddy fields.
Every village had at least one pond. Most of these ponds are being
used for breeding freshwater fishes for the last four to five years. These
are mainly plankton-feeders. It is noteworthy that the richest yield of
fishes was in a pond at Kihim, where the algal flora was also richest.
Almost every pond had two to three members of Chara and/or Nitella.
The paddy fields invariably had Gloeotrichia raciborskii Wol. The
small pools on the way-side contain a large amount of organic matter,

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA 89

the dung of buffaloes which visit these pools at noon and remain in them
for a long time constantly disturbing the water. These pools, locally
known as bodhans, contain plankton usually Euglenophyceae.

So far only four algae, Spirogyra moebii Trans. (Syn. Spirogyra
bimorphis Dixit), Nitella tenuissima Kuetz. v. byssoides Braun,
N. furcata Agardh, and chara brachypus Braun collected from a pond
at Alibag in August have been recorded by Dixit (1937, 1940)?.

- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author takes this opportunity to thank his brother Shri Mangesh
D. Kamat for help during the collection of these algae. He also thanks
Rey. Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for
encouragement. |

CHLOROPHYCEAE

="
e

Gonium pectorale Muell.
In a puddle, Mapgaon.

2. Pandorina morum (Muell.) Bory
In pools, Zirad, Shahabaj.

3. Gloeocystis gigas (Kuetz.) Lager.
In a pond, Kihim.

4. Ulothrix aequalis Kuetz.
In a puddle, Tinvira.

5. Stigeoclonium tenue (Agardh) Kuetz.
In a pond, Dhokavade.

6. Chaetophora elegans (Roth) Agardh
Adhering to stones in a paddy field outlet, Hashivare.

7. C. pisciformis (Roth) Agardh
~ Common. In paddy fields and streamlets.

8. Coleochaete irregularis Prings.
Epiphytic on Nitella sp.in a pond, Kihim.

9. C. orbicularis Prings.
Epiphytic on Nitella sp. in a pond, Kihim.

* Dixit, S. C. (1937) : The Chlorophyceae of the Bombay Presidency, India—I.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B. 5 (1): 16-25; The Charophytes of the Bombay Presidency
II, J. Indian Bot. Soc, 18 : 231-239 (1940).

90

10.

Ps

12.

13,

14.

1S.

16.

Ie

18.

19,

20.

21.

22,

23.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Protococcus viridis Agardh

On leaves of Sapota sp., Mangifera sp. and on moist earthen

pots.
Enteromorpha prolifera Agardh

Attached to stones in a streamlet, Saral. Filaments are very

long.

Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kuetz.
Attached to stones in a streamlet, Saral.

Pithophora oedogonia (Mont.) Wittr.
In a well, Poynad.

Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Agardh) Kuetz.
Planktonic in khar paddy fields.

Oedogonium ahlstrandii Wittr. ex Hirn
Epiphytic on Chara sp. in a pond, Kihim.

QO. anomalum Hirn
In a pool in a streamlet, Mapgaon.

O. flexuosum Hirn
In a slightly brackish water pond, Koproli.

QO. pratense Trans.
In a pool, Saral.

QO. subsexangulare Tiff.
Epiphytic on Chara in a pond, Kihim.

QO. tapeinosporum Wittr. ex Hirn

Attached to submerged cement walls in a pond, Mapgaon.

alga is slightly smaller than the type in all respects.

QO. varians Wittr. ex Hirn
In a pool, Saral.

O. vaucherii (Le Clerc) Al. Braun.
Epiphytic on Chara sp. in a pond, Kihim.

O. virceburgense Hirn

The

Epiphytic on Chara sp. ina pond, Kihim. Vegetative cells were

_ slightly broader than the type—up to 8 » broad.

Pediastrum duplex Meyen v. cohaerens Bohlin
In a pond, Dhokavade,

25:

26.

Zi.

28.

29;

30.

Sih

32.

33.

34,

a5).

36.

31.

38.

a0)

40.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA
P. duplex Meyen v. reticulatum Lag.

In a pond, Thal.

P. simplex (Meyen) Lemm.
Common. In ponds, puddles.

P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs
Common. In ponds.

P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs v. tetradron (Corda) Rab.
In a pond, Awas.

Coelastrum sphaericum Naeg.
Common. In ponds.

Zoochlorella parasitica Brandt
Endophyte in freshwater sponges in ponds.

Oocystis borgei Snow
Common. In ponds.

O. elliptica W. West
In a pond, Thal.

-Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Braun.

In a pond, Thal.

Ankistrodesmus convolutus Corda
In a pond, Awas.

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs
Common. In ponds.

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs v. tumidus G. S. West
In a pond, Awas.

A. spiralis (Turn.) Lemm.

In a pond, Thal.

Selenastrum gracile Reinsch
In a pond, Dhokavade.

Tetraedron trigonum (Naeg.) Hansg.
In Khar paddy fields, Rewas.

Scenedesmus arcuatus Lemm. v. platydiscus G. M. Smith
In a pond, Awas,

91

92. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

41. S. bijuga (Turp.) Lag.
Common. In ponds.

42. S. denticulatus Lag.
In a pond, Awas.

43. S. falcatus Chodat
In a pond, Dhokavade.

44. S. incrassatulus Bohlin v. momonae G. M. Smith
On a dam, Tinvira.

45. S. opoliensis P. Richter
In a pond, Dhokavade.

46. Micractinium pusillum Fres.
In a pond, Dhokavade.

47. Botryococcus braunii Kuetz.
In a pond, Dhokavade.

48. Roya cambrica W. et G. S. West
In a pond, Thal.

49. Pleurotaenium elatum (Turn.) Borge v. subundulatum Hir.
In a pond, Mapgaon.
50. P.simplicissimum Gron. v. semiundatum Hir.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

51. P. subcoronulatum (Turn.) W. et G. S. West
In a pond, Thal.

52. P. trabecula (Ehr.) Naeg.
In a paddy field, Saral.

53. Closterium acutum Breb.
In a pond, Thal.

54. C. cornu Ehr.
In a pond, Poynad.

55. (CC. dianae Ehr.
In a pond, Thal.

56. C. dianae Ehr. v. minus (Wille) Schred.
In a pond, Thal.

oi

58.

59.

60.

6l.

62.

63.

64,

69;

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA 93

C. gracile Breb.
In a pond, Thal.

C. gracile Breb. v. intermedium Jrenee-Maric.

In a pond, Thal.

C. kuetzingii Breb.
In a pond, Thal.

C. parvulum Naeg.
In paddy fields, Saral.

C. parvulum Naeg. v. angustum W. et G. S. West
In a puddle, Mapgaon.

C. venus Kuetz.
In paddy fields, Saral.

C. venus Kuetz. v. incurvum (Breb.) Krieg.

In a pond, Kihim.

Cosmarium abbreviatum Racib. v. pygmaeum Mess.

In a paddy field, Saral. Ina pond, Kihim.

C. amoenum Breb.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

C. angulosum Breb. v. concinnum (Raben.) W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Kihim.

C. bengalense (Grun.) Turn.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

C. bioculatum Breb. v. hians W. et G. S. West

In a pond, Awas. The alga is slightly smaller in size than the
type. |

C. contractum Kirch.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

C. cyclicum Lund f. crenulatum Kam.

Ina pond, Kihim. _

C. depressum (Naeg.) Lund v. planktonicum Rev.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. furcatospermum W. et G. S. West v. koreanum. Sky.

In paddy fields, Saral.

94

73

74.

Ds

1:

eli:

78.

19,

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

C. impressulum Elfv.
In a pond, Kihim.

C. laeve Rab.
In paddy fields, Saral.

C. laeve Rab. v. reniforme Hir.
In the mucilaginous masses on the dripping wall of the dam,
Tinvira. Ina pond, Awas.

C. margaritatum (Lund) Roy et Bisset f. minor (Boldt) W. et
G. S. West
In a pond, Kihim.

C. meneghinii Breb.
In ponds, Awas, Kihim.

C. moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs
In a pond, Thal.

C. occultum Schm.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. perincissum Gron. v. ahmedabadense Kam.
In a pond, Kihim.

C. portianum Arch.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. punctulatum Breb. v. subpunctulatum (Nord.) Borg.
In a paddy field, Saral. %

C. rectangulare Grunn. v. africanum W. et G. S. West
In a pond, Kihim.

The alga is slightly longer than the type.

C. reniforme (Ralfs) Arch. v. compressum Nord.

In a pond, Kihim.

C. sikhimense Turn. —

In a pond, Kihim.

C. subtumidum Nord. v. klebsii (Gutw.) W. et G. S. West —
In a pond, Kihim. 3

C. subturgidum (Turn.) Schm. f. minor Schm.

In a pond, Thal.

88.

89.

90.

le

Q2..

93.

94,

95.

96.

97.

98.

22.

100.

101.

102.

ay 103:

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA | 95

C. tithophorum Nord. v. minor Rac.
In a pond, Thal.

Euastrum denticulatum (Kirch.) Gay v. rectangulare W. et
G. S. West

In a pond, Kihim.

E. dubicum Naeg. v. tritum W. et G. S. West
In a pond, Thal.

E. irregulare Gonz. et Gang.
On Tinvira dam.

E. spinulosum Delp
On Tinvira dam.

E. subalpinum Messik.
In a pond, Dhokavade.

E. substellatum Nord.

In a pond, Kihim.

Micrasterias pinnatifida (Kuetz.) Ralfs

In a pond, Dhokavade.

M. zeylanica Fritsch

In a pond, Thal.

Staurastrum dejectum Breb.

In a pond, Thal.

S. dickiei Ralfs v. circulare Turn.

In a pond, Thal.

S. lappomicum (Schm.) Gronb.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

S. oxyacanthum Arch.

In a pond, Thal.

Desmidium aptogonum Breb. v. ehrenbergii Kuetz.
In a pond, Mapgaon.
Hyalotheca dissiliens (Sm.) Breb. v. tatrica Rac.

In a pond, Mapgaon.

Sphaerozoma granulatus Roy et Bisset
In a pond, Thal.

96 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

104. Zygnema czurdae Randh.
In a paddy field, Saral.

105. Z. gangeticum Rao
Adhering to stones or free floating in a streamlet, Tinvira. The
zygospores were completely mature and agree with the
description of the type.

106. Z. hypnosporum Rich.

Planktonic in paddy fields on hills, Saral. The alga has been
observed only in the vegetative condition—the aplanospores
were not observed. Filaments with sheath were 60-70 pu
broad. Many 2-celled pieces enclosed in the sheath were
present.

107. Spirogyra daedaloides Czurda
Floating masses in a pond, Kihim.

108. S. hyalina Cleve
Common. In pools, paddy fields.

109. S. hymerae Britt. et Smith
In a pond, Mapgaon.

110. S. singularis Nord.
In a streamlet, Saral.

111. Sirogonium hui (Li) Trans.
In a puddle, Mapgaon.

112. S. ventersicum Trans.
Floating masses in paddy fields, Saral.

CHAROPHYCEAE

113. Nitella acuminata A. Braun
Common. In ponds, Awas, Zirad, Kihim, Thal.

114. N. axillaris Braun.
In a pond, Kihim.

115. N. furcata (Roxb. apud Bruz.) Agardh
In ponds, Kihim, Awas.

116. N. hyalina (DC.) Agardh
Very common. The alga is found in Khar paddy fields and in

many ponds.

117.

118.

119,

120.

Alle

122.

123.

124.

WS.

126.

eT.

128.

129.

130.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA 97
N. wattii J. Grov.
In a pond, Mapgaon.
Chara benthamii A. Braun
In a pond, Kihim.
C. brachypus Braun
Common in ponds, paddy fields.

C. corallina Willd.
Common in ponds.

C. pseudobrachypus Grov. et Steph.
In ponds, Saral, Awas.

C. zeylanica Willd.

Very common and a very variable species. In Khar paddy
fields, ponds, pools, paddy fields.

EUGLENOPHYCEAE

Euglena acus Ehr.
Common in bodhans.

E. gracilis Klebs
Common in bodhans.

E. proxima Dang.
In a bodhan, Koproli.

Phacus acuminatus Stok.
In ponds, Thal, Awas.

P. acuminatus Stok. v. triqueter Skv.
In a pond, Dhokavade.

P. brachykentron Poch.
In a bodhan, Shahabaj.

P. caudatus Hueb.
In a pond, Awas.

P. helicoides Poch.

In ponds, Awas, Thal.
7

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

131.

132;

133:

134.

135;

136.

BT:

138.

139;

140.

141,

142.

143.

144.

145.

P. longicauda (E.) Duj.
In a pond, Thal.

P. meson Poch.

In a pond, Mapgaon.
The alga is broader than the type—up to 55 p» broad.

P. orbicularis Hueb.
In a pond, Dhokavade.

Lepocinclis acuta Pres.
In a pond, Thal.

L. ovum (Ehr.) Lemm.
In a pond, Awas.

L. ovum (Ehr.) Lemm. v. dimidio-minor Defl.

In a pond, Awas.

Trachelomonas armata (Ehr.) Stein v. steinii Lemm. emend. Defi.
In a bodhan, Koproli.

T. bulla Stein emend. Defl.

In a pond, Dhokavade.

T. klebsii, Defi.
In paddy fields, Rewas.

T. oblonga Lemm. v. truncata Lemm.
In a bodhan, Zirad.

T. scabra Playf.
In a bodhan, Koproli.

T. volvocina Ehr.
Common. In bodhans and ponds.

T. volvocina Ehr. v. punctata Playf.
In a pond, Mapgaon.

T. woycikii Kocz.
In a pond, Thal.

CHRYSOPHYCEAE
Ophiocytium cochleare (Eichw.) A. Braun | 7
In a pond, Awas. ;

146.

147.

148.

149,

150.

151.

E52,

| ek

154.

155.

156.

57

- Ina pond, Koproli.
158.

So.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA 99

CYANOPHYCEAE

Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetz.
Common. In puddles, ponds.

M. flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirch.
In pools, ponds, Thal, Alibag, Poynad.

Aphanocapsa koordersi Strom
Floating or submerged masses in khar paddy fields, Rewas.

A. roseana de Bary
In paddy fields, Zirad.

Aphanothece castegnei (Breb.) Rab.
Floating masses in paddy fields, Zirad.

A. microscopica Naeg.
Common. Planktonic in paddy fields, ponds. —

A. pallida (Kuetz.) Rab.
Very common. On moist soils, paddy fields, khar paddy fields.

Chroococcus tenax (Kirch.) Hieron
In paddy fields, Saral, Zirad.

C, turgidus (Kuetz.) Naeg.
Rare. In paddy fields, Saral.

Merismopedia glauca (Ehr.) Naeg.
In a brackish water pond, Koproli.

M. tenuissima Lemm.
In a pond, Awas.

M. punctata Meyen

Calothrix clavatoides Ghose |
Embedded in the mucilaginous masses of Gloeotrichia sp. float-
ing in a paddy field, Saral.

C. columbiana G. S. West v. constricta Gonz. et Kam.

Embedded in the mucilaginous. masses of Gloeotrichia sp. in a
paddy field, Saral.

100

JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

160. C.fusca (Kuetz) Born. et Flah. v. crassa C. S. Rao

161.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

IVA

hw,

Adhering to stones in a streamlet, Alibag.

C. karnatakensis Gonz. et Kam.

Embedded in the mucilaginous masses of Gloeotrichia sp. in
a paddy field, Thal.

Gloeotrichia natans Rab. ex Born. et Flah.
In a paddy field, Poynad.

G. pilgeri Schm.
Attached to aquatic plants in a pond, Dhokavade.

G. raciborskii Wol.
Very common. In paddy fields, ponds.

G. raciborskii Wol. v. salsettense Dixit

In a pond, Awas.
Vegetative cells were broader than those in the type—up to 13
broad.

Microchaete uberrima N. Carter
In paddy fields, Saral.

Fortiea bossei (Fremy) Desik. v. indica Kam.
Attached to the dam wall, Tinvira.

Aulosira fertilissima Ghose v. tenuis C. B. Rao
Common. In paddy fields, pools, ponds.

A. implexa Born. et Flah. v. crassa Dixit
In a mountain streamlet, Saral. In paddy fields, Saral; Kihim.

Hapalosiphon luteolus W. et G. S. West
Rare. Ina pond, Thal.

H. welwitschii W. et G. S. West

Embedded in the mucilaginous masses of Chaetophora sp.,
floating in paddy field, Zirad. The heterocysts were not
rare. They were longer than those of the type—up to I5yu

~ long. The spores were observed to germinate in situ.

Nodularia spumigena Mert. ex Born. et Flah.

In khar paddy fields, Shahabaj. The vegetative cells agree with
those of N. spumigena Mert. ex Born. et Flah. v. major (Kuetz.)
Born. et Flah., while the spores agree with N. spumigena.

173.

174,

AgTS:.

176.

177.

178.

179.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184.

185.

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA ee 101.

Cylindrospermum alatospermum F. E. Fritsch

In a paddy field, Saral. The spores in most of the filaments
were next to the heterocysts, however in few cases the spores
were found 4-5 cells away from the terminal heterocysts, and
the cells between the heterocysts and the spores remain vege-
tative only.

C. majus Kuetz.
In a puddle, Saral.

C. muscicola Kuetz.
In paddy fields, Saral, Hashivare, Zirad.

C. stagnale (Kuetz.) Born. et Flah. v. minus Kam.

Floating or submerged masses in khar paddy fields, Rewas.
The vegetative cells are slightly broader than those in the
type—up to 4°3 p» broad.

Anabaena fuellebornii Schm.
In a shaded pool, Saral.

A. vaginicola Fritsch et Rich.
In a paddy field, Thal.

A. volzii Lemm.
Common. In shaded pools, ponds, paddy fields.

Nostoc amplissisum Setch.
On a dam, Tinvira.

N. piscinale Kuetz.
In puddles, streamlets, Saral.

Scytonema coactile Mont. v. minus Wille
Planktonic in khar paddy fields, Hashivare.

S. myochrous (Dillw.) Ag.
Attached to the wall of the dam, Tinvira.

S. stuposum (Kuetz.) Born.
In a pond, Dhokavade.

Petalonema alatum Berk.
Attached to the wall of the dam, Tinvira.

102,

186.

187.

188.

189.

190.

191.

192?

193.

194,

195.

196.

Wife

198.

199,

200.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Spirulina labyrinthiformis Gom.

In a brackish water pool, Koproli; in khar paddy fields,
Rewas.

S. meneghiniana Zan.
Common. In paddy fields—freshwater and khar both.

S. princeps W. et G. S. West
In a pond, Thal.

Oscillatoria amphibia Agardh ex Gom.
In a brackish water outlet, Rewas.

Q. annae van Goor
In khar paddy fields, Poynad.

QO. brevis (Kuetz.) Gom. v. neapolitana (Kuetz.) Gom.
In a brackish water outlet, Rewas.

O. chalybea (Mer.) Gom. v. minor Kam.
In a gutter, Saral.

O. claricentrosa Gard. __
In a brackish water outlet, Rewas. End-cells were with calyp-
tra.

Q. earlei Gard.
In a paddy field, Saral.

O. formosa Bory ex Gom.
In a paddy field, Zirad ; On the dam wall, Tinvira.

O. limosa Agardh ex Gom.

In a brackish water outlet, Rewas. Calyptera was not present.

O. mougeotii Kuetz.
Planktonic in a bodhan, Koproli.

O. pseudogeminata G. Schmid
In a khar paddy field, Rewas.

Q. pseudogeminata G. Schmid v. HmgranM ata Biswas ~
Planktonic in a bodhan, Thal.

O. quadripunctulata Bruehl et Biswas
In a brackish water outlet, Rewas.

fn

201.

202.

203.

204.

205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

210.

7

Bi.

213.

214.

21S.

_ ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA ———— 103

QO. quadripunctulata Bruehl et Biswas v. unigranulata Singh |

In the mucilaginous masses of DES IS sp. floating in a
paddy field, Thal.

Q. rubescens D. C. ex Gom. f. ahmedabadensis Kam.
On moist soil near a gutter, Saral.

O. schultzii Lemm. v. cyclindrica Kam.
In a gutter, Saral.

Lyngbya aerugineo-coerulea (Kuetz.) Gom.
In the mucilaginous masses of Aphanothece sp. floating in a
paddy field, Mapgaon. Calyptra is absent.

L. allorgei Fremy
In a pond, Dhokavade.

L. confervoides Agardh ex Gom.
In a khar paddy field, Shahabaj.

L. dendrobia Bruechl et Biswas
In a paddy field and in a fast running streamlet, Saral.

L. digueti Gom.
In a khar paddy field, Rewas.

L. maior Mene. ex Gom.
In a pond, Poynad.

L. majuscula Harvey ex Gom.
In a pond, Saral.

L. palmarum (Mert.) Bruehl et Biswas
On stones in a fast running streamlet, Saral.

L. perelegans Lemm.
In a khar paddy field, Rewas.

L. polysiphoniae Fremy
In a streamlet, Saral.

L. semiplena (Agard C. A.) J. Ag. ex Gom.
In a puddle, paddy fields, Koproli, Saral.

L. shackletoni W. et G. S. West
In a bodhan, Satghar.

104° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

216. Symploca muscorum (Agardh) Gom.
On moist soil near a well, Saral. Trichomes. were of smaller
size—up to 4°5 » broad only.
217. Polychlamydum insigne W. et G. S. West
Planktonic in khar paddy fields, Rewas, Shahabaj.

218. Milicrocoleus chthonoplastes Thuret ex Gom.
In paddy fields, Saral, Zirad.

219. M. steenstrupii Boye-Pet. f. attenuata Kam.
In paddy fields, Rewas.

220. Schizothrix mexicana Gom.
On stones in a fast running streamlet, Saral.

221. S. porphyromelana (Bruch] et Biswas) Geitler
In a fast running streamlet, Zirad.

AWASJ @

KOPROLI @
‘> @ SARAL
DHOKAVADE

@® ZIRAD
HASHIVARE

MAPGAON

e
SATGHAR

Xx DHARAMTAR

REVDANDA

Map oi Alibag Taluka, Maharashtra, showing localities of collection.

SRNR EEE ah

Ww

\
a

The Biology of the Whitewinged
Grosbeak, Mycerobas carnipes
Hodgson, in Kazakhstan

BY

I. A. DoLGusuHIN, E. I. GAVRILOV, AND E. F. RODIONOV
Institute of Zoology of Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh S.S.R.

(With six plates and a text-figure)

(Communicated by Dr. Salim Ali)

INTRODUCTION

The Whitewinged Grosbeak is a common bird of the subalpine belt
of mountain ranges in the upper Mekong and Yangtze, of the ranges of
Central Asia, the Himalayas, mountains of Kashmir, Afghanistan,
Northern Iran, the Kopet Dagh and the Big Balkans, the Pamiro-Alai
and the Tien Shan ; it is considerably less common in Saur and occurs
only rarely in the Altai (it was found in February 1954 in the upper Biya
tributaries ; Ternovsky 1956). Though the distribution and occurrence
of this bird is rather wide and in some places the species is quite numerous,
its distribution, and especially its ecology, have not been investigated
thoroughly. Very little knowledge has been obtained concerning its
breeding biology, e.g. about the characteristic biotopes, nest sites, period
of laying, time of hatching, and other aspects of its life in the period of
reproduction.

The authors were able to follow some aspects of the nesting biology
of this species while working in the Zailiysky Alatau. Observations were
made in 1964-65 in the area of the Big Almatinsky Lake (2500 m.*); in
addition the observations which had been made some time before in
different gorges of the Zailiysky Alatau and in the Saur have been used
in the paper. The authors have also collated information found in the
literature for nearby localities.

? Here and further on it means height above sea-level.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)
HABITAT AND NUMBERS

In the Zailiysky Alatau the Whitewinged Grosbeak is a rather com-
mon bird, while in some appropriate localities it can be considered even
numerous. During the nesting season the distribution of this bird is closely
related to the occurrence of juniper (Juniperus); the ranges of distribution
of all the species of this plant (J. turkestanica, J. sibirica1) represent the
range of the Whitewinged Grosbeak as well. The relations of this species
with the juniper are exceedingly close. This has always been stressed
by every naturalist, and we in our turn confirm this fact. The number
of the Whitewinged Grosbeaks depends on the area occupied by the
juniper. The species is most numerous in the belt of maximum growth
of the juniper, i.e. at an elevation of 2600-2900 m. (Plate I). Still higher,
where juniper thickets become sparse, the number of the Whitewinged
Grosbeak is considerably less, but it still occurs up to the last shrubs of
juniper, i.e. under conditions of the Zailiysky Alatau—up to 3100-
3200 m. On May 31, 1965, we twice met single birds above 3500 m.
where they were in company with the Redbreasted Rosefinch (Pyrrho-
spiza punicea). Most probably the birds were feeding on other plant
seeds there as no juniper shrubs were present. The lower limit of nest-
ing of the Whitewinged Grosbeak is also determined by the lower limit
of the juniper. In the Big Almatinska gorge, isolated clumps of juniper
can be found deep down the canyons, in the middle belt among the
spruces growing at an altitude of about 2200 m. Individual pairs of this
species nest in these, so probably this height may be considered the lower
limit of the nesting of this bird. Thus, the vertical breeding range of
the Whitewinged Grosbeak in the Zailiysky Alatau lies between 2200
and 3200 m. |

The number of nesting birds in this range varies. At an altitude of
2200-2400 m. it is a very rare bird occurring as individual pairs near
isolated clumps of juniper bushes. At an altitude of 2400-2600 m. the
Whitewinged Grosbeak becomes quite common and is distributed more
or less evenly coincident with the wide distribution of juniper thickets.
At altitudes of 2600-2900 m., in the region of predominance of juniper
thickets on the hillsides of southern and related exposures, the White-
winged Grosbeak is very numerous, being as a rule, the most numerous
of all the birds inhabiting the juniper growth. Higher up its numbers
decrease again, while on the boundaries of the juniper zone the bird is
very rare. aay ees. wget ae Uy as sabe

At altitudes of 2600-2700 m. the spruce (Picea schrenkiana) grows
both as separate trees and in groups among the junipers, while below
2600 m. the juniper growth has a subordinate role: here the fir-wood

* In the vicinity of the Big Almatinsky Lake there is no arborescent juniper...

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yeaqsoly pesuimoyiyM °: UTysnsjod

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J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE ai

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Nesting site of the Whitewinged Grosbeak. Upper boundary of fir-wood.

(Photo: E. Gavrilov)

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 107

formation is predominant (Plate II). In the belt of coniferous forest the.
juniper grows mostly on the bare southern versants, in clearings as well
as in areas of thin forest. Under conditions of rugged topography of
various assemblies of versants of different exposure the distribution of
any plant association is of a very complicated nature. It should be noted
that the presence of the spruce does not influence distribution of the
Whitewinged Grosbeak and its population density, because its numbers
in the optimum range of junipers is the same both in pure juniper stands
and in juniper forest mixed with fir-wood (or in fir-wood mixed with
juniper).

The following feature is very characteristic of the number of White-
winged Grosbeak. On the southern versant of the ridge, two kilometres
in length at its relative elevation exceeding 200-250 m., about 20 to 25
pairs of this species were nesting. This was a site of almost pure juniper
growth ; only in one place there was a group of 15 spruces. The same
density was observed in another area occupied by fir and juniper in
approximately equal proportions.

Analogous distribution of the Whitewinged Grosbeak was observed
on other ridges of the Tien Shan. Onthe Dzhungar, Terskey and Ketmen
ridges the maximum number was noted in the juniper-spruce belt (Koreev
& Zarudny 1906, Stepanyan 1956, Korelov 1956). On the Kirghiz
ridge the Whitewinged Grosbeak mainly inhabits the zone of arborescent
juniper (Juniperus semiglobosa, J. zeravschanica) at elevations of 1800
to 2400 m. (Kuznetsov 1962). In the Talass ridge this bird mainly in-
habits the zone of creeping juniper (J. turkestanica), while below, in the
thickets of arborescent juniper, it is very rare (Kovsharj 1966).

FIELD CHARACTERISTICS AND FOOD

The Whitewinged Grosbeak is one of the largest representatives of
the family Fringillidae. It is the size of a starling, but with a longer tail
and the body set lower. The front and the tail of the adult male are
black, its abdomen and tail-coverts are yellow-green. The remiges are
dark brown with narrow greenish-yellow edges, and on its wing there is
a small white speculum. The female has the same coloration, but in-
stead of black it is dark grey. | |

15 males measure: wing 109-124 mm. (mean 115 mm.); tail 97-
121 mm. (mean 104 mm.) ; bill length 15:2-19°7 mm. (mean 17 mm.) ;
bill height* 15-2-17°8 mm. (mean 16°7 mm.); weight (11 specimens)
56-63 gm. (mean 59°7 gm.). >

18 females measure: wing 109- 120 mm. Gnena 114°4 mm.) tail
82- 118 mm. (mean 102°8 mm.); bill length 13°8-17-7 mm. (mean

1 On the level of the front edge of the nostrils.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

15:0 mm.); bill height 14:2-17°0 mm. (mean 14:7 mm.); weight (14
specimens) 50°5-66:0 gm. (mean 58-2 gm.).

The Tien Shan is inhabited by the subspecies M. c. merzbacheri
Schalow (Keve 1954 ; Stepanyan 1964).

The flight of this bird is very fast and undulating. On the ground it
moves in hops. Its voice is coarse, loud and far-carrying. The sound
may be transcribed as che-gah-gah, che-gah-gah. It is not too shy, and
while feeding in a juniper bush may be approached within 3 to 5 metres.

From external appearance, the Whitewinged Grosbeak is a typical
granivorous bird. Visual observations, analysis of the stomach and
gullet contents, as well as its close attachment to juniper thickets show
an extremely narrow food specialization. It is enough to say that during
the whole year the staple food of the birds is just the seeds of juniper.
The abundant fruit-bearing of this plant and slow ripening of the seeds
(up to two years) ensure a constant food supply for the Whitewinged
Grosbeak during the entire year. Although juniper fruits may be eaten
by other birds too (thrushes, Alpine Chough, etc.), it is only the White-
winged Grosbeak with its powerful bill that can utilise the juniper seeds
easily cracking the thick seed coat. The great quantity of fruits borne
on a single bush makes it possible for the birds to feed in one place for
a long time. As a result, the ground under the bush becomes thickly
strewn with the fruit meat and shells of juniper seeds.

L. M. Shulpin (1953) described the feeding of the Whitewinged Gros-
beak as follows: ‘....it opens its beak not very wide, owing to sharp
ends it bites the fruit from its side ; the bird thrusts its beak into the meat
and with sharp edge of the jaws simultaneously assisted by the very
peculiar spoonlike tongue, very quickly cleans the stone from meat and
shell which fall on the ground. The sides of the under half of the bill
are thick, with a swelling at the base ; the size of the thick part is almost
as thick as a pea, its upper part is flat and covered with parallel small
ribs, like notches. On the upper half of the bill there is a special cor-
responding swelling. As a result it looks something like a pliers, on
which the stone is fed by the spoonlike surface of the tongue, and crushed
by the strength of the large jaw muscles, although the stone may be
very hard. The convenience and force of this mechanism are evident
when we consider that this stone cannot be split by human teeth, besides
it slips easily off the teeth’.

In fall and winter, the birds descend to the lower mountain belts,
where they have to eat other food as there are no thickets of juniper. In
the middle belt of fir-wood the Whitewinged Grosbeak enjoys fruits of
the mountain ash ; even the young birds whose bills are still not strong
enough can split the seeds. It is known that the Whitewinged Grosbeak
can also eat spruce seeds after extracting them from thecones. Inthe
zone of deciduous forest the birds feed on the seeds of rose and haw-

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 109

thorn ; they may also peck the apples remaining on the trees and extract
their seeds. On the xerophyte mountains in winter, the Whitewinged
Grosbeak feeds on seeds of the Persian parrotia (Celtis caucasica), moun-
tain cherry (Cerasus sp.)., and rose. It eats only the fruit-stones of these
plants, discarding the juicy pulp of the fruits and berries.

Whitewinged Grosbeaks feed their nestlings mainly with juniper
seeds ; most probably they bring these seeds in their mouth and not in
the ‘ craw}, as before feeding them to the nestling they do not produce
any regurgitating movements typical of other finches. However, on
the whole, they feed their young, like all other finches, with mixed food,
though animal food plays an insignificant role in their diet. In the
stomachs of five nestlings, besides juniper seeds, there were found beetles
(Curculionidae) in all five, larvae of Orthoptera in one, an egg pouch of
Orthoptera in one, larva of a leafhopper in one, molluscs in three
stomachs.

BREEDING BIOLOGY

The time of pair formation in the Whitewinged Grosbeak is unknown.
From the beginning of April the majority of the birds could be seen in
pairs. Although flocks of 10,18 and 16 individuals were seen on 10, 17
and 22 April respectively, it was evident that birds in these flocks were
in pairs.

On April 13 and 18 several fights between individual Whitewinged
Grosbeaks were observed. It is quite probable that these conflicts occur
when the birds are occupying nesting sites.

Unlike many finches, Whitewinged Grosbeaks do not exhibit any
vocal ability. The song of the male is very simple and short, merely a
low chirping and melodious piping. It is not very often that their sing-
‘ing is heard ; we heard it only twice : August 14, 1964 and April 1, 1965.

We succeeded in discovering 28 occupied and 27 old nests of the
Whitewinged Grosbeak. 36 of them (65%) were built on spruce trees
and 19 (35%) on junipers ; we failed to find their nests on other bushes
(mountain ash, honeysuckle, etc.). It may thus be assumed that the
species builds its nest with equal facility both on the juniper and on the
spruce. The figures given above are too small for generalizing about
the preferential selection of the spruce for its nest site, and it is quite
probable that chance plays an important part in this.

The nests in juniper were built 0°6 to 1°8 m. above the ground, aver-
aging 1:°2 m. (ten measurements) ; and 20 to 70 cms. below the bush
tops. The majority of nests are very well covered by the foliage and

—,

+ The ‘ craw ’ in passerines is a small enlargement of the gullet.

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

hidden from all sides. Only one nest was built in such a way that it
could be seen from 12 m. down below in the gorge.

The spruce trees with nests were of various sizes. The height of 34
observed nest trees, varied from 0°6 to 20 m., averaging 6°3 m. The nests
were built 0°4-14°5 m. above the ground (average 3°2 m.). In most cases
the nests were built on small spruces 2°5-5:0 m. tall ; however three nests
were found quite high above the ground. One was in a spruce 20 m.
high, and built 14°5 m. above the ground ; the second was built on an in-
clined tree 12-13 m. from base and 1°5-2:0 m. below its top ; the third
one was built 12-14 m. above ground and 4 m. from the tree top.

The nests in the spruce trees were built both near the trunk as well
as out on the boughs. Of 28 nests 18 (64%) were built near the trunk,
and 10 (36%) on the boughs 5 to 200 cm. from the trunk (mean 60 cm.).
The majority of the nests (88°5%) were situated on the southern side of
the trunk. Of 26 nests, 14 were on the southern side, 7 on the south-
western side, 2 on the south-eastern side, 1 on the eastern, and one on
the north-eastern sides.

The nests consist of two layers. The outer layer is made of various
materials such as twigs of spruce trees, juniper, spireas, honeysuckle, and
of the last year stems of different herbs ; sometimes elongated dry leaves
were interwoven in the nest. As arule, the twigs used for nest base are
comparatively slender, usually 2 to 4 mm. thick or a little thicker. Twigs
of the spruce have been observed only in the nests built in spruce trees,
while twigs of juniper and other brushwood could be observed in all
nests. The external layer may consist either of twigs only, or mainly
of dry grass, or it may consist of both of these materials in approximately
equal quantities. In three nests some green moss was found in the
external layer.

In every nest we found that the inner layer consisted exclusively of
thin strips of juniper bark and bast fibre, which were rather long (up to
30 cm., usually from 10 to 15 cm.) and wide (up to 1°5 cm., usually from
0-3 to1lcm.). This layer of strips of juniper bast represented essentially
the lining of the cup ; there was neither grass nor wool mixed in it. Only
in one nest we found that besides juniper bast there were a few pieces
of moss. This structure enables nests of the Whitewinged Grosbeak
to be distinguished from the nests of all other birds nesting in the Tien
Shan mountains.

Measurements made of 15 nests were very similar. The smallest
nest was 122 mm. in diameter, the largest one 200 mm. (mean 163 mm.).
The diameters of the nest-cups ranged from 70 to 90 mm. (mean dia-
meter 81 mm.). Most of the nests had a cup of a very regular round
shape, and only few nests being squeezed between the branches had oval
cups. Thickness of the nest 71 to 120 mm. (mean 95 mm.) ; depth of
the cup 40 to 70 mm. (average 57 mm.).

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 11

Thus, nests of the Whitewinged Grosbeak in their shape and struc-
ture resemble those of a medium type nest of finches ; their cups are
quite deep. The nests are ‘cold’, and without any lining of animal
hair or wool or bird feathers. These factors, as we shall see later,
are very important.

The nest is built by the female alone, the male only accompanies her.
When the female is busy tearing off the bark from the juniper bushes or
placing the building material into the nest, the male sits on the top of a
nearby juniper or the spruce tree, periodically calling in subdued tones.
Only once did we observe a female building the nest when there was no
male around. Moreover, this female was calling while building, which
normally never happens ; females build the nest in silence. Later this
nest was deserted before the eggs had been laid.

Building materials are usually gathered by the female somewhere in
the neighbourhood, about 20-40 m. from the site. However some cases
were observed when the female had to fly about 100 m. from her nest.
‘The female is usually busy building in the first half of the day ; only once
did we see a bird carrying a twig at 5.30 p.m. The frequency of flying
to and fro with building material varies. One female was observed
carrying pieces of bast five times between 9.45 a.m. and 10.00 a.m.
Another flew three times between 11.00 a.m. to 11.30 a.m., putting the
bast into the nest, while between 11.30 and 12.00 she flew in only once.
It appears that intensity of nest-building is greatest during the morning
hours ; around noon the building activity ceases. It is resumed in the
afternoon though with much less intensity.

The Whitewinged Grosbeak usually begins laying two or three days
after the nest has been completed. The female produces one egg every
day during the morning hours. Only once did we observe a female
lay her fourth egg three days after the third one. Incubation commen-
ces after the laying of the third egg ; before that the eggs in the nest re-
main cold and unattended.

A complete clutch consists of 3 to 5 eggs (Plate III, above). All the
nests we found in the Zailiysky Alatau contained 3 or 4 eggs ; however
in the Terskey Alatau Range two out of three nests contained 5 eggs,
while in the third nest there were four eggs (Stepanyan 1956).

The eggs are smooth with a slightly glossy shell of light olive colour.
On the background there are scattered bright superficial dark brown,
almost black, spots, specks and commas and light violet-brown spots
indepth. The superficial spots aresharply outlined, while the underlying
ones have diffused margins so that the pattern on the shell looks like
marble.

_ The size and shape of eggs are given in Table 1. The weight of un-
‘incubated eggs may be 5°4, 5°5, 5°9 and 6°1 gm., while well incubated eggs
weigh c. 5‘0 to 5:2 gm. :

i112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 66 (i)
TABLE |

SIZE (MM.) AND SHAPE OF EGGS OF THE WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK 1

| Minimum Maximum | Mean Number
measured
Length ay Fis 30-0 27-7 %
Width bes 17°4 20°5 19°4 26
Width
Shape 0°61 0°77 0-70 26
Length

1 The Table includes the size of 8 eggs given by L. S. Stepanyan (1956) for the
Terskey Alatau Range.

Both parents take part in incubation of the clutch. The main part
however belongs to the female ; 32 out of 35 birds observed on the nests
(or 91%) were females, and only 3 (or 9%) were males. It appears that
there is no special time for the male to relieve the female on the nest ; we
observed incubating males at 9.25 a.m., 11.00 a.m., and at 7.00 p.m.
Each parent has a well developed brood patch (Plate III, below). In the
female it is much more developed and of much bigger size than the male.
We have not observed if the male feeds the female while the latter is in-
cubating, but on two occasions (April 17, June 15) we observed the male
feeding the female outside the nest.

The incubation period was established for two nests. In one the first
egg was laid on June 13, while the third one appeared on June 15, and
incubation started from the same day (the fourth and last egg was laid
on June 16). The first egg hatched on June 30 ; the next day the nest was
destroyed by a magpie. In the morning there was only one egg left,
which also disappeared by midday. Thus, the first egg hatched after
fifteen days of incubation. In the other nest the first egg was laid on
June 14, incubation started from June 16, and after 16 days (on July 2)
all eggs hatched. The observations showed that the incubation period
of the Whitewinged Grosbeak is 15 or 16 days.

The young do not hatch simultaneously. Usually on the first day
three chicks are hatched while the fourth one hatches on the second day.
In rare cases one egg hatches on the first day, two more on the next day
and the last egg only on the third day. Only one case was observed
where the last egg hatched three days later than the first ones. Differ-
ences in the age of the chicks are especially marked during the first few
days of life ; later on their sizes become more uniform.

The chicks are hatched blind ; according to our observations their
eyes open on the third or fourth day. Their bodies are covered rather
thickly with light-coloured grey down with a very peculiar tint (Plate IV,
above), very difficult to describe or compare with anything else,

J. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLaTE III

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Above : Nest of the Whitewinged Grosbeak ; Below : Brood patch of a male
(below) and of a female Whitewinged Grosbeak.

(Photos :; E. Gavrilov)

J. BomBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE IV

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Above: Downy chick of the Whitewinged Grosbeak 2-3 days old ; Below :
The female feeding her chicks.

(Photos : E. Gavrilov)

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 113

Both the female and the male feed their young (Plate IV, below &
Plate V). Usually the chicks are fed by both parents together ; but
sometimes the food may be brought only by the female, and sometimes
only by the male. According to our observations, however, the main part
in foraging for the chicks is taken by the male. This is due to the fact
that the female has to stay with the nestlings for rather long periods. She
stays in the nest in cold weather, when it rains, and also during very hot
weather and strong insolation. During these periods the male brings
the food, which is partly fed to the female, who in turn partly distributes
it among the chicks. The food is also partly passed directly to the young
by male. But when both parents feed the chicks together they distri-
bute it uniformly among the brood.

The intervals between the visits of the parents with food to the nest
vary : there may be from ten to thirty minutes between each visit, or
sometimes it may take as much as one hour. Arriving birds alight on
a bush three or four metres away from the nest and then approach it
gradually, hopping from branch to branch ; usually the female is the first
to approach. The parents feed their young throughout the hours of
daylight ; they may cease feeding them only when severe weather sets in
(strong wind, fog, snow, heavy rain, etc.).

The food is collected far from the nest, often more than one kilo-
metre away, and it is never to be found nearer than a few hundred metres
away. The juniper thickets are the birds’ feeding site, and also where
they collect the food for their chicks. The parents fly to the wood,
perch on the tops of the bushes, and the female immediately disappears
into their depth. The male stays for some time perching on the top of
the bush looking around. After assuring himself that there is no danger
he also disappears into the thickets, but from time-to-time he mounts to
the top again to reassure himself of safety. All this time the female is
in the thickets. Should there be any danger, the male warns the female
by calling, and in case of imminent danger both birds flush out. How-
ever, the birds are not very shy, and often allow a man to approach them
within five or six metres. It is usually impossible to see the birds in the
depth of the thickets from this distance. They feed in silence, but the
very characteristic cracking noise of the stones of the juniper fruits in
their bills, which can be heard as far as 20 to 30 metres away, betrays
their presence. ~

Once we observed that a female, after feeding her chicks, stood with
her feet on the opposite rims of the nest, dipped into it and began to
pull out the lining of the cup. She would take the individual pieces of
juniper bast into her beak, chew them for some time, and then return
them back into the nest. A few times she picked up something from

the cup. It seemed as if she was trying to clean the nest of some para-
sites.

8

114. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Faeces of the nestlings, are as a rule eaten by their parents, mostly
by the female and very seldom by the male (Plate VI, above). When the
chicks grow bigger and produce a great deal of faeces, the birds carry
part of it out of the nest and drop it 30-40 m. away.

The nestling period was observed only in one case. On July 28 there
were one nestling and three eggs in the nest ; on July 29 three nestlings
and one egg ; on July 30 three nestlings and one slightly punctured egg
(the chick may possibly have hatched the same afternoon) ; on July 31
four nestlings. On August 11 there were only three nestlings in the nest
(the fourth evidently died), while on August 15 when we examined the
nest, two nestlings had already flown. In this case the nestling period
was about 17 or 18 days, though it appears that normally nestlings do
not leave the nest until approximately 20 days old.

It is worth noting that when the nestlings leave their nests they can
only flutter about in short flights in the depth of the thickets near their
nests. It appears that difference in nestling period is due to their ability
to make these short flights, and at the slightest danger they leave the nest.

Thus the complete nesting cycle, from commencement of nest-build-
ing until the nestlings start their independent life, takes at least one and
a half months, or rather two months.

The first flying young birds were observed in the first half of June.
On August 22 we saw a brood of Whitewinged Grosbeaks which had the
wing-feathers still growing. The dates for the Talass Alatau Range
may be somewhat later. On September 7, 1933, L. M. Shulpin found
a bird which had just left the nest ; it had a very short tail, about one-
third the normal size.

POST-NESTING PERIOD

After Whitewinged Grosbeaks leave the nest the broods still keep
together for quite a long time. These broods undertake short flights in
search of feeding sites. Some of them may moult as early as July, but
most birds moult in August-September, completing it in October.
According to the material in our collections we may infer the following
about the change of the dress of this species. The hatched chicks are
covered with down, which by the end of their nestling period changes
into a juvenile plumage. This plumage may be kept for one or one and
a half months. By the end of summer and in fall the juvenile White-
winged Grosbeaks undergo a complete moult to their first year dress.
Sexual dimorphism is not apparent in this plumage, and the young males
look very much like the old femalesin colour. The adult dress is assumed
by the young birds only after the first year is over, the moult taking place
at the same time as in old birds, i.e. July-October. We have some
evidence that yearling males in the ‘ female’ dress are capable of repro-

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 1i5

ducing. Thus on July 10, 1965, from one pair we got a last-year male
which had just commenced moulting into the adult plumage. Its skull
had completely ossified, the brood patch was still bare, and the length
of testes which had already commenced to reduce, was 4 mm. (the left
one) and 2°5 mm.

Thus, the Whitewinged Grosbeaks put on the final dress during the
second year of their life, moulting at the same time as adult birds in fall,
and not in spring as had previously been assumed (Dementjev & Gladkov
1954).

After the breeding season is over, the Whitewinged Grosbeaks spend
the greatest part of their time feeding in the juniper thickets. During this
period we happened to observe a flock of birds roosting at night. In
the evening, when it was already dark, a flock of 10 to 15 loudly calling
Whitewinged Grosbeaks flew from somewhere above into the upper
boundary of a spruce grove. They quickly perched by ones and twos
on the tops of the spruces and being hidden in the dense crowns of the
trees, at once became silent.

During snowfall, when in a number of places the juniper bushes
become partly or completely covered with snow, redistribution of the
Whitewinged Grosbeaks takes place. The majority of the birds concen-
trate on the southern exposures of the versants, where the snow depth
is the least, while others descend to lower heights, into the zone of deci-
duous forests. Here they live among apple trees, dense thickets of
roses, buckthorns and hawthorns. Only a few birds, and that not every
year, may come down to the foothills. Sometimes they may be seen in
the suburbs, and even in the city of Alma-Ata, about 600 m. above sea
level. The birds have never been seen in the valley of the Ili River.

And yet, there are some places where the Whitewinged Grosbeaks
undertake migrations over very long distances. In March of 1949,
M. A. Koozmina several times saw flocks and groups of these birds on
the southern versants of the Chulack range, while on December 26, 1965,
Yu. N. Grachyov found a female example in the mountains of Anarhai.
These zones are 150 to 200 kilometres away from the nearest nesting
sites of the Whitewinged Grosbeak. Evidently these birds avoid flat
areas, which are completely covered with snow in winter preferring to
migrate to rugged ground, where there are always areas free of snow
cover even in severe and snowy winters.

FECUNDITY

We have found 11 nests with completed clutches. In five nests
(45°) there were three eggs each, in 6 nests (55%) 4 eggs each ; aver-
age 3°54 eggs per nest. In five out of nine nests there were three hatched
nestlings each, and in the remaining four nests, four nestlings each ; thus

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 68 (i)

on an average there were 3°44 nestlings per nest. Evidently embryonic
mortality is insignificant; in any case we have never seen any unfertilized
eggs or eggs with dead embryo. From two out of seven clutches two
nestlings each flew, from four, three each, and only from one, four nest-
lings. On an average, 2°85 nestlings flew per nest. Thus, mortality of
chicks in the nest is insignificant, being approximately 17%. Usually
one in each clutch dies, the last chick of the brood.

On the whole nesting success in the Whitewinged Grosbeak is not
very high, as clutches and nestlings are often destroyed by various agents.
One of the causes of their death is freezing of eggs in early layings. We
have observed this twice. On May 13 in one nest there was one egg,
on May 14 there appeared another egg, at night from 14 to 15 May
they both froze at the temperature—10°C. Another cause of mortality
is magpies and crows which often destroy the nests. It is also quite
probable that nestlings may be sometimes eaten by stoats when the nest
is built in low situations. According to our observations, two out of
20 clutches (10°) perished because of cold, seven (35%) from predators,
three (15%) from desertion by the parents at different stages of the
nesting cycle. Only from eight (40%) nests the nestlings grew up to fly
safely.

The breeding season of the Whitewinged Grosbeak is very prolonged.
This may be seen from Table 2. Thus eggs in various stages of incuba-
tion may be found from the beginning of May to the end of July, i.e.
almost during three whole months. The text-figure illustrates the dates
of laying the first egg. The curve shows that the species has two peaks
of reproduction: in May and in June. However, we believe that the
statement in the literature about the existence of two clutches a year in
this species (Dementjev & Gladkov 1954, Portenko 1960) is incorrect.
We have every proof of this assumption tested by our observations of
this bird both during the nesting and the post-nesting periods. As
already mentioned the complete breeding cycle from the commencement
of nest-building until the juveniles become independent takes more than
one and a half months, i.e. from the point of view of nesting periods,
double-peaked curve cannot result from double-nesting of the White-
winged Grosbeak.

In our opinion, the prolongation of the laying period is due to the
different environments existing on the mountain versants of different
exposures. The southern mountain slopes are entirely devoid of snow
already by the middle of May; they are then covered with verdure, the
insects are active, and many passerine birds commence their nesting,
including the Whitewinged Grosbeak. At the same time the northern
versants are still thickly covered with snow, and the water here is still
frozen. Visual examination of different species of birds, including the
Whitewinged Grosbeaks, proved that when on the versants of southern

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE V

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Cs

Above : The male Whitewinged Grosbeak passing the female juniper seeds ;

Below ; The male and the female Whitewinged Grosbeaks feeding the chicks
simultaneously.

(Photos : E. Gavrilov)

J. Bomsay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE VI

Dolgushin : Whitewinged Grosbeak

Above: The female Whitewinged Grosbeak swallowing the faecal sac. ;
Below : Semi-fledged chicks of the Whitewinged Grosbeak in the nest.

(Photos : E. Gavrilov)

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 117

exposure birds have already commenced nesting, in less favourable
localities many pairs are still migrating, looking for food; andjudging

TABLE 2

LisT OF 28 NESTS OF THE WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK FROM THE ZAILIYSKY ALATAU

Nest Nest b
No. Date Nest contents No. Date Nest contents

1. May 12,1965 One new-laid egg. 15. June 10, 1964 Building of the nest
just commenced.
2. May 13, 1964 One new-laid egg. 16. June 13,1964 One new-laid egg.

3. May 21,1964 Three new-laideggs. 17. June 15,1964 Three eggs. Begin-
ning of incuba-

tion.
4. May 27,1964 Three blind chicks 1- 18. June 20,1964 Building of the
2 days old. nest just com-
menced.
5. May 27,1964 Four just hatched 19. June 22,1964 Two chicks with
; chicks. brushes in all
pterylae.
6. May 31,1964 Three chicks semi- 20. June 20, 1965 Three eggs. Incu-
fledged ; remiges bation.
2 cm. long.
7. June2,1965 One new-laid egg. 21. June 23, 1965 pace eggs. Incu-
ation.

8. June 2,1965 Almost completed 22. June 25, 1964 Three fledglings.
nest, still empty.

9. June4,1965 Three chicks with 23. June 26, 1964 Three downy chicks.
brushes in all pter-

ylae.
10. June5,1964 Fournew-laideggs. 24. July 4, 1964 Four errgeys old
chicks.
11. June 5, 1964 Four new-laid eggs. 25. July 11,1965 ee ae old
chicks.

12. June6,1965 One new-laid egg. 26. July 28,1964 Three Tee and one
chi
13. June 7, 1964 Chicks of unidenti- 27. July 28,1964 Four eggs. Incu-

fied age. ~o bation
14. June 8,1965 Almost completed 28. July 30, 1964 Three hard set
nest still empty. eggs, ready for
hatching.

from their behaviour it is clear that the time for their nesting is still far
off. However, gradually all mountain slopes get free of snow, first the
western, then the eastern and last of all the northern versants. Thus
while on the southern versants the nestlings are leaving their nests, on
the northern slopes the birds are only just commencing reproduction ;
they are building nests and laying eggs. To support these statements
we can give the following data : on the versants of southern exposure in
five nests the dates of laying the first egg varied from 3 to 13 May (average
6 May). On the versants of eastern exposure in 12 nests the first eggs
were laid from 12 May to 24 July (average 9 June). On the versants of
northern exposure in three nests the first eggs were laid from 11 to 17

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

June (average 13 June), and on the versants of western exposure in four
nests the first eggs were laid from2 June to 12 July, (average 16 June).

Number of nests

(Secs: 3

May June = uly

Thus, on the versants of southern exposure the Whitewinged Grosbeaks
commence nesting 1-1°5 months earlier than on versants with any other
exposure. This is illustrated by double-peak curve on the text-figure.

It must be mentioned that the problem of the length of the nesting
period in the Whitewinged Grosbeak is complicated by the re-nesting of
birds in the event of their first clutch being destroyed. However, the
data at hand are too scanty to solve this problem. Probably the nesting
period of the species is also influenced by the age of the birds, the old and
the young ones commencing their reproduction at different times, as
well as by differences in the time of maturing yearlings of the early and
late broods. It is quite possible that there may exist some special
micropopulations adapted to the conditions existing on the versants of
different exposures. Very probably this surmise is true for the White-
winged Grosbeak.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their thanks to Dr. Salim Ali for correcting and
editing the manuscript and assisting in its publication.

BIOLOGY OF WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK IN KAZAKHSTAN 119

REFERENCES

DEMENTIJEV, G. P. & GLADKOV, N. A.
(1954) : Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza, T.V.

Keve, A. (1954): Einige bescheidene
Bemekrungen: zur geographischen Varia-
tion von Mycerobas carnipes (Hodgson).
Anz. Ornithol. Gesellschaft in Bayern,
Bd. V1.

Koreev, B. P. & ZARUDNY, N.
A. (1906) Ornitologicheskaya fauna
Semirechenskogo kraya. Mat. k pozn.
fauny i flory. Ross. Imperii, otd. zoolo-
gich., vyp. VII.

Kore.Lov, M. B. (1956): Materialy k
avifaune khrebta Ketmenj (Tien Shan).
Tr. in-ta zoologii AN Kaz SSR, t. VI.

KovsHarnJ, <A. F. (1966): Ptitsy
Talasskogo Alatau.

Kuznetsov, A. A. (1962): K_ biolo-

gii ptits vysokogorja Kirgizskogo
khrebta. Ornitologiya, vyp. 5.
M PORIENKO, L. A. (1960) : Ptitsy SSSR.

SHULPIN, L. M. (1953): Materialy
po vaune ptits zapovednika Aksu-
Djabagly (Talassky Alatau). Tr. in-ta
zoologii AN Kazssr, t. Il.

STEPANYAN, L. _ S. (1956): Ptitsy
Terskey Ala-Tau (Tien Shan). Uch.
zap. Mosk. obl. ped. in-ta, t. 71, vyp. 4.

——— (1964): O nomenklature
pamiro-tienshanskikh archevykh dubo-
nosov—Mycerobas_ carnipes Hodgson.
Sb. trudov zool. muzeya MGU, t. IX.

TERNOVSKY, D. V. (1956): Archevyi
dubonos. Priroda, No. 2.

Coccids (Coccoidea: Hemiptera :
Insecta) affecting Fruit Plants in
Bihar (India)

BY

S. MOHAMMAD ALI
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

The Coccids of horticultural importance in Bihar have not received
adequate attention. Misra (1923) published a list of these insects then
known to occur in Bihar, but in the light of recent systematic studies
his list needs revision. The present author made extensive collections
of the Coccid fauna of Bihar in the period 1955-1959. An account of
the Coccids affecting sugarcane in Bihar has already appeared (Ali
1962); the present communication is a taxonomic enumeration of
thirty-four species of Coccoidea that affect fruit plants in Bihar.

This annotated list includes new distributional records of five species
from this region. It also gives the distribution of the species in the
Orient and particulars of their hosts, together with brief ecological or
supplementary notes on some of those forms which the author has
collected and observed during the course of his studies. In citing litera-
ture only those references have been mentioned which are necessary in
tracing the nomenclatorial history of the species under report.

I. Family MONOPHLEBIDAE
Subfamily Monophlebinae
Tribe Drosichini Morrison

1. Drosicha stebbingi (Green)

1902 Monophlebus stebbingii+ Green, Stedbing ; Dept. Notes Ins. Forestry 1 : 133.
1903 M. stebbingi Green ; Indian Mus. Notes 5 (3) : 101.

1928 Drosicha stebbingi (Green), Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Buil. 82: 169.
1949 Drosicha stebbingi (Green), Latif ; Bull. ent. Res. London 40 (3): 351.

Type locality: Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Host: Sal tree (Shorea robusta).

1 The spelling of the specific name was emended to stebbingi in the errata.

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 121

WEST PAKISTAN: on forty-four different host plants which include
Mangifera indica, Pyrus malus, P. communis, etc., in Lyallpur, Lahore,
Multan, and N.W.F. Province (Khan & Latif 1941, 1945). INDIAN
UNION: on Sal trees in Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, and Simla Divisions
(Stebbing 1902); on Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica, and Ficus

spp. in Madhya Pradesh (Hingston 1929); on Mangifera indica, Arto-
carpus integrifolia, Citrus spp., Anona squamosa, Litchi chinensis, Carica

papaya, Musa sp., etc. in the districts of Saran, Muzaffarpur, and Dar-
bhanga (Haque 1955),}

2. Drosicha dalbergiae (Green)

1902 Monophlebus dalbergiae Green, Stebbing ; Dept. Notes Ins. Forestry 1: 142.
1903 Monophlebus dalbergiae Green, Indian Mus. Notes 5 (3): 101.
1928 Drosicha dalbergiae (Green), Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 52 : 169.

Type locality: Sutlej Valley at elevations between 710 to 1067 metres
in the Punjab, India.

Host: Dalbergia sissoo.

I observed it in an epidemic form during 1955-1957 at Pusa. It was
also found during 1955-1959 in and around Pusa, Muzaffarpur, Motihari,
Bettia, Narkitiagunj, Hajipur, and Sonepur in Bihar on Mangifera
indica, Litchi chinensis, Psidium guajava, Punica granatum, Citrus spp..,
Achras sapota, A. integrifolia, Eugenia jambolana, and other plants. It
is usually found from the third week of December to the last week of
May in Bihar. In case of severe infestation it may invade any vegetation
in its surroundings and the males are of common occurrence in the field.
The exuviae of early instars may be found even on railings and brick walls.

During the course of his studies on the new host of D. stebbingi
(Green) in Bihar, Haque (1955) confused D. dalbergiae (Green) with the
species D. stebbingi (Green). Examination of Haque’s collections show
that the specific determination by Haque (1955) was doubtful. Some of
the specimens from his collections were also forwarded to the British
Museum for identification and Dr. D. J. Williams, of the Common-
wealth Institute of Entomology, London, remarks : ‘ this is the penulti-
mate stage of a species close to Drosicha dalbergiae (Green). This
stage has 7-segmented antennae, the adult female will have either 8- or
9-segmented antennae.’ As such the list of host plants reported by
Haque (1955) for D. stebbingi (Green) is doubtful.

INDIAN UNION: on Dalbergia sissoo in the Sutlej Valley (Stebbing
1902) ; on Citrus sp. in Uttar Pradesh (Pruthi & Mani 1945), and on a
number of other host plants in Bihar as mentioned above.

——

1 See author’s remark under D. dalbergiae (Green) below.

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

3. Drosicha mangiferae (Green)

1903 Monophlebus stebbingi var. mangiferae Green, Stebbing ; Dept. Notes Ins.
Forestry 2 : 332. :

1908 M. stebbingi var. octocaudata Green ; Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 16.
1928 Drosicha mangiferae (Green), Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 52 : 169.

Type locality: Shalimar Gardens, Lahore, West Pakistan.

Host: Mangifera indica.

Originally the description of this species was made from males only
as the adult females were unknown till then. A collection of Stebbing
from Shorea robusta in Dehra Dun was described by Green (1903, and
in Stebbing 1902) as Monophlebus stebbingi in which the presence of three
pairs of caudal tassels in the male of this species was the specific character.
Another collection from Dalbergia sissoo in the Sutlej Valley was desig-
nated as Monophlebus dalbergiae by the same author (Green 1908, and
in Stebbing 1903) on account of four pairs of caudal tassels found in the
male of this form. Subsequently, material from a mango orchard of the
Shalimar Gardens, Lahore, was described by Green (in Stebbing 1903)
as Monophlebus stebbingi var. mangiferae in which the young females
were identical with M. stebbingi Green, but the males carried a very small
fourth pair of caudal tassels. Later, Green (1908) proposed the name
M. stebbingi var. octocaudata for the same material with a remark:
‘differs from male of dalbergiae (which also has 8 appendages) in its
much smaller size’. Again, Green (1923) published a synopsis of
characters for the females of the species M. phyllanthi, M. tamarindus,
M. stebbingi, M. octocaudata, and M. dalbergiae with the comment:
‘TI have not been able to find satisfactory characters to differentiate the
females of octocaudatus and dalbergiae ; but the males of these two
species may be distinguished by their size and by the character of the
abdominal tassels’. Morrison (1928) replaced the genus Monophlebus
by Drosicha and suggested the distinctiveness of the species Drosicha
stebbingi (Green), D. mangiferae (Green) [placing D. octocaudatus
(Green) as a synonym of D. mangiferae (Green)], and D. dalbergiae
(Green) from the Indian region. The characters given by Morrison
(1928) are quite helpful in distinguishing the two similar species
D. stebbingi and D. dalbergiae, whereas they are not applicable for the
separation of two species, namely, D. dalbergiae from D. mangiferae.

The finding of Latif (1949) that a great deal of variation takes place,
either in the presence or in the development of the fourth pair of caudal
tassels, within the males of the same species, and the fact that the two
species (D. stebbingi, D. mangiferae) interbreed freely in nature (Rahman &
Latif 1943) are liable to upset the specific status of all the three species
D. stebbingi, D. mangiferae, and D. dalbergiae. As such a careful study

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 123

of the collections from different localities as well as a check-up of the
type specimens are necessary before accepting the conclusions of
Khan & Latif (1943) and Latif (1949) that D. mangiferae is a synonym of
D. stebbingi.

D. mangiferae (Green) has been considered here, provisionally, as a
distinct species, as the author has not seen the type specimen and he does
not agree with the conclusions of Rahman & Latif (1943) and Latif
(1949), but is of the opinion, on the basis of his field studies, that the
species D. mangiferae actually refers to D. dalbergiae, to which it comes
close, rather than D. stebbingi as pointed out by Latif (1949). The
record of this species from Bihar by earlier workers appears to be of
D. dalbergiae ; the author was not able to collect this species during the
course of his studies in Bihar.

WEST PAKISTAN: since Khan & Latif (1941, 1945) considered it
as a synonym of D. stebbingi, all those hosts which have been mentioned
under D. stebbingi are common for this species. INDIAN UNION:
Mangifera indica at Sitamarhi and Dalsingsaraiin Bihar (Stebbing 1903) ;
practically on all trees including mango at Pusa, Bihar (Lefroy 1908),
and on mango, jak, guava, papaya, citrus, jamun, Ficus sp., etc. in the
districts of Bhagalpur, Santhal Parganas, Darbhanga, and Muzaffarpur
(Sen et al. 1956).

Tribe: Iceryini Cockerell

4. Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas)

1890 Crossotosoma aegyptiacum Douglas, Ent. Mon. Mag. 26: 79.
1893 Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas), Newstead ; Ent. Mon. Mag. 29 : 167.
1896 I. tangalla Green, Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1) : 7.

1950 I. aegyptiaca (Douglas), Rao ; Indian J. Ent. 12 (1): 51 (1951).

Type locality : Alexandria, Egypt.

Host: Fruit trees.

The original home of this coccid is not known, but in 1885 it appeared
as a serious pest on fruit trees in Alexandria, from where it was described.
Since then it is commonly known as Egyptian mealy bug. In India it was
observed by Miss Tomlin during 1892 in Madras, and later Cotes (1896)
reported its occurrence from Calcutta. It is quite common in India,
and Rao (1950) recorded forty-six different species of plants as its host
in India, with a comment that it does great damage to fruit trees like
custard apple, jak, sapota, citrus, and guava. He (Rao 1950) further
reported its occurrence in Bihar from Rampur (Khas Mahal plantation)
only, though Fletcher (1919) mentioned its record from Pusa and Ranchi

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

as well. I observed it in abundance on mango and guava, causing signi-
ficant damage at Motihari, Manjhawlia, and Bettiah. It is also fairly
common in the districts of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Patna, Gaya,
and Ranchi in Bihar on croton, citrus, jak, rose, and Ficus, in addition
to mango and guava. It is a sporadic pest in Bihar, and usually found
from February to August. The males are fairly common during March
and April in north Bihar.

CEYLON: on several plants including rose, Jatropha podagrica,
etc. FORMOSA: on citrus, tea, and many other plants, (Rao 1950).
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Citrus, Morus alba, and Barleria cristata
(Morrison 1920, Rao 1950). INDIAN UNION: on forty-six different
varieties of plants, in Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Coorg, Cochin, Madras,
Mysore, Orissa, and Travancore (Ayyar 1921, Pruthi & Mani 1945,
Rao 1950). Further, the author has recently observed it on Gracinia
sp. at Calcutta, West Bengal, during November 1964. THAILAND: on
Ceiba pentandra and mango (Takahashi 1942).

5. Icerya pulcher (Leonardi)

1907 Palaeococuss pulcher Leonardi, Ann. R. Scuola Agr. Portici 7 (Ser. 2) : 3.
1928 Icerya pulcher (Leon.), Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 52 : 310.
1932 Icerya pulcher (Leon.), Green ; Stylops London 1 (2) : 32.

1952 Icerya pulcher (Leon.), Rao ; Indian J. Ent. 12 (2) : 68.

Type locality: Java.

Host: Ilex sp.

Recently it has been recorded from India by the present author (Ali
1962). It was observed only at Pusa, Bihar, on mango leaves from
February to July.

SINGAPORE: on Rhopaloblasta palm, Michelia champaca. JAVA.
on citrus, Mangifera sp., and rose. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Guinta
beans. SUMATRA: on orange and coconut (Rao 1950). INDIAN UNION :
on Mangifera indica at Pusa, Bihar (Ali 1962).

6. Icerya minor Green

1908 Icerya minor Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 17 (Ent. Ser.).
1928 Icerva minor Green, Morrison ; U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 52 : 210.
1950 Icerya minor Green, Rao ; Indian J. Ent. 12 (1) : 62.

Type locality: Pusa, Bihar, India.
Host: Mango.

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 125

INDIAN UNION: on mango at Pusa, Bihar (Green 1908) ; on Citrus
and guava in Assam and only on guava at Benares in Uttar Pradesh
(Rao 1950).

Tribe: Monophlebini Cockerell

7. Aspidoproctus cinerea (Green)

1908 Walkeriana cinerea Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2): 17 (Nom. nud.).
1922 Aspidoproctus cinerea (Green), Cocc. Ceylon 5 : 450.
1930 Aspidoproctus cinerea (Green), Ayyar ; Bull. Dept. Agri. India 197 : 69.

Type locality: Ceylon.

Host: On Grevillea sp.

Originally it was collected from Acacia arabica in Surat and named by
Green (1908) as W. cinerea but no description was published till 1922
when he described it from Ceylon as A. cinerea.

CEYLON: on Grevillea sp., Citrus sp., Terminalia sp., Thespesia sp.,
etc. (Green, 1922). INDIAN UNION: on Lawsonia alba and Acacia
arabica in Surat (Lefroy 1908, Misra 1923): on pomegranate, Lawsonia
alba, and sandalwood, etc., in south India (Ayyar 1921); on Achras
sdpota at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

II. Family PSEUDOCOCCIDAE
Subfamily Pseudococcinae

8. Ferrisiana virgata (Cockerell)

1893 Dactylopius virgatus Cockerell, The Entom. 26: 178.

1893 D. virgatus var. farinosus Cockerell, ibid. 26 : 178.

1893 D. virgatus var. humilis Cockerell, ibid. 26 : 179.

1896 D. dasylirii Cockerell, Jn. N.Y. Ent. Soc. 4: 202.

1896 D. ceriferus Newstead, Indian Mus. Notes 3 (5) : 24.

1897 D. talini Green, ibid. 4 (1): 7.

1912 Pseudococcus marchali Vayssiere, Soc. Ent. de France Bull. 17 : 366-368.
1915 P. bicaudatus Keuchenius, Med. Bez. Proefst. Diemba 16 : 1-65.

1920 Pseudococcus virgatus (Ckll), Morrison, Philip. Jour. Sci. 17 (2).

1950 Ferrisiana virgata (Cockerell) Ferris ; Atlas Scale Ins. N. America 5.
1962 Ferrisiana virgata (Cockerell), Ali ; Indian J. Ent. 23 (3) : 236 (1961).

Type locality: Kingston, Jamaica.

Host: Ona tree.

The list of host plants of this species in the oriental region is endless
and it may be expected to occur on almost any flowering plant. In India

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

it has been reported from Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Hyderabad,
Madhya Pradesh, Madras, and Mysore on forty different varieties of
plants by Ali (1962). It is one of the common mealy bugs, widely distri-
buted in the districts of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran, and
Saran in Bihar. It may be found in different stages of its development,
throughout the year clustering upon the terminal shoots, leaves, and
fruits of the host plants, like custard apple, crotons, guava, jak, plantain,
Phyllanthus emblica, aerial roots of banyan, Ipomoea hederacea, Mimu-
sops elengi, etc. It does considerable damage, especially to custard
apple and crotons, from April to September, and often its infestation
proves fatal to young plants in Bihar.

CEYLON: on a number of plants (Ayyar 1919, 1921, 1930).
FormMosA: on Bauhinia sp. JAVA: probably on citrus (Pruthi &
Mani 1945). MALAY PENINSULA: on guava (Takahashi 1950).
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: ona number of plants, including Anona squamosa
and Psidium sp. etc. (Cockerell 1907, Cockerell & Robinson 1915,
Robinson 1917, Morrison 1920). INDIAN UNION: on forty different
host plants (Ali 1962). INDO-CHINA: on Albizzia sp. THAILAND :
on legume and other plants (Takahashi 1942).

9. Nippaecoccus vastator (Maskell)

1895 Dactylopius vastator Maskell, New Zel. Inst. Trans. & Proc. 27 (1894).
1910 D. perniciosus Newstead & Willcock, Bull. ent. Res. London 1 : 133.

1948 Nipaecoccus vastator (Maskell), Zimmerman ; Honolulu Univ. Press 464 :
1322

1950 Nipaecoccus vastator (Maskell), Ferris ; Atlas Scale Ins. N. America: 5.
1957 Pseudococcus vastator ((Maskell), Ali, Indian J. Ent. 19 (1) : 54.
1962 Nipaecoccus vastator (Maskell) Ali, ibid. 23 (4) : 304 (1961).

Type locality : Sandwich Island.

Host: Citrus.

A new distributional record of this species has been established from
India by Ali (1957). It is quite common in Bihar from April to Novem-
ber on Citrus spp., Phyllanthus emblica, Artocarpus integrifolia, Abel-
moschus esculentus, Gossypium sp., and Dalbergia sissoo, in the districts
of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran, Patna, and Gaya. An
Aphelinid parasite, Eriaporus aphelincides Cam., is an effective enemy of
this pest at Pusa, Bihar.

INDIAN UNION: on Citrus spp., Euphorbia sp., and Dalbergia sissoo
in Uttar Pradesh (Ali 1957), on tea in Assam (Das 1959), as above in
Bihar (Ali 1962) and the author recently observed it on Citrus sp. and
Zizyphus sp. at Calcutta in West Bengal.

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 127

10. Phenacoccus ballardi Newstead

1917 Phenacoccus ballardi Newstead, Bull. ent. Res. London 8 : 17.
1921 Phenacoccus ballardi Newstead, Ayyar ; Proc, 4th. Ent. Mtg. Pusa : 334.

Type locality : Coimbatore, south India.
Host: Mango.

INDIAN UNION : on mango at Pusa, Bihar, and in south India (Ayyar
1921).

11. Phenacoccus hirsutus Green

1908 Phenacoccus hirsutus Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 25 (Ent. Ser.).
1921 Phenacoccus hirsutus Green, Ayyar ; Proc. 4th. Ent. Mtg. Pusa : 3.
1958 Phenacoccus hirsutus Green, Williams; Bull. B.M. Nat. Hist. 6 (8) : 228.

Type locality : not known (probably northern India).
Host : Undetermined.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Hibiscus sp., Samanea saman (Morrison
1920). INDIAN UNION: on Ficus sp. at Mohol in Sholapur (Kasargode
1914); on Morus sp. at Pusa, Bihar, and in Bengal (Fletcher 1919).
THAILAND : on Hibiscus sp. (Takahashi 1942).

12. Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green)

1908 Phenacoccus iceryoides Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 26 (Ent. S.).
1921 Phenacoccus iceryoides Green, Ayyar, Proc. 4th. Ent. Mtg. Pusa: 3.

1922 Dactylopius obtusus Newstead, Green ; Cocc. Ceylon 5 : 391.

1954 Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green), Ferris ; Microentomology 19: 51.

Type locality : Calcutta, India.

Host: Mango.

It was observed at Pusa on sapota leaves and fruit in November
1956—a new distributional record for this species from Bihar.

MALAY PENINSULA: most common on Cassia, cacao, Cajanus,
Centrosema, Citrus sp., coffee, Crotalaria, cotton, Derris, Gardenia,
Ficus sp., Michelia, Mangifera, Vitex, Phyllanthus, and twelve other host
plants (Takahashi 1950). INDIAN UNION: on a number of wild and
cultivated plants in different parts of north and south India (Ayyar
1921), sporadic major pest of Citrus spp. in several parts of India
Pruthi & Mani 1945) ; on sapota at Pusa, Bihar, as mentioned above.

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)
13. Centrococcus insolitus (Green)

1908 Phenacoccus insolitus Green, Mem. Dept. Agri. India 2 (2) : 26 (Ent. S.).

Type locality: Pusa, Bihar, India.
Host: Sida cordifolia.

INDIAN UNION: throughout India on brinjal (Solanum melongena)
(Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921); on Cape gooseberry (Physalis maxima)
at Pusa, Bihar (Fletcher 1921).

If. Family COCCIDAE
Subfamily Coccinae
Tribe Pulvinariini

14. Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell

1905 Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell, Proc. Dav. Acad. Sci. Iowa. 10 : 131.
1917 Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell, Robinson, Philippine Jour. Sci. 12 (1) : 10.
1920 Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell, Morrison ; ibid. 17 (2) : 182.

Type locality: Manila.
Host: cultivated shade-tree.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on orange, Citrus nobilis, and shade-trees
(Cockerell 1907, Robinson 1917, and Morrison 1920). INDIAN UNION :
on mango leaves and shoots at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

15. Pulvinaria cellulosa Green

1909 Pulvinaria cellulosa Green, Cocc. Ceylon 4 : 262.
1964 Pulvinaria cellulosa Green, Ali, Indian J. Ent. 26 (3) : 361.

Type locality: Pundaluoya, Ceylon.

Host: Citrus.

Morrison (1920) considered it to be a synonym of Pulvinaria poly-
gonata Cockerell. But it has been regarded here, provisionally, as a
distinct species on the basis of the identification report of the British
Museum, London.

CEYLON: on Citrus sp. (Green 1909). INDIAN UNION: only in
Bihar on mango (Misra 1923), serious sporadic pest in Bihar on citrus
and mango (Ali 1964).

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 129

16. Pulvinaria psidii Maskell

1892 Pulvinaria psidii Maskell, New Zel. Inst. Trans. & Proc. 25: 223.
1917 Pulvinaria psidii philippina Robinson, Philippine Jour. Sci. 12 (1).
1920 Pulvinaria psidii Maskell, Morrison ; ibid. 17 (2) : 182.

Type locality : Sandwich Island.

Host: Guava (Psidium).

In India, it is one of the commonest and most destructive in south
India on a variety of plants like guava, mango, coffee, tea, etc. In Bihar,
Fletcher (1919) and Misra (1923) reported its occurrence on mango and
litchi only, but I observed it on guava also at Muzaffarpur during April
to September months. It is similar in appearance to P. cellulosa Green,
especially after the formation of the ovisac. So far as the author is
aware, it has never assumed a serious pest status in Bihar.

CEYLON: on guava, tea (Green 1896). FORMOSA and SUMATRA:
on Citrus sp. and other plants (Pruthi & Mani 1945). INDIAN UNION :
all over India on guava, mango, jamun, loquat (Eriobotrya japonica),
tea, coffee, etc. (Lefroy 1908, Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921, Misra 1923).
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS : on Citrus sp., Eugenia jambolana, Psidium guajava,
Ficus sp. (Robinson 1917, Morrison 1920, Pruthi & Mani 1945).
THAILAND : on Euphoria longana and Ficus sp. (Takahashi 1942).

Tribe Coccini
17. Coccus discrepans (Green)

1904 Lecanium discrepans Green, Cocc. Ceylon 3 : 204.
1961 Coccus discrepans (Green), Das & Ganguli ; Indian J. Ent. 23 (4) : 247.

Type locality : Pundaluoya, Ceylon.
Host : On Tea plants.

CEYLON: on tea (Green 1904). INDIAN UNION: on mango and
banana (Musa sp.) in south India (Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921); on plan-
tain at Gauhati (Fletcher 1921); on tea at Tocklai (Das & Ganguli
1961) ; on Zizyphus jujuba at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

18. Coccus mangiferae (Green)

1899 Lecanium mangiferae Green, Ent. Mon. Mag. 35 : 249.

1903 Coccus mangiferae (Green), Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World : 172.

1904 Lecanium mangiferae Green, Cocc. Ceylon 3 : 216.

1920 Coccus mangiferae (Green), Morrison, Philippine Jour. Sci. 17 (2) : 200.

Type locality : Ceylon.
9

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Host : Mango.

CEYLON: on mango (Green 1904). PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Cocos
nucifera (Morrison 1920). INDIAN UNION: on mango at Pusa, Bihar
(Fletcher 1919). THAILAND: on Ficus sp. (Takahashi 1942).

Subfamily Ceroplastinae
19. Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson)

1791 Coccus ceriferi Anderson, Monogr. Cocci Ceriferi Madras.

1872 Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson), Signoret ; Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 2 (5) : 40.
1903 Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson), Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World: 149.
1920 Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson), Morrison ; Philip. Jour. Sci. 17 (2) 200.

Type locality: Madras, India.
Host: Celastrus ceriferus.

CEYLON : on Antigonon, Poutzolzia, mulberry, tea, Ficus spp., etc.
(Green 1896, Ayyar 1921). Formosa (Pruthi & Mani 1945) ; PHILip-
PINE ISLANDS : on Phytocrene and Ficus hauili (Morrison 1920) ; INDIAN
UNION: on tea in Kangra Valley (Atkinson 1889); on tea in Assam
and Darjeeling (Das & Ganguli 1961); on Lawsonia alba, Boswellia,
Asclepiadron, etc. in south India; on Terminalia, Buchanania, etc. in
Madhya Pradesh (Ayyar 1919, 1921) ; on Casuarina in Bombay (Misra
1923) ; on mango, pipal, and arjoon trees in Ranchi, Chota Nagpur,
Bihar (Cotes 1891). THAILAND: on Euphoria longana (Takahashi
1942).

20. Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus Green

1933 Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus Green, Stylop London 4 (8) : 180.
1959 Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus Green, Sankaran ; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
56 (1) : 39.

Type locality : Ceylon.

Host : Undetermined.

This is a new distributional record for this species in Bihar. It was
observed heavily clustered upon mango shoots causing considerable
damage specially to the seedlings at Motihari during February 1956.
Again, in 1957 and 1958, it appeared as a menace to ‘ Maha Buddha
Tree’ (Ficus religiosa) along with one more unidentified mealy bug at
Buddha Gaya in south Bihar. Later it was effectively controlled by the
State Department of Agriculture, Bihar.

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 131

CEYLON : on undetermined plant (Green 1933). INDIAN UNION :
on Azadirachta indica and Diospyros montana (Green 1935) ; on Mad-
huca longifolia in south India, on Mangifera indica, Ficus religiosa, F.
glomerata, F. bengalensis, Artocarpus heterophylla, Madhuca_ indica,
Mimusops hexandra, Terminalia chebula, and Holoptelea integrifolia in
Benares, Uttar Pradesh (Sankaran 1959) ; and on Mangifera indica and
Ficus religiosa at Motihari and Gaya in Bihar as mentioned above.

21. Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock

1880 Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock, Rep. U.S. Dep. Agr. : 331 (1881).
1880 Ceroplastes rusci Ashmead, Can. Ent. 12 : 252.

1903 Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock, Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World: 152.
1909 Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock, (Green 1896) ; Cocc. Ceylon 4: 277.

Type locality : Florida.

Host : i

CEYLON : on guava, mango, citrus, tea, etc. (Green 1896, 1909).
JAVA: on mango and citrus (Green 1900). Formosa (Pruthi & Mani
1945). INDIAN UNION: on Michaelia, Anacardium occidentale, etc. in
south India (Ayyar 1919) ; on mango; minor sporadic pest of citrus,
guava, Ficus carica in different parts of India (Fletcher 1919, Pruthi &
Mani 1945) ; on tea in Assam and Darjeeling (Das & Ganguli 1961);
and on Anona squamosa at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

22. Ceroplastes actiniformis Green

1896 Ceroplastes actiniformis Green, Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1): 9.
1909 Ceroplastes actiniformis Green, Cocc. Ceylon 4 : 275.

Type locality: Pundaluoya, Ceylon.

Host: Coconut palm.

It is quite common in north Bihar on mango and guava from April
to September. Usually found singly distributed on shoots and leaves
in different stages of its development. Once seen on sugarcane leaves
(Ali 1962), but this appears to be an accidental host for the species.

CEYLON : on Coconut palm and some other plants (Green 1896).
INDIAN UNION : on coconut, mango, etc., in south India (Ayyar 1919) ;
on loranthus in Poona (Fletcher 1919), on Ficus carica at Pusa, Bihar
(Misra 1923) ; on mango and guava as mentioned above.

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

IV. Family DIASPIDIDAE
Subfamily Diaspidinae
Tribe Aspidiotini

23. Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell)

1878 Aspidiotus aurantii Maskell, New Zel. Inst. Trans. & Proc. 11 : 199.
1881 A. citri Comstock, Rep. U.S. Dept. Agri. 293 (1880).

1881 A. coccineus Gennadius, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1 (6) : 189.

1887 Aspidiotus gennadii (Targioni), Penzig ; Studi Bot. Sug. Agr. : 497.
1903 Chrysomphalus aurantii (Maskell), Fernald ; Cat. Cocc. World : 287.
1938 Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), Ferris ; Atlas Scale Inst. America su-179.

Type locality: Sydney.
Host: Orange.

BURMA: on Citrus sp. (Misra 1923). CEYLON: On Agave, and
Citrus spp. (Green 1896). FoRMOSA: on Citrus (Ferris 1921).
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS : on Artocarpus sp. (Cockerell 1907) and on Astronia
(Robinson 1917). WesT PAKISTAN: on Citrus (Pruthi & Mani 1945).
INDIAN UNION : practically common all over India and thrive best in a
semi-arid climate. They are usually found on Citrus spp., mulberry,
cycas, rose, etc. (Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921) ; on rose and orange leaves
at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923). INDO-CHINA and THAILAND: on Citrus
sp. (Takahashi 1942).

24. Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead)

1894 Aspidiotus orientalis Newstead, Indian Mus. Notes 3 (5) : 26.

1896 A. osbeckiae Green, ibid. 4 (1): 4.

1896 A. osbeckiae Green, Cocc. Ceylon 1 : 47.

1897 A. (Diaspidiotus) osbeckiae (Green), Cockerell; Bull. Tech. Ser. 6, U.S.—
Dept. Agri. : 28.

1898 A. (Evaspidiotus) osbeckiae (Green), Leonardi ; Riv. Pat. Veg. 7: 77.

1898 A. (Evaspidiotus) orientalis (Newstead), Leonardi ; ibid. 7 : 79.

1908 A. (Aonidiella) cocotiphagus Marlatt, U.S. Dept. Agr. Ent. Tech. Ser.16: 11.

1908 A. orientalis var. cocotiphagus Marlatt ; ibid. Ser. 16 : 11-32.

1915 Chrysomphalus pedroniformis Cockerell & Robinson, Bull. American Mus.
Nat. Hist. 34 : 107.

1938 Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead), Ferris; Atlas Scale Inst. N. America:
si-180.

Type locality : Seven Pagodas, Madras, India.

Host : unknown (probably, a species of Panicum grass).

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 133

BuRMA: on Ficus religiosa (Misra 1923). CEYLON: on Osbeckia
(Green 1896), and on Atylosia (Ayyar 1921). PHILIPPINE ISLANDS:
on Vitis vinifera and Eriodendron anfractuosum (Cockerell & Robinson
1915, Robinson 1917). INDIAN UNION: on Tamarindus indica and
Solanum melongena in south India, on coconut palm in Travancore, on
rose in Bombay and Poona, on guava and plantain leaves in Madhya
Pradesh (Ayyar 1921, Fletcher 1919); on Eugenia jambolana, Zizyphus
jujuba, Tamarindus indica, plantain leaves, Melia azadirachta, etc. at
Pusa, Muzaffarpur, and Darbhanga in Bihar (Fletcher 1919, Misra
1923).

25. Aspidiotus destructor Signoret

1869 Aspidiotus destructor Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 9 (4) : 120.

1869 A. lataniae Signoret, ibid. 2 (4) : 124.

1890 A. transparens Green, Insect Pest of Tea Plants : 22.

1938 A. destructor Signoret, Ferris ; Atlas Scale Ins. N. America, su-191.

Type locality: Reunion Island.
Host: Palms and Psidium gudjava.

CEYLON : on mango, Ficus carica, tea, rubber, etc. (Green 1900).
Formosa : on Morus alba (Ferris 1921). PHitipprine IsLANDS: on
Mangifera indica, Mangifera verticillata, Eugenia calubcob, Cocos nuci-
fera, etc. (Robinson 1917). INDIAN UNION: a minor sporadic pest
throughout the plains and low hills of the country. Occurs on mango,
apple, peach, orange, citrus, jamun, Zizyphus jujuba, Tamarindus in-
dica, Psidium guajava, Cocos nucifera, Phoenix sp., etc. all over India
and on Cocos nucifera in Laccadive Islands (Maskell 1896, Green
1908, Fletcher 1919, Ayyar 1921, Misra 1923). INpDo-CHiNA and
THAILAND : on mango and palm (Takahashi 1942).

26. Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green)

1896 Aspidiotus trilobitiformis Green, Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1): 4.

1896 Aspidiotus trilobitiformis Green, Cocc. Ceylon 1:31.

1903 Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green), Fernald ; Cat. Cocc. World : 284.
1921 Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green), Ferris ; Bull. ent. Res., London 12 : 218.

Type locality: Pundaluoya, Ceylon.
Host: Unidentified tree.

CEYLON : on leaves of unidentified tree (Green 1896) and on Dal-
bergia championii (Fletcher 1919). ForMOsA: on Citrus sp. (Ferris
1921). PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: on Artocarpus sp. (Cockerell & Robinson

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

1915). INDIAN UNION : on unidentified plant in Calcutta (Green 1903),
on Mimusops elengi, Ixora sp., and mango leaves in south India (Fletcher
1919), and only on mango leaves at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923). INDo-
CHINA and THAILAND : on Ficus sp. (Takahashi 1942).

Tribe Diaspidini
27. Chionaspis pusa Rao

1923 Chionaspis pusa Green, Misra; Proc. 5th Ent. Mtg. Pusa348.(Nom nud.).
1953 Chionaspis pusa Sp.n.,Rao, Proc. R. ent. Soc. London (B) 22 (3 & 4):62.

Type locality: Pusa, Bihar, India.

Host: Citrus sp.

Misra (1923) referred this species under manuscript name, but actually
no description was published until Rao (1953) examined its type speci-
men and described it, provisionally, under Chionaspis as originally
placed by Green with his (Rao 1953) comment that ‘it would require a
review of the whole group of species referred to the genus Chionaspis
to determine exactly the generic position of thiS species’.

INDIAN UNION : on Citrus sp. at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923, Rao 1953).

28. Aulacaspis mangiferae (Newstead)

1908 Diaspis cinnamomi Newstead, Jour. Econ. Biol. 3 : 34.

1919 Diaspis cinnamomi mangiferae (Newstead), Green; Rec. Ind. Mus., 16: 433.

1930 Diaspis cinnamomi mangiferae (Newst.), Ayyar ; Dept. Agri. India, Bull.
197 : 14.

1952 Aulacaspis mangiferae (Newst.), Scott, Microentomology 17 (2): 35.

Type locality: East Java.
Host : Cinnamomum ceylanicum.

INDIAN UNION : on mango at Bangalore and at Pusa, Bihar (Green
1919, Misra 1923). JAVA: as above.

29. Lepidosaphes gloverri (Packard)

1869 Coccus gloverii Packard, Guide to study of Ins. Ed. 1 : 527.

1872 Aspidiotus gloverii (Packard), ibid. Ed. 2 : 527.

1938 Mytilaspis gloverii (Packard), Ferris ; Atlas Scale Ins. N. America : s1-74.
1938 Mytilella sexspina Hoke, Ferris ; ibid. : st-74.

1938 Lepidosaphes gloverri (Packard), Ferris ; ibid. ; sI-74.

Type locality: Florida,

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR 135

Host: Citrus sp.

CEYLON: on orange (Ayyar 1921). SOUTHERN CHINA and PHILIP-
PINE ISLANDS : on Citrus sp., (Pruthi & Mani 1945). INDIAN UNION :
on mango and croton leaves at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

30. Parlatoria camelliae (Comstock)

1883 Parlatoria pergandii var. camelliae Comstock, Agr. Expt. Stat. Rept. Cornell
2:114.

1939 Parlatoria camelliae (Comstock), Morrison ; Misc. Pub. No. 344, U.S.
Dept. Agr. : 8.

1945 Parlatoria camelliae (Comstock), Mckenzie, Microentomology 10 (2) : 57.
Type locality: North America.
Host : Camellia.

JAVA: on mango (Morrison 1939). West PAKISTAN: on olive
(Misra 1923). INDIAN UNION: on Aegele sp., Azadirachta sp., Melia
sp., and Vitis sp., in different parts of the country (Ayyar 1921, Morrison
1939), on mango leaves in Rajputana, and only on Aegele marmelos at
Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

31. Parlatoria oleae (Colvee)

1880 Diaspis oleae Colvee, Gac. Agr. Min. de Fomento (Spain). 14 (2) : 39.
1895 Parlatoria calianthina Berlese & Leonardi, Riv. di. Patob. Veg. 3: 346.
1897 Parlatoria affinis Newstead Tran. Ent. Soc. Lond. : 97.

1935 Parlatoria oleae (Colvee), Nichol & Wehrle, Ariz. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech.
Bull, 56 : 201-235.

1937 Parlatovia oleae (Colvee), Ferris, Atlas Scale Ins. N. America st-87.

1937 Syngenaspis oleae (Colvee), Borkhsenius, U.S.S.R. Agr. Plant Quarantine,
Georgia : 87.

1939 Parlatoria oleae (Colvee) Morrison, Misc. Pub. No. 344, U.S. Dept. Agr. : 15.
1946 Parlatoria oleae (Colvee), Mckenzie, Microentomology 10 (2) : 69.

Type locality? : Spain.
Host: Olive.

+ Spain vide Mckenzie 1946 and Italy vide Ferris 1937,

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

INDIAN UNION : on peach, pears, and plums in Bengal and at Ranchi,
Hinoo, Jaganathpur, Kanke, Nankum in Bihar (Rao & Chatterjee 1948).

32. Phenacaspis dilatata (Green)
1899 Chionaspis dilatata Green, Cocc. Ceylon 2: 148 & Ann. Appl. Biol. 5 (2):

46 (1919).
1903 Phenacaspis dilatata (Green), Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World : 273.

Type locality: Kandy, Ceylon.
Host: Eurycles sp.

CEYLON : on mango, Eurycles sp., Myristica spp., etc. (Green 1899).
EAST PAKISTAN: on mango leaves in Dacca (Misra 1923). INDIAN
UNION : on palm in Bangalore and Calcutta and on mango leaves at
Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923, Ayyar 1921, Fletcher 1919).

33. Phenacaspis megaloba (Green)

1899 Chionaspis megaloba Green, Cocc. Ceylon2: 149 & Rec. Indian Mus. 16:
438.

1903 Phenacaspis megaloba (Green), Fernald ; Cat. Cocci. World : 238.
Type locality : Kandy, Ceylon. |
Host: Psidium sp.

CEYLON : on Psidium sp. and Actinoclaphne molochina (Green 1899) ;
INDIAN UNION : on Zizyphus jujuba at Pusa, Bihar (Misra 1923).

34. Phenacaspis vitis (Green)

1896 Chionaspis vitis Green, Indian Mus. Notes 4 (1): 3.
1899 Chionaspis vitis Green, Cocc. Ceylon 2: 140.
1903 Chionaspis vitis Green, Fernald ; Cat. Cocc. World : 286.

1942 Phenacaspis vitis (Green), Takahashi, Rept. Govt. Agr. Res. Inst. Formosa
81: 33.

Type locality : Pundulaoya, Ceylon.
Host: on Vitis sp.

CEYLON : on Vitis lanceolaria, Elaeagnus latifolia, and Loranthus sp.
(Green 1896, Fernald 1903, Fletcher 1919). INDIAN UNION : on Elaeag-
nus sp. and mango in south India ; only on mango at Pusa, Bihar (Fletcher
1919, Ayyar 1921). THAILAND: on undetermined tree (Takahashi
1942).

COCCIDS AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR $37

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ROBINSON, E. (1917) : Coccidae of the
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Sci. 12 ; 1-47.

SEN, A. C. & Prasap, D. (1956):
Biology and control of the mango mealy
bug (Drosicha mangiferae). Indian J.
Ent. 18 (2) : 127-140.

TAKAHASHI, R. (1942): Some in-
jurious insects of agricultural plants and
forest trees in Thailand & Indo-China.
RE Govt. Agr. Res. Inst. Formosa 81:
1-56.

— (1950): Some mealy bugs
(Pseudococcidae) from the Malay
Peninsula. Indian J. Ent. 12 (1): 1-22.

Sea Anemones (Actiniaria) of Bombay

BY

ARUN PARULEKAR
Senior Research Fellow (C.S.I.R.), Bombay Natural History Society

(With two plates and a map)

A collection of sea anemones from the intertidal region of different localities of the
Bombay shore are described. For each species, the habit and preferred habitat,
size range, coloration, distinguishing external features, association and distribu-
tion are given. Out of 17 species, two are new and seven new records for India.
A key to the identification of sea anemones of Bombay is given.

INTRODUCTION

Sea anemones form an important group of intertidal organisms.
On Bombay shores, as elsewhere, they are distinguished by their habit,
habitat and beautiful coloration. Information about the sea anemones
of Bombay is rather meagre being limited to notes by Dave (1957) and
Bhatt (1959). Dr. Cutress (Personal communication) of Puerto Rico
University, collected 12 species from this area.

Seventeen species of intertidal sea anemones, collected from different
localities, viz. Cuffe Parade, Secretariat Foreshore, Chaupatty, Breach
Candy, Worli, Dadar, Mahim, Versova, Madh, Manori and Mazagaon
Docks, within Bombay City limits (See Map) are described in this paper.
The specimens have been identified up to species level except for
two forms for which only generic identification is given. The notes on
coloration are based on live specimens. For technical terms usedin the
description of species the actinian glossary of Carlgren (1949) is followed.

The intertidal actinian fauna of Bombay of 17 species, belong to9
families and 15 genera. Of these, Anemonia indicus and Acontiophorum
bombayensis are new species (Parulekar 1968). The undescribed Cri-
brinopsis sp. and Aiptasia sp. require more observations for Seg
their taxonomic position.

Amongst the sea anemones reported in this paper, Bunodosoma
granulifera, Anthopleura midori, Anthopleura asiatica, Anthopleura paci-
fica, Actiniogeton sultana, Metridium senile var. fimbriatum and Aiptasio-
morpha luciae are new records for India.

A survey of the geographical distribution reveals that sea anemones
of Bombay are chiefly composed of Indo-Pacific forms. Of the

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY 139

17 species recorded here, eight described by various authors (Panikkar
1939, Dave 1957, and Parulekar 1968) are confined to Indian waters.
Three species of the genus Anthopleura, were known previously only from
Japan (Uchida 1958) and M. senile var fimbriatum, A. sultana, B. granuli-
fera and A. luciae have been reported from Pacific, Atlantic and Indian
Oceans.

LIST OF SPECIES

Order ACTINIARIA
Tribe Nynatheae
Sub-tribe Athenaria
Family EDWARDSIIDAE Andres, 1880
Genus Z£DWARDSIA Quatrefages, 1862

1. Edwardsia tinctrix Annandale, 1915
Family HALOCLAVIDAE Verrill, 1899

Genus METAPEACHTA Carlgren, 1943

2. Méetapeachia tropica (Panikkar), 1939
Family HALIACTIDAE Carlgren, 1949

Genus PELocoETES Annandale, 1915

3. Pelocoetes exul Annandale, 1915

Genus exyTocozTes Annandale, 1915

4, Phytocoetes gangeticus Annandale, 1915
Tribe Thenarra Carlgren, 1899
Sub-tribe Endomyaria Stephenson, 1921
Family ACTINIDAE Gosse, 1858

Genus 4vEmon/4 Risso, 1826

5. Anemonia indicus Parulekar, 1968

Genus suvoDosoma Verrill, 1899

6. Bunodosoma granulifera (Leseur), 1817

Genus 4vraoPLzEvRA Duchassaing & Michelotii, 1860

7, Anthopleura midori Uchida, 1958

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)
8. Anthopleura asiatica Uchida, 1958

9. Anthopleura pacifica Uchida, 1958

Genus PARACONDYLACTIS Carlgren, 1934

10. Paracondylactis indicus Dave, 1957

Genus ac7rinioGETon Carlgren, 1938

11. Actiniogeton sultana (Carlgren), 1900

Genus crrerrvopsrs Carlgren, 1921

i2. Cribrinopsis sp.
Sub-tribe Acontiaria Carlgren, in Stephenson, 1935
Family ACONTIOPHORIDAE Carlgren, 1938

Genus 4conTiopHorUm Carlgren, 1938

13. Acontiophorum bombayensis Parulekar, 1968
Family METRIDIDAE Carlgren, 1893

Genus merripium Oken, 1815

14. Méetridium senile var. fimbriatum Verrill, 1865
Family AIPTASIIDAE Carlgren, 1924

Genus are7asra Gosse, 1858

15. Aiptasia sp.
Family AIPTASIOMORPHIDAE

Genus 4zPTasromorPHa Stephenson, 1920

16. Aiptasiomorpha luciae (Verrill), 1899
Family DIADUMENIDAE Stephenson, 1920

Genus D/4DUMENE Stephenson, 1920

17. Diadumene schilleriana (Stoliczka), 1869
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

1. Edwardsia tinctrix Annandale, 1915 (Plate I, Fig. 1)

Occurrence: Burrowing, solitary and rare form found in soft mud |
at Cuffe Parade. |
Remarks: Specimens measure 18-20 cm. in length. Column and |
tentacles dirty-white in colour. 8 longitudinal rows of nemathybomes |

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY 141

on a worm-like column. Ampullaceous, physa-like base. 16 tentacles
in two cycles.

Distribution: India—Chilka Lake and Bombay.

2. Metapeachia tropica (Panikkar, 1939) (Plate I, Fig. 2)

Occurrence: Quite common on all sandy shores but abundant at
Chaupatty. Burrowing. Holes round and smooth in clean sand.

Remarks: Elongated column, measuring 30-300 mm. in length,
with adhesive papillae. Base tapering to a point. 16 tentacles and 5
lobed conchula. Column, milky white, whereas tentacles, oral disc and
conchula are spotted.

Distribution : India—Krusadi Island, Madras Coast, and Bombay.

3. Pelocoetes exul Annandale, 1915 (Plate I, Fig. 3)

Occurrence: Very common in soft mud at Secretariat Foreshore,
Chaupatty, Versova, Madh and Manori. Solitary forms also found
attached to submerged structures and to the tubes of the polychaete,
Polydora coeca.

Remarks: Long, vermiform column, divisible into distal short
capitulum and proximal elongated scapus. Blunt tapering base, without
physa. Longitudinal rows of nematocyst batteries alternating with cin-
clides on the column. Branched tentacles and lobed oral disc.
Anemone light-green in colour and measuring 40-85 mm. in length.

Distribution : India—Gangetic Delta, Calcutta, Madras, Cochin
Backwaters, and Bombay.

4, Phytocoetes gangeticus Annandale, 1915 (Plate I, Fig. 4)

Occurrence: Found together with P. exul but less common.

Remarks: Narrow physa-like base. Column smooth with cin-
clides. Unbranched tentacles. Anemone light pink or light green in
colour. Length, 60-80 mm. |

Distribution: India—Gangetic Delta, Calcutta, Madras, Cochin
Backwaters, and Bombay.

5. Anemonia indicus Parulekar, 1968 (Plate I, Fig. 5)

Occurrence: Adhesive, solitary to gregarious forms attached to
rocks, or oyster shells or to the tube of the polychaete, Onuphis sp. or
to the shell of the mollusc, Coecella sp. or even to the submerged pier-
wall. Found in abundance at Cuffe Parade, Mahim, Mazagaon Docks
and Madh.

Remarks : Small anemone with a wide pedal disc and a pillar-like
column bearing marginal spherules. Column green with brown longi-
tudinal stripes, long tentacles, in 4-5 cycles with V-shaped green or

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

brownish marks, alternating with white patches. Radial and transverse
brown stripes on the oral disc.

Distribution: India—Bombay and also at Ratnagiri, Malvan and
Redi in the Ratnagiri District of Maharashtra State.

6. Bunodosoma granulifera (Leseur, 1817) (Plate I, Fig. 6)

Occurrence: Rare and solitary forms living in the deep fissures of
rock at Cuffe Parade and Breach Candy.

Remarks: Strong, adhesive circular base, pillar-like, pink column
with longitudinal rows of nematocyst batteries. Anemone measures
20-30 mm. inlength. Tentacles, light pink with red longitudinal stripes.

Distribution : West Indies—Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, Bar-
bados, Curacao, Guadeloupe, Martinique and St. Thomas. India—
Bombay.

7. Anthopleura midori Uchida, 1958 (Plate I, Fig. 7)

Occurrence: Abundantly found attached to rocks or under surfaces
of boulders at Cuffe Parade, Chaupatty (Band Stand) and Manori..

Remarks: Small, blackish-brown anemone, with broad base and
cylindrical column. 96 rows of light-green verrucae on the column.
Pieces of shell often attached to column. Grey tentacles and dark brown
oral disc. Length of the anemone 10-15 mm.

Distribution : Japan—Mutsu Bay and from Hokkaido to Kyushu.
North America—Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Northern Europe and
India—Bombay.

8. Anthopleura asiatica Uchida, 1958 (Plate I, Fig. 8)

Occurrence: Found only at Chaupatty, firmly attached to rocks or
oyster shells, in shallow rock-pools. Not very common.

Remarks: Greyish-green, pillar-like column with a circular basal
disc. Only 12 out of 48 longitudinal rows of red to reddish-brown
verrucae on the column, are clearly seen. Column bell-like, when
contracted. Acrorhagi in big specimen. Column 10 mm. in length.

Distribution: Japan—Coast of Pacific and Japan Sea from Honshu
to Kyushu and in the inland sea near Okayama City. India—Bombay.

9. Anthopleura pacifica Uchida, 1958 (Plate I, Fig. 9)

Occurrence: Attached to rocks in rock pools at Worli, Mahim and
Manori. Gregarious, forming dense colonies with a superficial hexa-
gonal green design due to algae in the oral disc. Not very common.

Remarks: Small anemone 10-18 mm. in length with a flesh-like or
reddish-brown cylindrical column, ending in a easily detachable base.
Verrucae inconspicuous. Slit-like mouth. Oral disc deep green.

J, BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

Parulekar: Sea Anemones
PLATE I

ed

vt :
oe

-
-
~
=-
=-
=
“=

Sea Anemones (Actiniaria) of Bombay : Figs 1-9

1. Edwardsia tinctrix ; 2. Metapeachia tropica; 3. Pelocoetes exul; 4. Phyto-
coetes gangeticus ; 5. Anemonia indicus; 6. Bunodosoma granulifera;7. Antho-
pleura midori; 8, Anthopleura asiatica; 9. Anthopleura pacifica,

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)
Parulekar : Sea Anemones

PLATE II

9
So GQ
2

yt
i)

aac ©
eal 9

Sea Anemones (Actiniaria) of Bombay : Figs 10-17

10. Paracondylactis indicus; 11. Actiniogeton sultana; 12. Cribrinopsis sp. ;
13. Acontiophornm bombayensis; 14. Metridium senile var fimbriatum: 15,
Aiptasia sp.; 16. Aiptasiomorpha luciae; 17. Diadumene sehilleriana.

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY 143

Irregularly arranged tentacles which are greenish on oral and flesh-
coloured on aboral side.

Distribution : Japan—Hokkaido, Mutsu Bay and Southern part of
Korea. India—Bombay.

10. Paracondylactis indicus Dave, 1957 (Plate II, Fig. 10)

Occurrence : Abundantly found at Secretariat Foreshore, burrowing
singly, in mud puddles. Also found at Cuffe Parade and Chaupatty.
A crab, Thalamita crenata, is usually found in association with this
species.

Remarks: Reddish-orange, elongated and tapering column, measur-
ing 60-500 mm. in length. Pseudospherules on the column. Presence
of a distinct flattened pedal disc. 96 tentacles arranged in 5 cycles.
Tentacles and oral disc white to colourless.

Distribution: Yodia—Bombay.

11. Actiniogeton sultana (Carlgren, 1900) (Pilate II, Fig. 11)

Occurrence: Rare, solitary and burrowing forms, usually found in
sandy mud at Cuffe Parade and Secretariat Foreshore.

Remarks : Column 70-160 mm. in length and white to pale yellowish
or pink in colour. Distal 4 of the column is covered with longitudinal
rows of verrucae to which are attached sand particles and shell fragments.
Narrow, physa-like or flat, weakly adhesive basal disc, yellowish-white in
colour. Dark transverse bands on the inner surface of tentacles.

Distribution: Zanzibar and Durban. India—Bombay.

12. Cribrinopsis sp. (Plate I, Fig. 12)

Occurrence: Attached to oyster shell and to rocks at Chaupatty,
Breach Candy, and Manor.

Remarks: Light-pink, short column 10-15 mm. in length. Feebly
developed, light red to dark red verrucae on the distal one-third of the
column. Pseudospherules and acrorhagi on the column. Tentacles
and oral disc crystalline white to semi-transparent. Inner tentacles
longer than the outer ones. Strongly adherent base.

13. Acontiophorum bombayensis Parulekar, 1968 (Plate II, Fig. 13)

Occurrence : Adhesive form living in association with wood-boring
mollusc, Martesia sp. at Madh. Gregarious due to asexual re-
production by pedal lacerations. Uncommon to rare.

Remarks : A very small anemone measuring 10-15 mm. in length.
Short column, green in colour, divisible into scapus and capitulum.
Longitudinal rows of squarish coloured cinclides on the scapus. Oral

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

disc, broader than the column and green in colour. Tentacles light-
pink in colour. Adherent circular base.

Distribution : India—Bombay.

14. Metridium senile var. fimbriatum (Verrill, 1865) (Plate II, Fig. 14)

Occurrence: Solitary and rare form, found inside rock-crevices
at Cuffe Parade and Manori.

Remarks: Well developed, adherent and spreading base. Column,
bright or pinkish or light yellowish, with irregularly arranged cinclides.
Length of the column 15-25 mm. Presence of readily discharging
acontia. Oral disc bright orange with white radial stripes. 4-5 cycles
of tentacles, with innermost whorl of blunt thick catch-tentacles.

Distribution: North America through Alaska, Kamchatka and
Behring Sea to Hokkaido and Honshu in Japan. India—Bombay.

15. Aiptasia sp. (Plate II, Fig. 15) |

Occurrence: Found at Cuffe Parade, Chaupatty and Dadar.
Attached to molluscan shells Babylonia spirata and Turritella dupli-
cata, inhabited by hermit-crabs of the species, Dicgenes custus and Cli-
bararius pddavensis. Colour of the anemone same as that of the shell.
Abundant during monsoon.

Remarks : Strongly adhesive and irregularly flattened basal disc.
Column short, undivided and yellowish-brown to dark brown in colour.
Distal narrow part of the column with tentaculate margin. Tapering
short tentacles, with transverse brownish stripes.

16. Aiptasiomorpha luciae (Verrill, 1899) (Plate H, Fig. 16)

Occurrence : The anemone lives as a commensal with a gastropod,
Nassarius orndta. Common at Chaupatty but also occurs at Cuffe
Parade and Secretariat Foreshore.

Remarks : Specimens 15-30 mm. in length with a strongly adherent
spreading base. Column, dark-green with light yellow longitudinal
stripes. Cinclides on the distal part of the column. Oral disc light-
green. Tentacles, generally retracted, with alternating transverse bands
of green and white.

Distribution: East coast of U.K., Plymouth, Holland, Busum,
Naples, Venice, Suez Canal, Japan, West Coast of N. America, and
India—Bombay.

17. Diadumene schilleriana (Stoliczka, 1869) (Plate II, Fig. 17)

Occurrence: Found attached to drifting material, such as, pieces
of decaying timber and empty barnacle shells at Chaupatty, Dadar,
Mahim and Madh. Uncommon.

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY 145

Remarks : Small anemones, about 10-20 mm. in length, with a
strong adhesive basal disc, with diameter greater than that of the
column. Column and oral disc pink to flesh-coloured. Presence of a
definite collar between scapus and capitulum. Bright-red actinopharynx.
Hexamerously arranged tentacles with innermost cycle of thick and long
tentacles.

Distribution: India—Chilka Lake, Port Canning, Diamond
Harbour, Calcutta, and Bombay.

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY
I. Burrowing Forms

IA. TENTACLES SIMPLE
(i) Base: Physa-like or Rounded
(2) Worm-like, dirty-white anemone. 8 longitudinal rows
of nemathybomes on the column. Only 16 tentacles.
Edwardsia tinctrix
(b) Anemone having an elongated light pink smooth column
with longitudinal rows of cinclides. 96 tentacles.
Acontia present. Phytocoetes gangeticus
(c) Anemone with distal 4 of the column, covered with
verrucae. Pseudospherules also present. Speci-
mens white to pale yellowish or pink in colour.
Actiniogeton sultana
(d) Elongated, reddish-orange anemone found in mud-
puddle. 5 cycles of tentacles. Pseudospherules on
the column. Paracondylactis indicus
(ii) Base : Tapering
(e) Elongated, worm-like column bearing minute adhesive
papillae. Milky-white in colour. 16 tentacles and 5
lobed conchula. Metapeachia tropica

IB. TENTACLES BRANCHED
(f) Light green anemone with a tapering blunt base. Longi-
tudinal rows of nematocyst batteries and cinclides on
the column. Lobed oral disc with 96 tentacles.
Pelocoetes exul

Il. Adhesive forms

IIA. ATTACHED TO ROCKS, OYSTER SHELLS OR SUBMERGED STRUCTURES
(a) Blackish-brown anemone attached to under-surface of

boulders. Broad based, cylindrical column having

96 rows of light green verrucae. Anthopleura midori

‘10

——

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

(b) Anemone having short greyish-green, pillar-like. column
with reddish-brown verrucae. Acrorhagi in big
specimens. Found in rock pools firmly attached to
rocks and oyster shells. Anthopleura_ asiatica

(c) Gregarious, flesh-coloured anemone with a deep-green
oral disc. Cylindrical column with inconspicuous:
verrucae. Found in shallow rock pools.

_ Anthopleura pacifica

(d) Anemone found inside deep fissures of rock. Pink,
pillar-like column with longitudinal rows of nematocyst
batteries. Tentacles, light-pink with red stripes.

Bunodosoma granulifera

(e) Small anemone with distal one-third of the column
covered with dark red verrucae. Inner tentacles
longer than the outer ones. Pseudospherules and
acrorhagi on the column. Attached to rock or oyster
shell. Cribrinopsis sp.

(f) Hour-glass like green column with marginal spherules
and broad pedal disc. V-shaped green or brownish
marks on the tentacles. Anemone attached to rock,
oyster shell, tube of polychaete Onuphis sp., shell of
Coecella sp., or to submerged concrete structures.

Anemonia indicus

(g) Brightly coloured, small anemone living in the crevices
of rocks. Pinkish or yellowish-white column, with
irregularly attached cinclides and acontia. Bright-
orange oral disc. Presence of inner catch tentacles.

Metridium senile var. fimbriatum

IIB. ATTACHED TO GASTROPOD SHELLS |
(a) Yellowish-brown to dark- brown anemone found .
attached to the shell of Babylonia spirata or Turritella
duplicata. Circular spreading basal disc.

Aiptasia sp.
(b) Small, light green anemone found attached to the shell
of Nassarius ornata. Cinclides on the distal part of

the column. Irregularly flattened, thin basal disc.
Aiptasiomorpha luciae

IIC. ATTACHED TO TIMBER IN ASSOCIATION WITH WOOD BORING
MOLLUSC, Martesid sp. ;

(a) Small anemone in which the light-green column is
divided into scapus and capitulum. Longitudinal
rows of cinclides on the scapus. Light-pink tentacles.

Acontiophorum bombayensis

4.

VERSOVA

MADH@
CS

MAZGAON
BREACH- :
CANDY 4 DOCKS

9 CHAUBATTY

CUFF ~ yECRETARIAT -
PARAD FORESHORE

fecal
2 miles

Map of Bombay showing localities of collection

SEA ANEMONES OF BOMBAY

147

IID. ATTACHED TO DRIFTING MATERIAL
(a) Anemone found attached to decaying wood or empty

barnacle — shell.
actinopharynx.

present.

Pinkish-white
Column divided, by a definite collar
into distal capitulum and proximal scapus.

column with red

Cinclides
Diadumene schilleriana

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural
History Society, for his keen interest in this work. Thanks are due to
Dr. Ch. E. Cutress and Dr. Tohru Uchida for suggestions and reprints.
Acknowledgements are made to C.S.I.R. for granting a Post-Doctoral
Research Fellowship for conducting the study.

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1915): Fauna of
Chilka Lake. Mem. Indian Mus. 5
(1-6) : 68-96.

Byatt, Y. M. (1959): A study of the
Intertidal Organisms of Bombay. Ph.D.
Thesis. Univ. of Bombay (Unpublished).

CARLGREN, OSKAR (1949): A Survey
of the Ptychodactiaria, Corallimorpharia
and Actiniaria. Kungl. Svenska Vetens.
Handi. Fijarde Serien, 1 (1): 1-121.

Dave, M. J. (1957): Study of Antho-
zoa M.Sc. Thesis Univ. of Bombay (Un-
published).

PANIKKAR, N. K. (1939): Studies on
Peachia from Madras. Proc. Indian
Acad. Sci. VII Nr. 4.

PARULEKAR, A. H. (1968): Two new
species of Sea Anemones (Actiniaria)
from Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 64 (3) : 524-529,

Ucnipa, T. & Muramatsu, S. (1958) :
Notes on some Japanese Sea Anemones
J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Uniy. Series VI.
Zoology Vil (i) : 111-119,

“

The nesting activities of the vespoid
potter wasp Eumenes campaniformis
esuriens (Fabr.) compared with the

ecologically similar sphecoid Sceliphron

madraspatanum (Fabr.) (Hymenoptera)

BY

S. D. JAYAKAR AND H. SPURWAY

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa,
Bhubaneswar-3, Orissa, India

(With two figures)

[Continued from Vol. 64 (2) : 332]

DAUBING

All individuals of both species added a number of loads of mud to
their constructs after they had completed and sealed a cell. These can
be classified in various ways. In our previous paper on ml we used
the word daubing and often used the metaphor ‘roughcast’. Other
authors have adopted Roubaud’s (1916) word crépissage which may be
translated by roughcast, but has been adopted into entomological lite-
rature in English because it has a wider range than any translation. In
this paper we are using both words and giving them separate meanings.
Crépissage in the present sense is only constructed by esuriens and other
species Of Eumenes that we have seen Jayakar & Spurway (1965). Its
structure is physically different and, as shown in Table 11, it is worked
at a different tempo from the daubing proper which is similar in form
in both species, and it is laid down in a special context. Crépissage
will be considered more fully in the next section.

All wasps observed, when they had sealed a cell, laid down some
loads of mud not clearly associated with the lid or with the site of the
next cell. These loads were carried and put down in the manner charac-
teristic of the species. The madraspatanum wasps first put down the
loads and gradually spread them out so that their final form was like a
little cow-dung cake drying on a wall for fuel. The esuriens wasps
again held their loads clear of the construct and spread out the mud

[27]

149

NESTING OF E. c.-esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum

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[28]

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

from only that part of the load with which the construct had been touched,
so that one load was frequently divided between several sites.

In both species daubs were usually placed in chinks between two
cells, and between cells and the substrate, and their function could often
be appreciated. However, the number of such loads put down by
members of both species was very variable. Sometimes only one or
two such loads were brought between building two cells and the daubs
made with these would be quite inconspicuous in an excavation of the
finished nest. The wasps m3, m4, and m5 made few daubs before making
the foundations for the next cell. The result of variation in the number
of loads put down seems similar to a nest variation reported by Roubaud
(1916) in the Vespoid which he calls Synagris callida L. but which
Wheeler (1923) states is correctly S. spiniventris (without anauthor). The
nest made by ml corresponded accurately to Roubaud’s description of a
compact nest in that species, whereas m3, m4, and m5 made what would
be called dissociate nests. This difference, which we regard as quan-
titative, Roubaud believes to be determined by the consistency of the
mud used. Wasps el, e2, e5, and e8 also differed similarly among them-
selves, only e2 resembling ml. Their daubs were spread much thinner
and more smoothly blended with each other and with the previous con-
struct than those of madraspatanum.

While daubing, both species of wasps put loads of mud, not only
on the construct, but also on the surrounding substrate. The working
of these loads was, for both species, quite deliberate, but quite different,
and in both the function is at best controversial. Wasps e2 and e5
occasionally, and late in their work, laid down a load either entirely
separate from the main part of the construct or as discrete patches or
blobs extending out from it. These may be considered as the begin-
ning of crépissage and will be considered later. They were also made
by less systematically watched wasps. On the other hand, madras-
patanum wasps spread out mud with movements indistinguishable from
those with which they made foundations but in regions where cell walls
could not have been built without occluding the opening of previous
cells. Some of such smoothings by m3 did not join the cell block ; Dutt
(1913) has also described these. They may have a camouflaging func-
tion (Horne 1872).

We have so far considered daubing (in our sense) and associated
activities that were performed after a cell has been closed. These may
be called in phase daubing. Concerning out of phase daubing, ml only
daubed one load at any other time and this was between two loads used ~
to make cell walls and was related to the walls of the cell being built.
The esuriens wasps more frequently alternated daubs and walls at the
beginning of a cell. These daubs are considered to be part of the series
of in phase daubing which had preceded the wall building. However the

[29]

— a

NESTING OF F¥. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 151

esuriens wasps appear to daub at least two other times, and under other
stimuli. Wasp el followed oviposition in the two cells we watched with
a period of daubing before provisioning which did not extend on to the
newly built cell. These were calm and though each was preceded by a
relatively long absence and at least one loadless inspection, they seemed
to have the same function as the daubs she added after sealing, and in
Table 11 and Fig. 9, are grouped with these. Secondly, e2 produced
one period of work, e5 two, and e8 three which might be called panic
daubtng. We do not know what evoked this from e2 but her behaviour
left little doubt that she was dealing with a crisis. After inserting the
fourth larvae into her cell V, e2 did not leave, but hovered and landed
twice. She then brought ten loads of mud most of which she put down
on the two most recent cells. She worked more quickly than previously

(Table 11 and Fig. 9) and also deposited water on the construct while

doing so. She then resumed provisioning cell V. Judging by this
behaviour, it seemed that the crisis was caused by the construct becoming
defective. Over two and a half hours before, while building cell V, e2
had spent an unusually long time feeling the construct.

On the two occasions when e5 daubed out of phase, the wasp was
almost certainly aware that another insect had been near the nest in her
absence. Similar incidents preceded the final closing of nests of this
and other species (Jayakar & Spurway 1965, and below). Therefore we
suggest that the presence of an enemy stimulates or releases this activity.
This is suggested by the following observation: On 19/10, an individual
of Chalybion bengalense landed on the construct and swept the newly
finished mouth of cell e5 IX with its antennae for four seconds before
flying away. It thus can be assumed to have left some scent on the nest.
However e5, who was first noticed 113 seconds later, and who approached
hesitatingly, and from an unusual direction, may have seen it on the
nest. After appearing reluctant to land, e5 landed and examined the
nest for over 5 minutes, left for over half an hour, returned without a
load, and examined for 6 minutes. She then daubed 16 loads followed
by an inspection visit and left for the day. Next morning, after the first
loadless inspection visit, she provisioned cell IX normally. !

On 24/10, while e5 was making the neck and lip of cell XII after nearly
an hour’s delay due to rain, a blue-green cuckoo wasp of the family

1 Our interpretation of this behaviour of e5 suggests that C. bengalense has, for
potter wasps, some stimuli similar to those produced by chrysid cuckoo wasps. The
closely related C. californicum is believed to open cells of Sceliphron cementarium and
remove the wasp larvae and provisions before using the cells for rearing its own young
(Meeusebeck et al. 1951, Evans 1963). C. bengalense is certainly a squatter, and
we have seen individuals empty the provisions out of holes in wood recently filled by
themselves, by other members of their own species, and by other squatters. Vespoid
Squatters also behave similarly. C. bengalense also collects mud for sealing its own
cells from the nests of potter wasps and_ om the lids of squatter wasps, and may,
therefore, open their cel!s while these are still occupied.

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152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Chrysididae examined the abortive foundation built by m2 27 days
before. This smear of mud was about 48 cm. vertically above cell XII
of the nest of e5. The chrysid was chased away by the observers before
e5 began ovipositing. After this, instead of provisioning, she imme-
diately daubed 13 loads of mud before work was interrupted by failing
light. :

As for e8, we are unable to understand why she daubed out of phase
when she did. On 17/4/63, in the middle of making the walls of cell
VIII, she put down 6 daubs in several different places. Then, on the
next day, having finished her cell IX and laid an egg in it, she left at
11.56.51. At 13.27.36 she returned without a load, inspected for 74
seconds, and then fetching mud in another 242 seconds, she had a spell
of daubing during which she brought 10 loads of mud. The only other
visit she paid to the nest that afternoon was an inspection visit. There
was some rain that afternoon. On 20/4, also, after ovipositing in newly
finished cell XI, she left at 13.48.43. At 14.26.42 she returned loadless,
inspected for 103 seconds, was away for 582, at the end of which she
brought 7 loads of mud which she daubed, then remained away for 3133
seconds, returned loadless, inspected for 140 seconds, made 4 more
daubs, remained away for 2929 seconds, returned loadless for 32 seconds,
then daubed 4 loads and left for the day at 16.47.45. During this panic
daubing, the clouds had been increasing.

Table 11 and Fig. 9 (below) make clear that all wasps increased their
speed of work while panic daubing, and where data are available, i.e.
for e2 and e5, these speeds were not significantly different from those at
which they built their final crépissage. Three esuriens (e13, e22, e23)
made structurally unmistakeable crépissage before returning to cell con-
struction. We do not know the contexts in which this was made.

THE FINAL FORM OF THE CONSTRUCTS INCLUDING CREPISSAGE

Column 10 of Table 1 describes the condition of the material con-
struct when the nest was left. For many nests we have evidence, either
direct, or from the accumulation of prey, that the wasp had visited the
construct after the last load of mud had been deposited. This is the
date entered in column 9 of Table 1 and used in constructing Table 9.
From these data, we find that 2 or 3 esuriens and 3 madraspatanum

wasted some labour and at least 12 esuriens and 2 madraspatanum not °

only wasted labour but left an offspring partially or completely unpro-

vided for. A young wasp in an unsealed cell is not certain to perish,

though e161 was both abnormally small and unable to emerge from its

pupal skin. Wasp e9I, unfortunately, was killed 24 hours after emer-

gence from the pupal skin. At the time it was judged to be deformed but
[31]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 153

the observation made later that esuriens imagines do not assume their
adult posture until at least 36 hours after emergence from the pupa
makes this interpretation almost certainly erroneous.

Before we discuss whether these 19 desertions are to be considered
involuntary, i.e., the mother being prevented, probably by death, from
returning to the construct, we will consider how the remaining 11 nests
were left. They were all constructed by esuriens. In 5 (e7, e13, e15,
e19, e24) the last cell was sealed, and in some certainly daubed a little in
the way previously described. The remaining six esuriens (e2, e4, eS,
e6, e14, and e22) made the qualitatively different style of daubing to
which we wish to restrict Roubaud’s (1916) term crépissage. This
structure was begun by all except e4 and e14 only after the sealing of a
cell ; in these two it was begun while a cell was not only unsealed but
completely unprovisioned containing only the suspended egg, so these
two individuals must be added to the previously mentioned 19 who
wasted labour and abandoned an offspring. The wasps observed built
their crépissage by working with increased intensity, fetching mud more
quickly (Fig. 9 below), working it more rapidly on the nest and, at the
end, hardly spreading it out at all. Table 11 compares the various types
of daubing for the different wasps with regard to time spent on the nest
while working a load. e2 and e5 also divided a single load between
more and more sites, the maximum being five. Therefore finished
crépissage has a crumbly or granular surface and must have a porous
consistency (compare Fig. 7 with Fig. 8). The wasps also made ribbons
of mud on the substrate. These were slightly ruched and resembled the
ribbons made by pushing the paste made of icing sugar through a funnel
while decorating a cake. These ribbons were often continuous with
ridges over the cells, but some were entirely separate from the main con-
struct. The wasps also constructed vaults extending over many cells.
These were constructed from ridges and ribbons which were added to
so that they curved over enclosing a considerable amount of space. A
vault could be constructed from one, two, or three ridges joined up in
an elaborate manner which was sometimes symmetrical and sometimes
not. The open lips of the last cell of e4 (IX) were joined up and made
continuous with this vaulting, as were those of cell e22 VII which had not
been destroyed when the cell was sealed, perhaps precisely because the
wasp had determined to build crépissage immediately afterwards. Iwata
(1942) considers these vaults to be an adaptation to minimise fluctuations
of temperature within the cell by surrounding it with an air jacket. We
suggest that they may also provide a defence against cuckoo wasps.
Wasp e14 put on two complete layers of vaults, and included her open
cell within them whereas e2 and e5 only made one small vault each.

We have compared such a completed crépissage (Jayakar & Spurway
1965b) to a miniature chain of recent mountains with smaller ridges

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154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

extending from a central spine. Only four wasps (e2, e5, e6 and e14)
closed their vaulting, and the first three of these, to continue the moun-
tain metaphor, built up the peak over their youngest cell (which, only
in nest e5, was the highest vertically) into a little pinnacle approximately
1 cm. high, and therefore somewhat destroying the resemblance of the
construct to a mountain range by being so grossly out of proportion.
In detail this pinnacle resembled a small cairn of stones, the mud balls
of which it was made being barely worked into one another at all. The
function of this cairn is unknown. Wasp e5 almost invariably landed
on hers once it was constructed. We have seen no comparable struc-
ture to this cairn constructed by E. emarginatus conoideus or E. p. pyri-
formis (Jayakar & Spurway 1965b).

The only esuriens for whom we have data (e5), fetched all the mud
for her crépissage from the same source as she used for her cell walls,
and the colour of the crépissage of the other nests confirms that, for our
population at least, this is so far the rule. In this esuriens again differs
from conoideus and pyriformis, who in our experience have completed,
almost decorated, their crépissage with material of a different colour and
consistency from the material of which their cells and the bulk of the
former were made. Finally, e5 and e22, who were still working on their
crépissage when their earlier cells were due to emerge, left these earlier
cells uncovered. We have recorded the same omission by conoideus
(Jayakar & Spurway 1965b).

As a routine we continued watching the nests of el, e2, e5, and e8
during the hours of daylight until the wasp had failed to return for 24
hours (20 hours 24 minutes for wasp e2). We thus watched e2 and e5
withdraw from their constructs after they had finished building them to
their own satisfaction. Their remaining visits were loadless and are
given below:

e2 e5
away on away on
256 10 10621 4}
4856 Pte 4183 13
8833 10 760862 Pgh
734622 watching 876442 watching
discontinued discontinued

1 hovered over sill before leaving.
2 including a night.
3 including hovering over nest.

The function of these returns after long intervals (also recorded for
conoideus and pyriformis) is not obvious ; perhaps they have no function
and are the inescapable consequence of the evolution of both a memory
and a positive reaction to the nest, neither of which disappears abruptly.

[33]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 155

The capacity to make these visits may make various adjustments possible
in rare catastrophes, and it may have important evolutionary significance.

If we consider closed vaults, and perhaps a cairn, as evidence for a
completed construct, we imply that no madraspatanum and only 3, or
perhaps 4, esuriens completed their constructs, though it is probable that
e22 would have done so if the nest had not been dissected on 18/6/64.
Beginning with the animals we watched at work, we will consider the
circumstances that stimulate a wasp to cease cell building and begin
crépissage, and discuss the evidence that similar stimuli may precipitate
desertion.

After el had left, having put down her second load of mud onto her
cell IV, a chrysid cuckoo wasp landed on the nest. She was attacked
by el and they both flew off together. The cuckoo returned and laid
an egg through the wall of cell IT with the mother hovering over her.
The movements of el were frightened, not aggressive. The two wasps
then left together but the cuckoo returned in 6 seconds and inserted her
“abdomen. el returned in 198 seconds but was temporarily prevented
from reaching the cells by an unsuccessful attempt to catch the cuckoo.
The cuckoo left, returned, and put her ovipositor into I. When the
chrysid left, el returned. We do not know if she had been around all
the time. She inspected the cells for 11 seconds. She returned two
more times for 8 seconds and 2 seconds after intervals of 15 and 27
minutes respectively bringing no loads, merely inspecting the cells. After
an hour, a chrysid of the same species again appeared on the cells. That
she concentrated her attention on cell III does not prove she was the
same individual, as she could perhaps have recognised, by the visible
little pits in their walls, that cells II and I had already been parasitized.
She laid in II, and was captured. Nearly half an hour later, i.e. after
she had been away 50 minutes, el returned again without a load and
inspected for 5 seconds. She did not return during the next 24 hours
of daylight, i.e. she apparently deserted because all her cells had been
parasitized.

The panic daubing performed by e2 during provisioning of cell V
has previously been described. On the same day, after sealing cell V
she immediately made an inspection visit and then brought 15 loads of
mud, 14 of which she daubed during periods on the nest ranging from
14 to 32 seconds. The last load she dropped, most probably because
she saw the approach of a chrysid. This cuckoo was most persistent
in her attempts to lay but was finally captured by us. e2 returned with
mud and it was soon after realized that her building was different from
any previously seen. Though between sealing one cell and beginning
the next, e2 always made more than 20 daubs, usually more than 30,
the speed with which she worked the 14 daubs immediately after sealing
V suggests that these were crépissage daubing. If this is correct, the

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156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

beginning of this crépissage was not stimulated by the presence of the
cuckoo. The decision to close the nest may have been due to the stimuli
that provoked the panic daubing during the morning.

On two occasions when e5 brought larvae to cell XIII, a striped fly,
probably a sarcophagine and similar to those which parasitized e8 and
m3, followed her across the verandah and settled on the window sill
facing the nest. As soon as e5 had left, the fly flew to cell XIII and put
its head in. On both occasions it was disturbed by the observers. On
neither occasion did e5 do any feeling that could be interpreted as re-
acting to the fly’s foot prints as she had reacted to the Chalybion 14 days
before (p. 151). However, after the second occasion she made an in-
spection visit, sealed her cell and began her crépissage, again immedi-
ately, judging from her speed of work. Wasp e5 roughcasted the earlier
cells very much less than the later so that their surfaces remained smooth
and only the upper half of the construct assumed the crumbly texture
(see Fig. 8). This seemed a deliberate response to the demands of the
situation. Is it possible that the wasp knew that her earlier cells con-
tained offspring too advanced to be vulnerable to parasitization? Or,
to use a somewhat pedantic jargon, why did these early cells not provide
the stimuli for crépissage or, alternatively, provide stimuli inhibiting it.
The first emergence, that from cell II, took place while this final rough-
casting was being performed.

Wasp e8, who had not reacted to the presence of a fly which, on
17/4/1963, had successfully oviposited, or perhaps larviposited in cell
VII, deserted on 21/4. On 20/4, she oviposited in cell XI at 13.48 after
completing the building of that cell. At 14.26 she returned without any
load, which in itself was not surprising, but what followed was. She
spent 103 seconds feeling the construct, than left, and returned after
582 seconds with a load of mud and daubed it on the construct. She
brought 7 such loads and was then absent from 14.48 to 15.40 when she
again came without a load. This time she spent 140 seconds on the
construct of which she spent 63 seconds absolutely quiet with her head
over the mouth of cell XI. She left and then returned for a second
stretch of out of phase daubing. This time she brought 4 loads. She
was absent from 15.50 to 16.40 when, after another inspection of 32
seconds, she did some more daubing (4 loads). The next day she started
work at 07.35. She brought 2 larvae, made one inspection and then
brought a third larva (at 11.41), until that time behaving quite normally.
It was only when she brought her fourth larva that we noticed any change
in her behaviour. After putting this larva in within 5 seconds of her
arrival, she spent 736 seconds on the construct, for 638 of which she
stood over cell XI, quiet except for opening and closing her wings. She
left at 11.53, brought her next larva in 154 seconds, spent 168 seconds
on the nest, flew away rather suddenly at 11.58 (perhaps frightened by a

[35]

NESTING OF F. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH §S. madraspatanum 157

house sparrow), returned at 12.44 without a load, and spent 50 seconds
on the nest. She returned again with a larva at 14.40, spent only 9
seconds on the nest, and that was the last we saw of her. What the
reason, or reasons, were for this unusual behaviour we do not know, but
once again desertion was preceded by a marked disruption of the wasp’s
usual sequence of activities. It is possible that there had been parasitiza-
tion by an organism such as a chalcid too small for us to notice its entry.

Concerning the esuriens nests watched in less detail, we know nothing
about the desertion of the nests built by e7, e9, e10, e12, e13 (who had
made some crépissage before returning to pot building), e16-21, e23
(perhaps interrupted by observers because emergence had begun), or
e25. The last certain visit of ell was followed by six days of almost
continuous rain, and though m4, building at the same time, returned and
continued her nest, it is not surprising that any given wasp failed to do so
after so long an interval.

For the others we have some observations which will now be listed.

Wasp e3 built one cell, presumably laid in it, and inserted at least
three larvae, one a caterpillar and one an apodous larva. Within three
minutes of the mother leaving the nest, ants had begun to remove these
larvae. They also apparently removed the egg. The wasp was never
seen at that site again. It is surprising that other nests were not similarly
plundered as there were several ant colonies on the same verandah and
individual ants ran in and out of several cells.

Between 11.28 and 11.43 on 11/10/62, cell VIII of e4 was sealed and
two beginnings of cell IX were made. The second of these was com-
pleted and laid in at 12.01. During this building, a chrysid was seen
flying in the hole in the parapet. It did notland. At 12.03, e4 returned
with mud which she put between cell VIII and the just finished definitive
cell IX, beginning her crépissage with a vault. An hour later, e4 had laid
out rows of mud on the wall separated from the cells, and begun to build
these up into vaults. At 13.27 a chrysid was found ovipositing, watched
by e4. Both wasps settled and inspected (not together) and e4 only
resumed building at 13.33. At 15.43 a chrysid was again laying, again
watched and not disturbed by e4; e4 was not seen again and no further
mud was added to her construct. A third egg was laid by a chrysid next
morning at 08.08. When the nest was deserted the nine cells were almost
covered by a series of overlapping vaults. e4 was working on the already
continuous edge of the only open hole when the first two chrysid eggs
were laid. They were laid within this hole, i.e. into cells and not through
the vault roofs into the empty spaces in the crépissage. The overlapping
vaults of the crépissage were smooth on the outside and resembled closely
the overlapping cells whose contours they masked. Cell IX had not been
sealed and the false walls had been joined onto its lip. One vault cut

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158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

across the abandoned half-built cell LX, one of its brackets being enclosed
and one left outside.

Wasp e6 was painted at 14.38 while building her cell II. She stopped
the moulding she was doing, left, and brought no more mud until 09.03
next morning. Though at 10.16 the cell was found completed, she was
found ovipositing in it at 11.02. At 12.02 she was sealing this cell and
by 14.02 had completed her crépissage, which contained little vaulting.
This was extremely rapid work, and the wasp that emerged from cell I
was small.

Wasp el4 was exposed to both stimuli. At 12.58 she was painted on
the abdomen while making cell walls. She had finished that cell (VIII)
by 13.18 and was daubing. At 14.11 while she was still daubing a chrysid
was hovering over the nest, and by 14.41 the crépissage was in an
advanced stage with an elaborate series of vaults begun. Though these
vaults were closed the same evening, the wasp added to her crépissage
next morning but left without adding a cairn.

The nest of el5 was only discovered at its moment of desertion when
the presumed mother was watching a chrysid depositing her eggs. No
further additions were made to the nest.

Wasp e22 was captured while daubing at 13.29 on 14/6 and painted
under ether. On the morning of 15/6 she constructed some crépissage
including a vault before building her next cell (VII). This she did not
seal until 17/6, and when this was discovered, crépissage was already
begun and a chrysid was laying in the construct having made at least six
holes. On the morning of 18/6 the construct was dissected because the
wasp from cell I had emerged. The vaults were not yet closed and, as

e22 was working late the previous afternoon, it is probable that she —

would yet have completed them if she had not been interrupted.

Wasp e24 hovered while a sarcophagine fly landed and felt the
mouth of her cell II on 13/6. She provisioned this cell, built cell HI
(interrupted in order to etherise and paint), provisioned and closed it,
and deserted. When found, all three cells had the small pits left by
chrysid oviposition, mud had been dug out of the nest walls, and a mud
load was lying near, as though dropped by e24 while agitated.

From these anecdotes, we consider both that the wasp’s behaviour is
altered by stimuli provided by the parasite (or perhaps labour parasite),
and by her egg holes, and that one very important function of the crépis-
sage is protection from such parasites. The presence, or past presence,
of a parasite to which a wasp visibly reacted, stimulated her to cease work
on her cells, sometimes abruptly, sometimes after the next closure, and
to consolidate those she had already sealed. The overlapping walls of
the vaults in the crépissage completely obscure but mimic the overlapping
cell walls which they cover, and the spaces within them would trap and
starve harmlessly any parasitic egg that was laid into them. Wasp e4

{37]

ee

NESTING OF &. c..esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 159

did not crépissage cells which had been so parasitized and e5, e13, and e22
(and a conoideus) left uncovered their earlier cells in which perhaps pupae
were not vulnerable to this form of parasitism, as the full grown larva
is known to be. Finally, on those occasions when the observers believed
that all cells had been parasitized, the mother wasp showed initial
confusion from which she recovered by deserting the construct. The
chrysids themselves examined partly finished crépissage. They always
laid inside open vaults if possible, and also did not lay inside cells which
had already been parasitized, at least by members of their own group.
Two species of chrysid, Stilbium cyanurum splendidum F. and Chrysis
orientalis Guer., and the dipteran Pachyophthalmus auriceps Baronow
have emerged from cells made by esuriens.

We have no data which can be used to compute frequencies of parasi-
tization in these species in this locality. Not only have we frequently
driven away parasites from nests which we were watching, but the care
taken of the nests after they were built was not standardised. Some
were caged immediately, some were dissected after varying intervals, while
others were exposed until emergence of the oldest offspring had begun,
and consequently frequently parasitized long after desertion by the
mother.

We have described elsewhere the enigmatica] behaviour of ml the
morning before she deserted her nest. Wasp m3, m4, and m5 left
their constructs in a similar condition and we have no evidence as to
what stimulated this. Dutt (1913) states that madraspatanum wasps
build all their cells and then roughcast the whole group together, i.e.
that they make a crépissage. This has not been performed by any of the
wasps we have watched, nor have we found any nest presumably of this
species in which all the cells were roughcasted?, and it is rare to find one
without evidence of unfinished work i.e. an unfinished or open cell, or
one sealed with a concave lid indicating that provisioning was incomplete.
We have noticed that the behaviour patterns of these two groups of mason
wasps are often confused in the literature, a behaviour pattern peculiar
to one being stated to be performed by the other, e.g. by Frost (1959).

Finally, the desertion by m2 of a site on which she had not built
should be put on record. We have described how m2 selected this site.
Including her first visit with mud, she made 15 more visits on 27/9/62,
on nine of which she brought mud and smeared it on the place she had
selected. She disappeared for the day at 12-44. On 28/9 she made 3
inspection visits beginning at 07.59, being away for less than half an hour

* Note added November 1967: of the 13 individuals of madraspatanum in our
records, one at Bhubaneswar, m7, deserted her construct after covering it with a
layer of unusually rough daubing. She was painted, and therefore recognised
Subsequently. She therefore confirmed Dutt’s observation.

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160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

between them. She was then away for just over two hours and then
returned with a large untidy black load certainly not mud and plausibly
a spider. She landed for 3 seconds only, then hovered 3 times approach-
ing her mud, flew the whole length of the verandah and returned leaving
from the extreme west. No further visits were paid to the smeared mud.
Next day a S. madraspatanum was seen examining non-homologous
parts of the frame of (5), and an individual was seen again on 9/10.

This last visit of m2 (on 28/9) to the mud smeared by her was clearly a
mistake, and her uncertain movements confirm this. However, was it a
failure of memory or the miscarrying of an instinctive cycle? Did she
(as a human might) temporarily forget that he had deserted this site and
return to it instead of the later chosen site, where (we are suggesting)
she had a cell open to receive the prey ; or was she having difficulty finding
mud (she took longer to fetch this than m1), so her ‘ building drive’ had
been superseded by a ‘ provisioning-drive’ without the cell being built,
and did the traumatic experience resulting cause the site to be
abandoned? There is one piece of evidence suggesting the ‘failure of
memory’ explanation. Before this visit m2 was absent 7479 seconds.
The longest absence after which ml returned with a spider was 6106
seconds and this was exceptional ; ml, at least, behaved as though she
was likely to forget the condition of her construct if she was absent for
much more than half an hour, and had to make an inspection visit before
she could resume work. Therefore we think that m2 must have been
working at some unknown site during these 7479 seconds.

INSPECTIONS AND MEMORY

All the esuriens*watched in detail (except e8 on 1 occasion) made a
loadless inspection visit in the morning before bringing any load. On the
one occasion e8 did not do so, she had however hovered for 30 seconds
in the vicinity of the nest without landing. Chores that did not necessi-
tate a load could be done on these visits, e.g., e5 laid eggs on the first
visit of a morning and ml removed concave lids, in both cases after pro-
longed antennal feeling of the construct. Both wasps sometimes per-
formed these chores on a later visit, but in both cases always before any
load had been brought during that day.

Apart from these visits, all the wasps made several inspection visits,
mainly during provisioning, and el, e2, e5, and e8, between them made
only 10 that were during other activities. The times spent away from the
nest before such inspection visits and the times spent on the nest during
such visits are summarised in Tables 12 and 13. We suggested that these
visits made by ml were due to failures of her memory, so that she had to
check what her next activity was to be. There is much more overlap
in duration between the periods before a loadless visit and one with prey

[39]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 161

- in the esuriens wasps observed (compare Table 6) i.e. on this interpretation
they have more variable memories than m1, and, as is shown in the tables,

TABLE 12

TIMES SPENT AWAY FROM NEST JUST BEFORE AN INSPECTION VISIT

mi el e2 e5 e8
no. of timed absences .. oe 3 22 25 23
shortest period Se 40 1006 4 7 | 1896
longest period ae 7018 4661 6054 8027 6722
mean oe es 1878*5 2532°3 1403*2 3039°9 3681°2
median Ed at 1658 1930 169°5 2756 3324
Q- a Be 809 8 562 2743
Q+ ma sf 2127 2210 4134 4674

Visits after a night absence and visits after desertion of the nest are omitted.

TABLE 13

TIMES SPENT ON NEST INSPECTING

mi el e2 e5 e8

no. of timed visits she 90 3 26 25 22
shortest period aH 8 20 2 4 5
longest period ae 917 34 63 108 140
mean a oe 87.13 27 16.96 39.68 48.00
Se. mean .. ae 14.00 ee 2.95 4.97 9.08
median ne 42 27 10 35 38
IQR median % ee 156 bs 186 88 165
G.ONV.% a 152.6 vs 88.7 62.7 88.7

For e1—e8, oviposition visits and first visits of the day have been excluded, as
they were clearly longer.

longer ones for this activity. The longest absence before bringing mud
was by e2 and was of 2441 seconds compared with 1863 seconds by ml.
Some inspections were made by ml, el, e2, and e5 after the wasp had
been prevented from working bya spell of rain which interrupted building
and all other visits of both species, though m1 once arrived during a slight
drizzle and e5 once flew into heavy rain after waiting on the construct
for an unusually long period and hovering in the verandah before she left.
All mud users which we have observed avoid rain, unlike members of
the paper-making social species Polistes olivaceus, whom we have seen
flying into rain so heavy that they were repeatedly buffetted out of course
for the best part of a metre until they gave up and returned to the comb.
Because of the wasp’s avoidance of rain, it is possible that m4 made the
longest absence recorded even though her work was not continuously
11 [ 40]

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

observed. At 12.17 on 21/10/63, when cell VII was 2? complete, rain
began. She was not seen again until after 13.17 on 27/10 when cell VII
was found completed, the mud on the newly made third of the cell being
still wet. The morning of the 27/10 was the first time the sky had ceased
to be overcast, and rain had been almost continuous since midday on
21/10. Such weather conditions gave her very few opportunities to
make a visit and, as the cell was unfinished, these, if made, must have
been loadless. The continuously-watched e5 also ceased all building
activities for almost seven days during similar weather in the last week
of October the year before, but intermittently brought prey to cell XII
which was open. The 1963 rainy period also interrupted el1 in the
middle of provisioning cell V. No further prey were added, nor was there
any other indication that the wasp had returned to the construct. There-
fore, for the long periods when the absences are certainly due to external
causes, there is no indication that one species has a better memory than
the other.

There were some inspection visits at the end of the day in both species.
On some occasions when a parasite had been on the nest, the esuriens
seemed very agitated and made several long inspection visits, but in these
cases the time spent away from the nests were much shorter than for the
other kinds of inspections. Because the visits which wasps have made
after completing their crépissage have been always loadless, we think these
are true inspection visits and are nota result of the wasps forgetfully
taking their old path after starting work on a new site, in the way we
interpreted the desertion of m2.

FETCHING OF MuD

E. esuriens had four different activities for which she needed mud:
(1) building of the cell wall, (2) putting the lid on the cell, (3) daubing,
and (4) crépissage. The fact that el, e5, and e8 could use the same load
of mud for both building part of the wall and to daub indicates that any
differences in the composition of the mud used for the two activities are
not of any importance. e2 and e5 also sometimes used the same load
for making the lid and daubing. In one period of panic daubing, e2
- used much more water for her work.

Iwata (1953) and Olberg (1959) have described their observations on
species of Eumenes where the wasps drank water on some journeys, took
it to their mud patch, and regurgitated it there. Our observations
support theirs. For el, we knew the location of the spot where she col-
lected her mud. She certainly did not always get it from exactly the
same spot but roughly from within a rectangle about 1 metre by 50 cm.
She preferred to get it from the bed of a herbaceous border. We could
not trace where she got water from, but we know that on some journeys

[41]

NESTING OF F¥. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S: madraspatanum 163

she did not go to her mud patch which was about 5 m. from her nest
but went away to the west, probably to the leaking tap of a neighbour’s
garden which was about 50 m. away.

The other wasp for whom we have information is e5. This wasp got
her mud from dry caked soil in exposed rough ground about 27 m. south
of the nest and her water from a leaking tap about 50 m. to the east of her
nest. By the time eS had built 4 cells (i.e. 13/10) her mud patch had
narrowed down to a very small area, and after that she always collected
from a roughly circular patch about 30x30 mm. and at that
time about 4 mm. deep. She collected all further mud from here and,
half way through her crépissage on 2/11, her quarry had narrowed to a
pit 10 mm. deep but only 20 and 15 mm. in diameter. It had by then
been exposed to heavy rain and hence standing water.

The wasps did not, however, need to fetch water on every journey.
They could bring water in their crops sufficient usually for two loads but
on occasions even for 3 loads. However we do not know where the wasps
went on each of their absences. Fig. 9 shows the distributions of times
spent by the wasps in bringing mud for different activities. As one would
expect, it takes a wasp a longer time on the average to fetch water and
mud than it takes her to fetch mud alone. This is reflected in the bimo-
dalities in several graphs e.g. those for crépissage by e5 and cell building
for e8. The time spent away should therefore indicate whether a wasp
went on a ‘ water+mud’ journey or a ‘mud’ journey. But, unfortu-
nately, the ‘ noise ’ is so much that there is considerable overlap and these
two types of journeys cannot be sorted out by the time spent on them.
The unexpectedly long intervals, some of which have been excluded from
the graphs, are probably journeys on which she was either disturbed or on
which she fed. Table 14, however, gives the distributions of times spent

TABLE 14

COMPARISON OF TIMES SPENT ON FETCHING MUD ONLY WITH THOSE SPENT
ON FETCHING WATER AND MUD

Object of journey | No. of journeys Range mean variance
timed (in secs.)
|
Fetching mud only 30 50-121 73°20 + 3°37 6342
Fetching water-+-mud 6 100—168 144°17 +10°28 340°9

for those journeys throughout her construction when we actually saw e5
going straight to mud or straight to water. (On some occasions when
there had been rain e5 did not go to her usual supply of water at all but
flew around a herbaceous border. We never actually saw her collecting
water accumulated on the leaves of the plants, but suspect that she did).
. [42]

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Concerning S. madraspatanum, m2 only brought 9 loads and she took
considerably longer to fetch them (mean time away, 225-++91 seconds ;
range, 116-402 seconds) than either m1 or the various esuriens. When ml
fetched mud, she not only made a choice of several directions when she
departed, as did the esuriens wasps, but unlike them, she could also
return from one of several directions. Nevertheless her times away were
remarkably constant. When these were classified into the use made of
the mud some small but significant differences were found between the
times taken to bring mud for different functions. About 10 seconds
longer (or 25-30% of the time away) was taken to fetch mud used for the
finer work. We previously interpreted these figures as revealing that ml
may either have worked the mud for some purposes longer while collect-
ing it or may have chosen some mud more carefully i.e. have had different
collecting sites for different purposes. We watched m4 collecting her
mud to build cell walls. It was scraped with the mandibles, rolled with
the front tarsi, and carried in the mandibles. The wasp buzzed during
this work as she did while building. Her source was about 38 m. from
her nest in a small hollow eroded by the drain from an outdoor bath tap.
The soil was slightly soapy but not smelly. She had a stereotyped route
of about 40 m. going round the house, and we never saw her either collect
water or make any detour suggesting that she did so. Her collecting
spots were all within 1 cm. of one another and, for example, during the
building of one cell, her left hind tarsus was on one particular stone during
all collecting we watched. During another period she was delayed by a
column of ants crossing her minute quarry. She collected from an
adjacent place which she took time to select, but after carrying away
several loads she started dropping them without leaving and, after —
attempting to collect as near as possible to her own site, she
finally returned to it when the ants left. She had a stereotyped landing ©
and walked 2 cm. to her quarry. We could see no difference in location
or texture between the mud she used for walls and the mud she used for
daubs, and thus consider our second hypothesis about m1 inapplicable
at least to m4, who resembled e5 in having one quarry for all purposes.

We have thus failed to confirm Iwata (1942) that madraspatanum
carries water to its mud patch to damp the mud!. On the contrary, we
have seen m4 collected mud_at a permanently damp place, and, as we
suspected for ml, any damping would have been redundant. The col-
lecting site chosen by m4 confirms Iwata (1964) that thisspecies choose
relatively dirty mud. The frequent observation of cells filled with mouldy
spiders in which no wasp offspring can be found is explained by Iwata

1 Note added November 1967: We have repeatedly seen the squatter Chalybion
bengalense Dalb. collect water, This species was included in an extended genus
Sceliphron by Bingham (1897) and Kohl (1918).

[43 ]

FREQUENCY

. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

ll ee me
A a

IS
: e2
‘o> crepissage
Bs
ane : rhe Bs e wh gf Fl 8 a
Oil's a oy a Bs a panic daubing
a ao ; daubing
io 2 ee = sa os Py
ec walls
0 - i doe sf Le oa a ae sa
10 « E
crepissage
i e5
B =S ese
a panic daubing
0 hs a
ee a daubing
0 i Sed (SS eal ofl Bell ua oO 5 8 —
ae walls
> eta a
A a fe oles m G8 «2 cee
5 a a d e8
panic daubing
oe le. es G@ saa a a B
5» : daubing
Gs micu se af Pi e se 2 om
I5 «
10 e
: walls
o 6 Ls dal cs om om ne 8 8 a ®
a a 8 t ® e 8
9 50 100 200 300 400

TIME SPENT FETCHING MUD— IN SECONDS
Fig. 9

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

PREIMAGINAL LIFE

LENGM) OF

MEAN TEMPERATURE

Fig. 10

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 165

(1964) as due to the organisms present in the mud infecting the spiders
so that these become inedible to the wasp larva, who therefore perishes
soon after hatching. While confirming the facts, we are nevertheless
sceptical of this explanation, perhaps because of our experience as
Drosophila workers. Mould does not render a Drosophila culture
sterile, it only begins to grow in a culture after this has become sterile
for other reasons. Similarly we think that mould would not attack
paralyzed but still living spiders ; it would attack only after these had died

because a wasp larva had delayed or failed to eat them for some other
reason.

LENGTH OF PREIMAGINAL LIFE, EMERGENCE AND COCOONS

The length of the period between oviposition and emergence for
esuriens is very variable. Assuming that the first egg is the functional
one, the length of preimaginal life varies, in our sample of 17 males and
17 females, from 17 to 25 days-for males and from 19 to 30 days for
females. This variation is largely dueto variation in temperature during
preimaginal life. Fig. 10 shows the relation between length of
preimaginal life and the mean temperature during it. (This is the mean of
all daily maximum and minimum temperatures during the relevant
period). The solid 3 and @ signs represent individual wasps, while the
larger open signs represent mean periods for a giventemperature range
(Table 15). Even such small samples show that development is speeded

.

TABLE 15

RELATIONSHIP OF LENGTH OF PRE-IMAGINAL LIFE TO TEMPERATURE

Males Females
Mean Temperature

°
(CC) Mean length Mean length
Number | of pre-imaginal Number | of pre-imaginal
life life
23- 1 21:0 2 28°5
24- 4 26:0
25- 5 23°0 3. 237)
26- 2 19°5 2 PN)
27- 4 19°5 1 20:0
28- a 1 19:0
29- af 3 19:7
30- 5 17°8 1 19:0
17 17

up with increase in temperature. (The exceptional 3 on the extreme left
of the graph is the small e6 II who emerged from a cell sealed only 1

[44]

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

hour after oviposition). It is also clear that females take a longer time
than males to develop, and that this difference, where data are available,
varies from 0°5 to 1'2 days (excluding the exceptional male e6II). The
only comparable data we have on the length of preimaginal life for
madraspatanum are those for ml, for all the imagines produced by m4
and m5, except perhaps one, had entered diapause in the larval stage.
The variation between individuals was much less, the period being 20
days for males and 20-21 days for female (mean 20°35 days). More
data must be awaited before a comparison can be made between the two
species.

Wasps that have emerged from their pupae in glass tubes are fully
coloured but lie passively in a curled up position for well over 36 hours.
The bellies of madraspatanum are distended with the white pellets of
excreta which can be seen through the intersegmental membranes. This
confirms Roubaud (1916) that wasps remain as imagines inside their
cells for several days. Certainly they do not emerge until they can walk
and fly normally. The typical folding of the vespoid wing takes place
within two minutes after emergence from the cell.

The imagines of esuriens emerged from a hole gnawed in the side of the
pot usually facing the source of maximum light. The lids fell off com-
pletely and were unexpectedly thin. The lids of madraspatanum were
_ even thinner, which was surprising as these were chewed through the
convex lid and lid daubing with which the mother had originally sealed
the cell. The hole opened had a smaller diameter than the original
mouth of the cell, and often the lid was not pushed off by the emerging
wasp, but fell back into position lying parallel to the surface of the block
and again occluding the hole.

The internal debris in the cells reveals very different larval and pupal
Organisations. Both species are typical of their taxonomic groups. The
inner walls of esuriens cells were very faintly silvered as though by snail
tracks. This was the only vestige of a cocoon. The larval faeces were
deposited as a large yellow or red clayey patch which was adsorbed
by the mud of the cell wall. The colour almost certainly depended upon
the food. When animals were reared in glass tubes the extrusion of this
coincided with the larvae ceasing to be green or yellowish brown, trans-
parent and glassy, and becoming butter-coloured and opaque. Several
larvae seemed to drown themselves in their excreta unless some fragment
of cell wall or other absorbent substance were present to soak up
the liquid. Like other members of their genus (Kohl 1918, Shafer 1949),
madraspatanum wasps made cylindrical cocoons which, though of silk,
had the russet colour and lac-like consistency of a cuticular pupariumg
The larval excreta formed dense black masses in the proctodeal ends
of the cocoons which were sculptured to receive it and thus formed what
has previously been called faecal baskets. There is also a butter-coloured

[45.]

wiles ee,

NESTING OF F. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 167

opaque stage after the cessation of feeding and this excretion in madras-
patanum, and it is in this stage that diapause occurs.

We saw no meconium produced after pupal life in a nest of esuriens.
It is probable that they void this after flying from the nest as do the social
Polistes. Shafer (1949) has discussed the development and composition
of the little spindle-shaped white pellets of excreta with which Sceliphron
wasps are full when they emerge from their pupal skin and which they
slowly void, both before and after leaving the cell.

SEX RATIO AND BIRTH ORDER

Table 16 summarises the emergences we have observed. As would
be expected from our descriptions of the wasps’ behaviour, a large
number of cells were parasitized but, as previously explained, the data
given in Table 16 were not collected to give any estimate of the frequency
of this in this region. There were other causes of death in undisturbed
cells which are not easy to explain, and some larval and pupal deaths
were certainly due to the abnormal conditions provided by a glass
tube. ;

The individuals of S. madraspatanum were sexed by examining their
genitalia and/or their antennae. The individuals of E. esuriens were
sexed by the presence of a hook-like thirteenth segment on each of
antenna of the males. Bingham (1897) listed several pigment differences
between males and females in this species. We agree with him that the
mid and hind tarsi of males are black, and of females russet. We also
note, which he does not, that the antennae of males have a dark band at
their most swollen point. The male 5 II whom we only saw for 13
minutes on the nest was sexed on these pigmentary characters only.
Bingham also stated that females do not possess two black spots present
on the ventral surface of the second abdominal segment of males. About
half of our females scored are noted as having these spots, which are
however fainter, smaller, and more diffuse than any seen on males.

The sex ratios observed in these samples are exactly 1 in each species.
This is surprising, as the order in which eggs are laid is far from random.
Jayakar (1963) reported a condition which he called ‘ protarrhenotoky ’,
namely that during the life of a single female, she lays a// her male eggs
before a// her female eggs. The data which were available at the time of
that publication were those from el to e6 and ml. Ascan be seen from
the data now available, at least in esuriens, this rule is not invariably
followed. In nests e8 and e23, there were exceptions to this rule ; in
the former, 1 male egg having been laid after 4 male and 1 female eggs,
and in the latter, 2 male eggs having been laid after 3 female eggs. In
mddr aspatanum so far, we do not have any exception to the rule.

[46 ]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1).

168

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[47]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 169

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[48]

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170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Arguing from all the madraspatanum data where offspring could be
sexed, as Jayakar (1963) did for the esuriens data, we now compute the
probability that if 10 male eggs and 10 female eggs are laid at random
in nests of 9, 3 and 8 cells, the rule of all male before all female will not
be broken. This probability B 18475¢ mee é or 1 in 5434.

For esuriens, such a test becomes impracticable. The tendency to
‘protarrhenotoky’ however, is still clearly evident. The data show several
peculiarities which are due to this tendency. One is the large number of
unisexual broods. Classifying the nests by the number of sexed off-
spring we have :

No. of sexed offspring No. of nests Sexes of sexed offspring
1 5 all go
2 3 all go
3 1 32¢
4 2 $333; LYE
5 2 all 99°
6 2 SdddLS 5 LLESSE
12 1 SSSSSPLLPPLP

All three nests with 2 sexed individuals, both those with 4 individuals,
and both with 5 individuals are unisexual. The probabilities of these
results are +, 4, and =4, respectively.

As the hymenopteran sex determining mechanism does not auto-
matically produce a primary sex ratio of 1 at conception, the observa-

tion of such a sex ratio at emergence is surprising for at least two reasons. -

Firstly, all recessive lethal allels, immediately they arise by mutation,
must kill all haploid (i.e. male) embryos into which they segregate.
Secondly, one would expect the females to be more exposed to predation
than males during both their frequent loaded flights over standardised

paths, and their preoccupied pauses working on the two small areas of ©

the quarry and the nest. This would be expected to have produced a
selection pressure in solitary wasps with highly evolved maternal be-
haviour patterns which would have resulted in an excess of females in
fertilized eggs such as is observed in even the most primitive social species
in which the worker caste is not discretely specialized. That such an
excess is not observed or, more correctly, that equality itself has been
evolved, suggests that some premises should be re-examined (See
Jayakar & Spurway 1966a & b). Dutt (1913) reported that madras-
patanum has not been discovered in the gut contents of any predator.
Both species would be considered aposematic, but no more so than

many social species which are known to be predated. Is there a com- —

[49]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 171

pensatory selection on males? The evolutionary consequences of
‘ protarrhenotoky ’ have been briefly discussed by Jayakar (1963).

SEASON AND DIAPAUSE

Table 1 and its footnote list all animals seen associated with a con-
struct in our locality. The few isolated individuals we have seen do not
extend the seasons of these species, determined either by when they were
seen working or when they emerged in our collection.

There are unaccountable disappearances of both species e.g.
the absence in 1964 of madraspatanum which was seen that year in both
the more urban Calcutta locality, and on the as yet completely
undeveloped river bank at Tikerpara, Dhenkanal. However, it seems
that esuriens is not active during December and January and madras-
patanum for a shorter period i.e. these species disappear for a ‘ winter’
like their relatives in temperate climates. However we have only dis-
covered diapausing individuals in the latter species.

Table 17 gives the dates of pupation and emergence (from pupae,
not cells) of the offspring of m4and m5. The nests were dissected on 4/11
and 3/1 respectively when it was thought that all the inmates would

TABLE 17

PARTICULARS RE. OFFSPRING OF 5S. madraspatanam Wasps, m4 AND m5

laid Pere died pupated died emerged _ sex
te
m4 | onor 18/10 a 26/2 6/3 o
before

I 18/10 5/3
III 18/10 25/2 6/3 Jo
IV 19/10 5/3
Vv 19/10 17/12
VI 20/10 25/25 6/3 Jo
Vil 27/10 5/11 28/2 5/3
VI 28/10 6/11 12/11
IX 30/10 TAL 21/12

mS | 10/12 10/3 19/3 3
I 11/12 2/3 12/3 3a
g8t 11/12 <3/1 16/1 a
IV 12/12 28/2 11/3 e
Vv 14/12 4/3 12/3 Q
Vie on-or + 15/12 28/1 10/2 2

before ;

VII before 17/12 . 2/3 11/3 Q
VOI 33 28/2 10/3 Q

The date of death is given in the space between the two relevant stages.

[50]

172. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

have at least ceased feeding and perhaps pupated. Only one, m5 II had
pupated by 3/1 and this was not the earliest laid. He emerged on 16/1
after a preimaginal life of 36 days, compared with the 20 days recorded
for the offspring of ml in July. Therefore it is likely that this individual
is to be classified with his sibs as undergoing diapause.

There seems little doubt that all survivors of these two families laid
late in the year underwent a diapause. This, as is usual in the group,
was undergoing at the end of the last larval instar after feeding had
ceased and defaecation had been performed.

It is curious that diapausing larvae should have started pupating before
January 3. The range is over 67 days (<3/1-10/3) with a peak involving
both families between 25/2 and 4/3. Jayakar & Spurway (1965a)
have recorded similar data for Chalybion bengalense (Sphecoidea) and
Antodynerus flavescens var. (Vespoidea) which show that both these
species pupate after a diapause which extends well into the summer
(May to July). Further observations show that Chalybion bengalense
comes out of diapause in two bursts, a small one in January and a larger
in May to July. There may, of course, be a corresponding second burst
in the summer for madraspatanum, which we have not yet observed.

Despite the larger samples, we have no evidence for diapause in
esuriens. Rouband (1916) takes for granted that some Eumenes species
migrate during a dry season to regions with constant water. We may be
accumulating evidence that esuriens migrates, perhaps southwards, during
the coldest months of the year. An alternative suggestion is that the
population becomes so much smaller that we have not yet recorded a
specimen during this period, perhaps simply because the animals work
less rapidly at the lower temperatures. Finally, fertilized females may
hibernate as do females of the social Waspsin temperate climates, and as
Polistes olivaceus does even as far south as Calcutta.

COMPARISON BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND SPECIES

Table 18 ranks the various working speeds of the four esuriens
watched in detail using the data presented in previous tables. From
this table, e2 appeared to perform most jobs more rapidly than the others
and e5 more slowly. This is confirmed by their mud fetching times
graphed in Fig. 9. e5 worked at the coolest period of the year but the
temperatures for e2 were only slightly higher, and lower than those for
el ande8. Therefore e2 seemed more energetic than e5. She also used
more loads during both her periods of inphase daubing and during
her crépissage (Table 11), though this covered a surface of comparable
area in both constructs. She perhaps also used more loads in cell
construction (Table 2).

[51]

NESTING OF E. ¢. esuriets COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum

173

From the dates and location of the nests it is possible that e2 and e5
were the same wasp. The differences in their speed of work do not con-

TABLE 18

COMPARISON OF WORK SPEED IN esuriens INDIVIDUALS

On walls

On lid

On daub

On panic daub

aA

On crépissage

Away prey

On prey

Away inspection

On inspection

1 the quickest work on the evidence provided by means.

data
from
table

12

13

el e2 e5
|
Pets 4
Seer
hae eee 4
<a ee
Piagetian ee ae
3 I 2
hee alae Din sen
is 1 2
Af Si cei a eee
4 1 2
Sa ska 4
3 a 4
2 ian eee
2 7a 3
ee al tele 3
2 i 3
ED 1 3
1 2

ht

Z on the evidence provided by medians.

e8
3
3S
aes
2
erie
4
oaeae
5)
ee eR a
a3
ney
Zi
er ame
Ll
4
4
4
3

tradict this possibility, as we have seen different work tempos in the same
individual of E. e. conoideus when working on different constructs.
Also, the observation that e2 and e5 seemed to have different water and
mud sources is again not evidence for their separate identity as we have
seen an E. p. pyriformis change her water source when beginning a second
group of cells in a new place.

The daubing of the previous construct by el tore provisioning the
naked open cell has not yet been noticed in any other Eumenes wasp.

[52]

174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

As it was only observed twice, it may not reveal a consistent idiosyncrasy
of behaviour.

If these four wasps and ml are typical of their species, the vespoid
seems more efficient than the sphecoid. For the analogous chores, pot
building, provisioning, and sealing, esuriens wasps achieve a comparable
result with fewer loads than a madraspatanum. This economy, like their
capacity to return with the appropriate loads after longer absences, is
harmonious with the morphological conclusion that the vespoids are a
more advanced group than the sphecoids.

DISCUSSION

For two centuries the behaviour of the Hymenoptera has been
studied—and studied by some of the greatest biologists of whom we have
historical record. These insects were often discussed as providing the
most typical examples of instinctive behaviour. And by the criteria of
Species specificity and of performance without any previous apprentice-
ship (which are not two criteria but one), construction, predation, and
other rearing activities of our wasps can be judged to be instinctive. We
know of three systematic attempts to analyse the behaviour of members
of the Aculeata influenced by the concepts of instinct due to Lorenz
and Tinbergen (L-T), those of Deleurance (e.g. 1957), Tsuneki (e.g. 1958),
and Evans (e.g. 1966). —

These studies, and our own observations, completely vindicate
Lorenz’s emphasis that an instinct is best defined by motor patterns.
They also vindicate his division of these motor patterns into Erbkoor-
dinationen (or fixed action patterns) and taxis components. Because
wasps make material artifacts, we are able to see that taxis components
are typical of the homeostatic capacities that are characteristic of
living creatures. The taxis components are necessary for a wasp to
be able to build a species-specific nest on an individual location with
special, theoretically unique, features by means of movements which
are at least species-specific and often characteristic of much larger taxa.

We have described elsewhere (Jayakar & Spurway 1965b) the failure
of two individuals of E. emarginatus conoideus to oviposit on finishing
their cells and their different subsequent behaviour. One-(c3) continued
normally. The other (c12) seemed unable to stop building and so con-
structed a pathological nest. Wasp cl2 thus behaved as did Tsuneki’s
Bembix niponica and showed that the reproductive sequence is divided
into sub-sequences of activities each of which is ended by a consummatory
activity without which the next sub-sequence cannot be initiated, and
after which, Tsuneki showed experimentally in his sphecoids, they cannot
return to an earlier sub-sequence. This pattern of nervous organisation
is characteristic of vertebrate instincts as L-T describe them. However

[53]

NESTING OF Ff. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 175

the behaviour of c3 reveals that in wasps there is some variation in this
organisation which may make possible an escape from its rigour.

If the motor pattern of the wasps’ behaviour is harmonious with the
L-T analysis, and the neural organisation sometimes so, the sensory
aspects seem to be much less so. The fact that we have not performed
experiments on our wasps would not have prevented us from gathering
information on these matters if the information had been in the form in
which it is revealed in vertebrate behaviour. We have been using a
technique which L and T have themselves emphasised as being very
fertile—observing the behaviour of animals surrounded by, and utilizing
human artifacts. We have observed, as do all observers, the inevitable
mistakes and miscarriages that such animals make, and we have observed
their reaction to the inevitable interferences or frustrations which such
animals invariably encounter. The technical vocabulary of L-T does
immediately leap to the mind while watching mistakes being made, and
frustrations being reacted to, by vertebrates. But this vocabulary does
not leap to the mind while watching wasps which, as previous observers
have noted, are much more succinctly described in human terms. A
wasp making a mistake resembles much more a man entering the wrong
house or, having forgotten where he put down his book, than a fledgling
sparrow trying to perch on a horizontal high-light on a motor car or,
among insects, a butterfly alighting on a coloured fabric while flying bet-
ween flowers. ;

No reaction, usual or unusual, has suggested to us any hypothesis
about the sign stimuli relevant to these wasps. Judging from the animals’
movements, among the most important of these for building are those
perceived tactilely by the antennae. The scanning movements differ
in the two species. It is always difficult to recognise stimuli to senses
which the observer does not share but, for example in work on the court-
ship of many insects, sign stimuli have been recognised, or at least models
have been presented that provided sign stimuli. We, onthe other hand,
have seen neither a mistake in the putting down of a load, nor a pause
that suggested that a sign stimulus was attended, but had not yet arrived.
The ceaseless antennal probing can be described as appetitive behaviour,
but the form of this seeking gives us no reason to classify the stimuli
which it collects into two classes, of which one precipitates an instinc-
tive action, and another which gives immediate information about the
present state of the construct, and is relevant to the special features of
the work. A wasp may put down a load on an obvious imperfection, or
she may put it down completely isolated only to be joined up many
loads later. We have not been able to recognise any evidence of an
innate releasing mechanism common to these acts.

The much more thorough experimental analyses of Tsuneki confirm
us in this matter. In his work on Bembix niponica, he is able to describe

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i176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

the context which, on L-T instinct theory, must present the sign stimuli
(or releasing factors) evoking the next sequence of movements. However,
these contexts are only described in terms of their biological function e.g,
‘ burrowing ground’, ‘ paralysed prey’, ‘ operated prey’, ‘ stored prey.’
This is unsatisfactory. A sign stimulus can be presented and be effective
quite independently of its normal context, and it is identified by this experi-
mental technique. In William James’s metaphor, we have never seen
a wasp reacting to a label independent of its usual parcel. i
However, cl2 also showed a classic characteristic of instinctive reac-
tions to sensory stimuli. As her nest became deformed she made a bad
job worse because she reacted to certain features only when the stimuli
these produced were relevant in the normal sequence. In an unusual
context, objects, though undoubtedly perceived, were unable to sti-
mulate a modification of behaviour, i.e., they presented no sign stimuli,
as the wasp possessed no appropriate innate releasing mechanism to be
stimulated. There is every reason to believe that esuriens and madras-
patanum would show similar nervous organisation.
We have seen two members of E. emarginatus conoideus (Jayakar &
Spurway, 1965b) and an individual of Polistes olivaceus put down
preliminary loads before constructing their first cells as has been des-
cribed for ell and e22. Therefore abortive building is a typical activity
of vespoids at least. Can it be regarded as parallel to the intention
movements with which, for example, birds make abortive nest building
attempts? This identification is fertile, but cannot, we think, be made
without qualification. Does it justify the induction that nesting is con-
trolled by a ‘reproductive drive’ (potentially describable in chemico-
physiological terms) which gradually develops and/or accumulates in the
individual animal as any other physical product may gradually increase ;
and when present in quantities inadequate to produce functionally efficient
activities, produces small dissociated scraps of activity? The actual
physical movements with which wasps make the abortive brackets and
pedicels are in every way normal in form, intensity, and therefore, (at
least temporarily) efficiency. They are associated with long periods of
feeling which we have recognised as appetitive behaviour. They are not
therefore like the intention movements of vertebrates, which are slight,
languid, short, and have only traces of their typical form. The abortive
behaviour of wasps resembles much more the early sketches of books or
pictures on which some artists spend much thought, excitement, and
effort before they determine on the finalform. The tendency to make
false starts may be as much a common idiosyncracy among wasps as it is
among men. If the two kinds of behaviour, i.e. the vertebrate languor
and half-heartedness in performance and the wasp’s lack of persistence
with a particular construct (not lack of persistence with the performance
of the activity) are interpreted as evidence for a physiological state in the
[55]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum i77

creatures concerned sufficiently alike for the same technical term (e.g.
‘low motivation’ or ‘ weak drive’) to be applied, the differences between
the two kinds of activity equally reveal that there are considerable
differences between the nervous organisations of mechanical work which
the drives activate.

The only obviously bad workmanship we have seen in these two
species was the desertion of a partially built cell by e4 and m3. e21 had
presumably put down the two orientated brackets 7 cm. from her first
definitive cell. This may be a third example or may be more comparable
to the abortive brackets just discussed. Roubaud (1916) discussed in
detail many inefficient practices which he has observed in the African
Eumenes tinctor. In discussing these, he approaches very closely a
Tinbergian point of view, attributing them to various responses to the
difficulty in finding provisions during the season in which they occur.
Roubaud’s wasps, in addition to laying extra eggs which we have pre-
viously discussed, sealed these extra eggs in cells without provisions.
This he interprets as due to their inability to delay too long the
performance of one part of the normal sequence because environmental
conditions have prevented a previous phase from being completed or
consummated. Roubaud has also seen wasps who went into periods of
‘continuous cell building and plastering which he interprets as neurotic
behaviours consequent on the frustrations of failing to find prey for pro-
Visions. In this he approaches very closely the Tinbergian idea of
displacement activity.

The delays which we observed in our animals were caused by rain.
As we have emphasised, these produced no sign of disturbance in the
normal and functionally efficient sequence of activities. The wasps, on
return, examined their construct and continued with the efficient task.
Some delay in beginning again, and consequent repeated inspections, was
sometimes observed, and may be attributed to waiting for the relevant
drive to develop. If we accept this hypothesis, we are again saying that
‘drives’ in wasps are integrated with the other nervous functions in a
different way from that in which they are hypothesised to be integrated
in non-human vertebrates. On any hypothesis, wasps seem much less
slaves of their drives—they almost invariably do what the external occa-
sion demands, not what their internal physiological condition
demands. .

Both e2 and e8 did some daubing out of their usual sequence of
activities. On one occasion e8 carried out this daubing in the middle of
building a cell. On all other occasions, it was hunting that was
interrupted ; el did daub after building a cell but she did this for both
cells that she was observed building. Although this ‘ out-of-sequence ’
daubing did not have any function obvious to us, it cannot be labelled
as an inefficient activity.

12 [ 56 ]

178 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1).

We have seen no behaviour which we would describe as displacement
activities, though we watched wasps repeatedly in situations of frus-
tration and conflict where these are very common in vertebrates. We
have seen on several occasions a wasp showing clearly that she was under
a conflict to attack or flee when finding a parasite on her nest ; we have
seen the perturbation followed by repeated agitated checking of land-
marks when a nest site is moved or a landmark altered; we have seen
animals struggle for long periods to insert reasonably active prey, and,
in the case of ml, both fail to do so, and also remove their own prey
accidently ; we have seen animals drop their loads or leave them half-
worked when disturbed ; but in all these contexts we have not seen any
movement which we could recognise as being characteristic of another
activity. We have never seen a wasp mdke movements characteristic
of an activity when any recognisable part of the consummatory situation
was absent. There is every evidence that a wasp, as a rule, ceases work-
ing when she has achieved a consummatory situation, not when she has
performed a consummatory act. The only possible exception was c12
whose behaviour was not duplicated by c3.

In the context in which we were observing, it is not critical that we
observed no vacuum activities, which are probably most common in
captive animals deprived of much of the environment to which they have
evolved adaptations.

We then suggest that the anthropomorphic language which entomo-
logists working with the higher hymenoptera use, and: defend, reveals
that these animals must in their behaviour be seriously compared with
Homo sapiens and perhaps other mammals, and not with the lower verte-
brates and the other insects whose behaviour has contributed so much to
instinct theory.

There is no doubt that men are descended from ancestors who were

more instinctive than themselves, and traces of human instincts are easy |

to find. Freud was admittedly influenced by the workers whom the
ethological school regard as their precursors. However it is inefficient
to describe human behaviour in a vocabulary coined to describe instinc-
tive behaviour—too much both in quantity, and in complexity, is omitted.
We suggest that our Hymenoptera show an analogous complication of
behaviour, in which the complication has similarly become so great as to
form a superstructure not only more conspicuous to the observer, but
more important to the performer. Haldane & Spurway (1954)
approached this conclusion by stating that in the Hymenoptera there
had been an increase in the importance of taxis components relative to
Erbkoordinationen, comparable to that which McDougal had previously
pointed out occurred in the mammals. For example, they suggested
that the bees’ communicatory dances had evolved from intention move-
ments assuming these to have the form observed in vertebrates, and this
[57]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 179

hypothesis has been accepted by Thorpe (1956). Our observation, that
the only analogues to intention movements which we have seen per-
formed by our wasps were of an intensity high enough to be functionally
efficient, is not incompatible with this hypothesis. Tsuneki (1958) made
another approach to our present conclusion: ‘ Behaviour of Bembix
exhibited during her brood-rearing activities can all be attributed to the
so-called appetitive behaviour in its broadest sense’.

From its systematic context, this evolutionary trend in the Hymeno-
ptera must be entirely independent of that in the primates, (or the
mammals). Therefore there is a strong case for attempting to avoid an
anthropomorphic vocabulary however much this may be succinct, ele-
gant, and express the tenderness observers feel for members of this
group. Since evolution has been accepted as a fact, there has been a
tendency to redefine homology in terms of hypothesised common
ancestry and to avoid using the same word for phenomena where this
cannot be presumed, however similar these phenomena may be. This
rule is frequently ignored. Nevertheless, though it would be foolish
pedantry to refuse to use the term ‘ head’ for a structure in both the
arthropods and vertebrates because their latest common ancestors were
acephalic, it may not be comparable pedantry to work out a vocabulary
that would not blur the differences expected between systems whose
rarity and independent evolution in the animal kingdom are perhaps
their most striking features.

It is important that this escape from instinctive behaviour had arisen
in both groups before the evolution of social species (in the narrow and
most useful sense). Can a comparable evolutionary trend be detected
in the Isoptera, or would it have been more conspicuous in their less
specialized ancestors ?

It must be emphasised that we have documented only a fraction of
the behaviour patterns, even of the imaginal stage of these insects. We
know nothing of their sexual, eating, hunting, or sleeping behaviours, or
their nesting behaviour independent of human artifacts, or the behaviour
of esuriens when it disappears from our biotype during the cold weather.
All these phases of behaviour are of more general occurrence in the
animal kingdom than building and provisioning, and it is probable that
the movements and reactions of wasps while performing them may, like
the behaviour of humans in the same contexts, be more comparable
with the instinctive behaviour of other animals.

SUMMARY

Twenty-five nests of the vespoid potter wasp Eumenes campaniformis
esuriens (Fabr.) are described. All were on or in contemporary con-
crete buildings in Bhubaneswar, Orissa. Twenty-two were found

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180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

associated with their builders, and an attempt was made to time, and
describe briefly, all visits to four of these nests from discovery to deser-
tion. These totalled 1459.

Site selection, pot building, oviposition, provisioning with insect
larvae, sealing, the various subsequent daubings, the stimuli which preci-
pitated desertion, loadless visits, and the fetching of building mud are
described. The number and durations of collecting periods, and work
periods on the nests are analysed.

The duration of pre-imaginal life, which is temperature sensitive,
is discussed as is the unexpected sex ratio of unity. Individual broods
were uniSexual or with one exception showed an approximation to
‘protoarrhenotoky’. No individual has been observed to enter diapause,
but the species, like other wasps in this locality, has not yet been observed
during December and January.

Five nests of the sphecoid potter Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.)

are also discussed, including one nest described in detail in an earlier
paper (Spurway et al. 1964). Throughout, a comparison is made between
the two species which ecologically overlap in site selection.

No sign stimulus (or releaser) has yet been recognised for either
species, neither have they been observed to perform a displacement
activity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. R. W. Crosskey of Leiden, Dr. H. E. Evans
of Harvard, Dr. J. B. S. Haldane of Bhubaneswar, Dr. W. D. Hamilton
of London, Dr. K. Iwata of Sasayama, Dr. N. E. Marston of Wyoming
University, Dr. E. Mayr of Harvard, Dr. K. Tsuneki of Fukui, Dr. J.
‘Van der Vecht of Leiden, and Dr. S. Zimmerman of Vienna, who have
identified animals, given introductions, reprints and the advice and other
help without which scientific work is impossible.

REFERENCES

BincHAM, C. T. (1897): Fauna of
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Dutt, G. R. (1913): Life Histories of
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DELEURANCE, E. P. (1957) : Contribu-
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Evans, H. E. (1963): Wasp Farm.
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Evans, Howarp E. (1966): The com-
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Fasre, J. H. (1924) : Souvenirs. Ento-
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Frost, S. W. (1959): Insect life and
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HALDANE, J. B.S. & SpuRway, H.
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HamILTon, W. D. (1964) : The Gene-
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Horne, C. (1872): Notes on_ the
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IwaTA, K. (1942); Comparative
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———— (1953): Biology of Eumenes
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JAYAKAR, S. D. (1963) : ‘ Proterandry ’
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JAYAKAR, S.D., SPUR WAY, H., MEEKER,
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1 plate. ,

JAYAKAR, 8S. D. & Spurway, H
(1965a) : Winter diapause in the squatter
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and Chalybion bengalense (Dahlb.)
(Vespoidea and Sphecoidea). op. cit.
61 : 662-667.

——&— (1965b) : Normal and
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——& —— (1966a): Sex ratio of some
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——& —— (1966b): Re-use of Cells
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MEEUSEBECK, C. F. W., KROMBEIN,
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PeEcCKHAM, G. W. & PECKHAM, E.G.
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RousAuD, E. (1916): Recherches
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SPURWAY, H., DRONAMRAJU, K. R.
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TsuNEKI, K. (1958): Ethological
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ERRATA to part 1.

p. 312 3rd para line 12 for 11.20 read 11.30.
p. 313 2nd para line 16 for 140 read 100.
P. 326 Table 5 the sex of wasp 5 II was ¢.

A Catalogue of the Birds
in the Collection of the
Bombay Natural History Society—1

Gaviformes to Ciconiiformes
BY

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

INTRODUCTION

The first number of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society (1886) contained a list of birds of 144 species in the collection
of the Society, collected by a Mr. Anderson at Simla and Col.
W. B. Thompson in Cashmere. From time to time the Journal carried
lists and notes on the birds of the various districts and provinces, and
such contributions were almost invariably accompanied by specimens,
at least of the more interesting forms, to support the identification.
Sportsmen all over the country sent in specimens (or parts) of ducks,
geese, and swans which they could not identify, or in support of new
records from outside the known ranges. :

The publication of Stuart Baker’s FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA : BIRDS,
Vols. 1-8, 1922-1930, drew attention to the absence of an essential
requirement for the determination of subspecies, namely series of speci-
mens from different places of the form under examination. The first
attempt to fill in these gaps was the Scientific Survey, sponsored by
Mr. A. S. Vernay, of the Eastern Ghats, an area which had been omitted
from the Society’s extensive Mammal Survey commenced before the
First World War. The Ornithological Section of the Vernay Survey,
which commenced work in April 1929, obtained fair series of the com-
moner birds, and the collection was reported upon by Hugh Whistler &
N. B. Kinnear in the Society’s Journal. This report is still an indispen-
sable work of reference for any study of Indian birds, for the authors
had access not only to the earlier literature but also to the specimens
collected by giants like Jerdon and Hume and they not only published
their findings but also discussed the evidence examined by them.

Then followed the ornithological surveys of the various States,
namely Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore and Cochin, etc., most of them
by Dr. Salim Ali.

[1]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-—I1 _ 183

And, all this time, members throughout the country, many of them
officers of the Civil, the Forest, and the Police Services, continued to
send occasional specimens for their own information or in support of
notes and observations made by them.

The collections obtained by the Surveys were reported upon, mostly
by Hugh Whistler, N. B. Kinnear, and C. B. Ticehurst, who between
them described several new races and built upon the foundations laid
by Stuart Baker. I have no figures, but my association with the Society
and its collections, extending over three decades, had left me with the
impression that the key specimens were usually retained in England
though the numerical bulk was returned to the Society. As the several
collections were worked out separately at different times all the speci-
mens were never looked at together. In addition to this, the occasional
specimens added from time to time to the collections do not appear to
have been critically examined.

When working out my collection from the Andamans, I could not
help being struck by the fact that many specimens did not agree with
the accounts in current literature. The transfer to the Society’s new
premises has now made it possible, in spite of distressingly inadequate
furniture and equipment, to lay out series of specimens of more than one
species and to take a reasonable amount of time over their comparison
and study. This therefore is an attempt to list the 22,900 odd specimens
in the Bombay collection and to name as many as possible trinomially.
This will undoubtedly take a considerable time and, therefore, if any
specimen has indicated an extension of the known range of any species
or form or necessitated the correction of an earlier record, or where the
specimens available have permitted a taxonomic conclusion which
differs from that in the syNopsis, I have published my findings separately
from time to time.

This instalment of my Catalogue ends with the flamingoes (No. 74 in
the SYNopsis) and deals with about 435 specimens, up to Register
No. 22914 in the Society’s collection.

As the number of specimens is expected to increase from time to time
and efforts will be made to keep the catalogue up-to-date as far as
possible, the highest registered number covered by further instalments
will be mentioned in each case.

This work has been and continues to be interesting and many un-
expected discoveries have turned up. Twenty-four of the forms men-
tioned in this instalment are entirely missing from our collection. -The
paucity of specimens of several forms from many parts of India is
patent and I can only hope that these notes will prompt all those, who
have the opportunity, to help complete the Society’s collection. In
many instances we lack specimens of species common in other parts of
the world, and I am sure the Society would be glad to consider any ex-

[2]

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

change against species available in India. Our taxonomic studies are
far from complete ; the days of random collecting for most districts
have gone, but specimens of different species are needed from many
areas and the work can only be completed with the help of individuals
in different places. The Society’s collection with all its gaps is one of the
best in the country and is intended to form the base of many taxonomic
and other studies in India. In instances where migrant species from the
north are of two or more races, it is yet unknown to what extent they
occupy the same or different areas in India. Of resident species, it is
necessary to have series from different parts of the country and at
different seasons to determine if there are any consistent differences bet-
ween such populations. Where the type locality is also mentioned,

specimens from these areas (topotypes) are essential for further study. .—

I hope that members in India will help whenever they can. It may be
possible for the Society to give lessons in skinning to those who are
willing to help, and also to assist them to obtain such permits as are
necessary.

EXPLANATIONS

In this Catalogue, the sequence and terminology is generally that
used by Ripley in his SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN
(1961). Where this differs from subsequent (or even earlier) records
and where it is not possible for me to decide which is correct, I have
retained the name as in the SYNopsis and referred to the differences.
The name is preceded by the number in the syNopsis and followed by
the type locality in parenthesis, the English name, and the volume
number and page of Stuart Baker’s FAUNA. The absence of this
reference indicates that the species/race is not listed in the SYNOPSIS or
the FAUNA, as the case may be. The next line gives the number of
specimens, followed by figures showing the break-up by sex. Young
and juvenile plumages are difficult to designate exactly, particularly as
the correct sequence in many Indian birds is imperfectly known. I
have referred to young birds in non-flying plumage (e.g. down), both
nidifugous and nidicolous, as chicks (abbreviated: ch.), keeping the
term pulli (abbreviated: pull.) for young with feathers insufficiently
developed to permit flight. Young in their first flying plumage are

referred to as juv. (juvenile) or imm. (immature). Ifa plumage (in which ~

the bird may breed) intervenes between the first flying plumage and the
final dress, the bird in such plumage is referred to as sub-ad. (sub-adult),
Where sexual, seasonal, or other differences of plumage exist, an attempt
is made to indicate which forms are available, e.g. non-flying young or
pulli, juvenile, in nuptial plumage, etc. Heads and necks of geese and
swans, which form the basis of several records from India, were not

[3]

a

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—I 185

registered ; this has now been done. Entries relating to species which
do not occur in Indian limits, but of which specimens are available, are
preceded by the prefix EL (extra-limital). I should mention here that
by the term ‘ Indian limits.’ J understand the area covered by the SyNopsIs,
i.e. India and Pakistan, together with Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and
Ceylon, and also ‘the area known roughly as south-east Tibet, the
districts of Charme, Takpo, Kongbo, Pemaké and Pome especially,
lying as they do along the upper reaches of valleys and waterways of
Bhutan and the hills of northern Assam ’, and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.

Then follows a list of the localities from which the specimens have
been obtained ; this will serve to indicate at a glance the paucity of
material from large areas. Specimens of species and subspecies known
to occur in India, but which have been obtained outside our limits, are
included but italicised. Where the examination of the material avail-
able has raised any points of interest, these are mentioned. They may
serve to indicate lines of further work and clarification by those who
have the opportunity. Unless otherwise mentioned or appearing from
the context, the measurements are in millimetres, the bill is measured
from the feathers on the forehead, and the measurements in brackets are
from the FAUNA.

In the text, references to literature are made in the customary manner,
except :

JBNHS or Journal.. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society.

FAUNA... .. Stuart Baker’s FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Birds,
Vols. 1-8 (1922-1930).

OLD FAUNA .. The first edition of the FAUNA, Vols. 1-4 (1889-
1898), by Blanford & Oates.

BR. HANDBOOK ~~ .. HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS, Vols. 1-5 (1938-1941),

by Witherby, Jourdain, Ticehurst, and Tucker.

* IND. HANDBOOK .. HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,
by Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley.

Vaurie .. .. THE BIRDS OF THE PALEARCTIC FAUNA, Passerifor-
mes (1959) and Non-Passeriformes (1965).

Ripley or SYNOPSIS.. A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN
(1961).

Before I proceed with the formal list, I record my appreciation of the
help received from the assistants at the Society, particularly V. C.
Ambedkar, B. R. Grubh, D. N. Mathew, M. J. Pereira, and P. B.

* This is yet in the press but it is hoped that it will be possible to refer to it
Ip succeeding instalments. 2
[4]

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,-Vol. 65 (1)

Shekar, without which my work involving, in addition to mere handling,
the measuring of almost every specimen would not have been possible.

Finally, a word of explanation. It is possible that some of my re-
marks and conclusions are erroneous or out of date. This may be
attributed, in part at least, to the absence of several standard works on
the ornithology of other parts of*the world, as also many of the foreign
journals and periodicals. Remedy of the former need would neces-
sitate an appreciable amount of capital investment, but the latter can
perhaps be made good, or at least kept up to date, by exchanges against
the Society’s journal. J trust that this will be done and better facilities
will be available to future workers, both in this and in other groups.

1 Gavia arctica (Linnaeus) (Russian Turkestan) Blackthroated
Diver 6 : 485

1:9 Ambala, Punjab.

This specimen, which constitutes the only record from India, has
been named svschkini (Sarudny) in both the FAUNA and the syNopsis,
ignoring Ticehurst’s statement (JBNHS 34 : 490) that the specimen does
not permit. subspecific identification. Vaurie treats suschkini as a
synonym of the typical race.

2 Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan) (Denmark) Redthroated Diver 8 : 703
nil.

e) Podiceps cristatus cristatus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Great Crested
Grebe 6:477
10:358¢ 50?

6 Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia; 1 Peking, China: 1 Gujner, Bikaner
1 Viramgam, Gujarat ; 1 no data.

4 Podiceps nigricollis nigricollis Brehm (Germany) Blacknecked
Grebe , eau 6 : 480
(=P. caspicus caspicus (Hablizl) as per Opinion 406, 1956, Inter-
nat. Comm. Zool. Nomen. 13 : 121)
523d¢'207
2, Banderi-Gaz, near Astrabad, Caspian Province ; 1 Mesopotamia ; 1 Bhavnagar ;
1 Poona.

EL Podiceps ruficollis poggei (Reichenow) (Province of Chihili,
China) Little Grebe

1:9 Peking, China.

This can be distinguished from the other races by the almost com-
plete absence of the white patch on the wing-coverts,

[5]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION—1i 187

EL Podiceps ruficollis iraquensis Ticehurst (Ishandarieyeh, Euphrates)

Side Wie Lo?

5 Persian Gulf.

They are all in immature non-breeding plumage and I cannot dis-
tinguish them from birds from India either by size or by plumage.

5 Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori (Shoa, Africa) 6: 481
Meo Deo) SO to?
2 Kalat, Baluchistan ; 1 Manchar, Sind; 1 Simla; 2 Bahawalpur; 1 Gwalior;
1 Rajputana ; 2 Meerut, U.P.; 8 Bombay, 2 Nasik, Maharashtra; 1 Palnis :
1 Calcutta Market; 1 Assam; 2 Burma; 4 no data.

A female from Kalat, Baluchistan, in breeding plumage has the
rufous of the neck extending further downwards than in any of the others.
This and a male from the same area and another from Sylhet, Assam,
have the underparts irregularly marked ashy, separating them from all
the others.

6 Daption capensis (Linnaeus) (Cape of Good Hope) Cape Pigeon

or Cape Petrel 6 : 307
nil.

_ 7 Procellaria leucomelaena Temminck (Seas of Japan and Naga-

saki Bay) Whitefronted Shearwater 6 : 306
me nil:

8 Procellaria carneipes (Gould) (Small islands off Cape Leeuwin,

West Australia) Pinkfooted Shearwater 6 : 305
nil.

9 Procellaria pacifica chlorohyncha (Lesson) (Sharks Bay, Western

Australia) Wedgetailed Shearwater 6 : 303
nil.

10 Procellaria tenuirostris Temminck (Japan) Slenderbilled Shear-
water : 6 : 304
nil. |
- 11 Procellaria Jherminieri bailloni Bonaparte (Mauritius) Audubon’s
Shearwater
nil. |
12 Procellaria lherminieri persica Hume (At sea between Guadar
and Muscat) Persian Shearwater 6 : 306
2 92: 1 Bombay (wing : 202) and 1 Alibag, Kolaba (211), both taken in July.
12a Bulweria bulwer (Jardine and Selby) (Madeira) Bulwer’s Petrel
No specimen.
This species is mentioned for the Maldives in Vaurie (1965, p. 22)
and for the Laccadives by Phillips, Bull. B.O.C. 79 : 100 (1959).
[6]

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

. 13 Bulweria_aterrima (Bonaparte) (Reunion) Mascarene Black Petrel

The first and only specimen from India (JBNHS 42 : 193) was not
registered and is now not traceable.

13a Bulweria fallax Jouanin (Near Socotra, 12° 30” N, 55°E) Small
Black Petrel.
No specimen
Ripley (JBNHS 60 : 687) has suggested that this may have been the
species recorded as B. aterrima (q.v.)

14 Oceanites oceanicus oceanicus (Kuhl) (South Georgia) Wilson’s
Storm Petrel 6 : 300
1: ¢ Bombay (wing : 145).

15 Fregetta tropica melanogaster (Gould) (Southern Indian Ocean)
Duskyvented Storm Petrel 415 (63 302
nil.
16 Oceanodroma leucorhoa monorhis (Swinhoe) (Amoy, China)
Leach’s Petrel, Forktailed Storm Petrel.

nil.
17 Phaethon acthereus indicus Hume (Mekran Coast) Short-tailed
Tropic-bird 6: 291
63 3°99 © 3:07

5 Persian Gulf ; 1 Kolaba, Maharashtra.
Three have the middle pair of tail feathers elongated, one in each
pair being frayed and the other fresh.

18 Phaethon rubricauda rubricauda Boddaert (Mauritius) Redtailed

Tropic-bird 6: 292
nil. :
19 Phaethon Jepturus lepturus Daudin (Mauritius) Longtailed Tropic-
bird 6 : 293
nil.

20 Pelecanus onocrotalus Linnaeus (Africa, Asia) White or Rosy

Pelican 6 : 271
8:234¢d 392 30?
1 Mesopotamia ; 4 Gujarat ; 3 Bihar.

_ There still appears to be diversity of opinion regarding the relation-
ships of the several pelicans. The SyNopsis has no races of this species
and treats crispus as a race of Papers In the NEW DICTIONARY OF
BIRDS (1964, p. 608), the expression ‘White (or Rosy or Spotted- -billed)
Pelican’ seems to refer to one species.

The present identifications are based on the key in the FAUNA—the
feathers of the forehead ending in a Py in this species as against an

[7]

a a a aes = ————————————————————— —-- -—

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--1 189

inwardly curved line in the others. The primary shafts are also all pale
coloured as against black in the others.

Their wings measure 612-735 (av. 675) and bills 303-420 (av. 341).
While these measurements are more or less in keeping with those re-
corded earlier, it is curious that the only two birds which are completely
brown above, i.e. in immature plumage, have the largest wings, 700 and
735. Their bills are 335 and 420 respectively, both being unsexed.

21 Pelecanus philippensis philippensis Gmelin (Manila) Grey or
Spottedbilled Pelican 6:274

Sh Sglige ay AeA

1 Vizagapatam ; 1 Madhubani, Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 no data, collected like the

immediately preceding specimen by C. M. Inglis and probably from same area.

In the two females (both September) the ivory-white bills, with the
line of irregularly shaped black spots on both sides, are very distinct.
In the male (June) the bill is brownish with traces of some parts having
peeled off.

The wings measure 570 (2 29), 588 ¢: av. 576; bills 305 9—355 3:
av. 333. One female is in breeding plumage with the upper parts white
and the breast feathers lanceolate as in a male onocrotalus. The primary
shafts, as in the next form, are black.

22 Pelecanus philippensis crispus Bruch (Dalmatia) 6 : 273
2:20? Bhavnagar. Wings 655, 665 ; bills 345, 390.
Though the feathers of the forehead and the dark shafts of the pri-

maries are similar to those of the previous form, this can be separated
by its larger size and the black shafts to the feathers of the scapulars,
wing-coverts, and shorter upper tail-coverts.

23 Sula dactylatra melanops Heuglin (Burda-Rebschi, Somali Coast)
Masked Booby 6: 287

4:399 10?
All from Bombay, July (2), August, and December.

Wings 420, 420, 412, 410; bills 105, 96, 97, 100.
24 Sula sula rubriceps Gould (New South Wales, Raine Island,

- northern Queensland) Redfooted Booby 6 : 286
nil.
25 Sula leucogaster plotus (Forster) (Near New Caledonia) Brown
Booby 6 : 285
4-19 307 |. 7 : .
1 off Hongkong (wing: 404); 1 Red Sea (385); 1 Karwar (408 ; bill95 mm); 1 no
data.

The Karwar bird was collected by G. Monteith, I.c.s.; no date
appears on the label, but we have other specimens obtained by him in
the same area during 1916 and there seems to be no reason to ignore

[8]

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

an apparently overlooked record. Its range extends into the Red Sea,
though this is not suggested by the wording in the SYNOPSIS.

Philips & Sims recently recorded the race rogersi Mathews from the
Maldives (JBNHS 55: 202), but this race is not accepted either by
Vaurie or in the SYNOPSIS.

26 Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis (Shaw) (China) Cormorant 6 :277
ke oe OS DiS? |

4 Persian Gulf ; 1 Baluchistan ; 1 Lucknow ; 3 Bihar ; 1 Malwa ; 1 Nasik.

No. 15002, 2 from Herbuz, 55 miles east of Panjgur, Baluchistan,
has 4 feathers on each side of the tail badly frayed and brown in colour,
as against the other feathers which are normal and black. THE NEW
DICTIONARY OF BIRDS (1964) p. 488 states that tail feathers (in most
species of this family) are moulted in symmetrical pairs and the moult
commonly begins with the central pair and proceeds centrifugally.
This great disparity in the feathers at one time is very striking. A
similar condition exists in No. 21333 a @ P. fuscicollis, there being 2
faded-brown feathers on one side and three on the other.

27 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens (Bengal) Indian Shag 6 : 279
1 : 2 Nasik, Maharashtra.
Wing 244. Upper breast white.

28 Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot) (Bengal) Little or Pygmy Cor-
morant 6 : 280

20:8 d¢ 1022 20? (juveniles).
1 Sind ; 1 Jaipur ; 1 Gwalior ; 1 Gir; 1 Calcutta Bazar; 1 Tirunelveli; 7
Bombay; 1 Nasik ; 3 Bihar ; 2 Oudh, U.P. ; 1 Burma.

The amount of white on the chin varies greatly and cannot be linked
with sex or locality. According to the FAUNA, the black chin 1 is a charac-

ter of the breeding plumage.

28a Phalacrocorax pygmeus (Pallas) (Caspian Sea)

Sinden 4 oie
1 Amara, Iraq ; 1 Enzil Gilan, North Persia ; 1 Gujar Mashkai Kalat, Baluchistan.

The last mentioned specimen constitutes the first record from India
(JBNHS 62 : 553), having been overlooked for many years. ,

29 Anhinga rufa melanogaster Pennant (Ceylon and Java) Darter
» 63282

14g TOS 2 oF : ;
1 Amara, Iraq; 2 Gulf of Kutch; 1 Gujarat; 2 U.P.; 1 Rajasthan ; 3 Bihar
1 Malwa; 1 Nepal; 1 Burma; 1 no data.
Sp. No. 21388 ¢ from Kutch (July 1962) has its wing quills in moult
and was incapable of flight. A 9 from the same area (Ne; 20) has
its underparts completely white.

[9]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—I1 191

The 9 from Amara has black underparts with the pure white of the
upper breast extending to the chin. It is marked A. rufus and is pre-
sumably A. r. chantrei (Oustalet). It can be matched with No. 15031
from Burma, except that the bases of the black feathers of the under-
parts are white in the former and dark in the latter. The upperparts
of both differ from those of the others, but the Iraq bird is slightly washed
with rufous and the other with grey. A bird from Oudh, U.P.
(No. 15032) and the Kutch bird referred to earlier (No. 22078) are
similar in this respect.

30 Fregata andrewsi Mathews (Christmas Island, Indian Ocean)
Christmas Island Frigate Bird 62295
alt | | |
To be removed from the Indian list (see Abdulali, J/BNHS 57 : 667).

31 Fregata minor aldabrensis Mathews (Aldabra Island) Lesser
Frigate Bird gS) 7)

1 o ? Quilon, Kerala.

32 Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews (Aldabra Island) Frigate Bird
6 : 298

nil.
A specimen obtained near Bombay (JBNHS 57 : 668) is. exhibited
at St. Xavier’s High School, Bombay.

33 Ardea imperialis Baker (Sikkim Terai, Bhutan Duars) Great
Whitebellied Heron 6 : 342
Ba vey Naga Hills;12 10? Duars.

34 Ardea goliath Cretzschmar (White Nile, Bahhar Abiad) Giant
Heron 6 : 343

40? .

3 Basra, Mesopotamia ; | Khulna, Sunderbans, Bengal.

Only No. 15103, said to have died in captivity in Basra, has the dark
rufous underparts of the adult. Its wing and bill (from gape) are 572
and 212 (176 from feathers) as against 590 and 246 (202 from feathers)
in the bird from Bengal. The difference in the size of the bill is very
noticeable. 2

35 Ardea cinerea cinerea Linnaeus (Europe, restricted to Sweden)
Grey Heron 6 : 339

36 Ardea cinerea rectirostris Gould (India) Grey Heron 6 : 340
OF 1 Ss 699" 2 0?
3 Bubiyan Is., Muscat, Baghdad; 1 Upper Sind; 2 Oudh, U.P.; 2 Gujarat; 1
South Kanara. - |
Typical material not being available, it is difficult to decide if recti-
rostris Gould can be distinguished from cinerea. The bird from South
[10]

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Kanara in sub-adult plumage carried a ring placed on it at Kazakhstan
(40° 48”N. 70°E), U.S.S.R. (JBNHS 59 : 650). The birds from this area
are accepted as cinerea and this specimen is hardly darker than the others
in similar plumage, though both its wing (468) and its bill (129) are
larger than in any of the others (wings 418-464 av. 442°5 and bills 113-
125 av. 120).

Of the three in adult plumage (Bubiyan Is., Jamnagar, Oudh), the
upperparts of the birds from Oudh are palest. Vaurie (1965 : 73) says:
‘birds from Iraq and eastward to India are also slightly paler, but
in my opinion these populations are best referred to nominate cinerea’.
He accepts jouyi Clark from Seoul, Korea.

37 Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen (Philippines) Purple Heron 6:337

T2999 2 OF Chu):
1 Gujarat; 2 Bombay; 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Trinkut, Central Nicobars ;
2 Burma.

37a Ardea purpurea purpurea Linnacus (Philippines)

621055 07 7auy).

Persian Gulf area.

They include one marked * Kurna, June/July 1916 Maj. H. Wall’.
The locality cannot be traced on the maps available, but snakes were
obtained by Col. Wall from this area between January 1916 and January
1917 and it probably refers to Al Qurna at the confluence of the Tigris
and the Euphrates,

Vaurie (p. 75) accepts birds from Iraq as of the nominate race and
separates manilensis by its almost completely black lower belly, against
variegated with chestnut in the present form. These differences are
consistent in the specimens available and, considering that Meinertz-
hagen (Ibis 1920:179) and Christisen (JBNHS 43: 486) have both
identified specimens from Baluchistan as of this race, it would appear
that though it is omitted from the syNopsis it has a place in the Indo-
Pakistan avifauna.

38 Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsfield) (Western Java) Little Green
Heron 6 : 357
18:533 722 60? (7 ad. with grey underparts; 5 sub-ad. brownish below ; 6
imm. with streaked breasts.)
1 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Kutch; 1 Saronj, M.P.; 4 Bombay, 1 Kihim, Kolaba, 1
Khandala, 2 Ratnagiri; 1 North Kanara; 1 Darbhanga, 1 Chapra, Bihar ;
3 Burma ; 1 Rabeng, Siam.

In my Andaman paper (JBNHS 61: 501) I had referred to Biswas
separating Indian birds from those from Java by their larger size and
some differences of colour (one m.asurement of 174 mm. was a typo-
graphical error for 184). The five birds from Bihar and Burma are
larger than those from other parts of India :

[11]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—1 193

. Wings
5 Bihar and Burma 179-185 av. 182°8
13 others 167-181 av. 171°3

Both sexes and birds in different plumages are measured together as
there does not appear to be any difference in size between them. Some
birds have one wing as much as 5 mm. longer or shorter than the other.
There is great variation in plumage; some birds have the primaries in
one wing of different colour from those in the other, and beyond con-
firming that the eastern and Burmese birds do appear larger than those
from other parts of the country, I am unable to venture an opinion.
These larger birds may perhaps be listed as Bonaparte’s chloriceps.

39 Butorides striatus spodiogaster Sharpe (Andamans and Nicobars)
Little Green Heron 6 : 359

a oo 7 GOT oO?
3 Betapur, Middle Andamans ; 2 Car Nicobar ; 7 Central Nicobars.

40 Butorides striatus didii Phillips & Sims (Male Island, North Male
Atoll, Maldive archipelago)

nil.

This was described in 1958 and is an addition to the 19 races listed
in Peter’s CHECK-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD (1929).

. 41 Butorides striatus albidulus Bangs (Suadiva Atoll, Maldive Islands)

nil.
Southern atolls of the Maldive archipelago.

42 Ardeola grayii grayii (Sykes) (Dukhun) Pond Heron or Paddy-
bird 6 : 354

31:1635 1192 40? 1 pull.; 3 in breeding plumage.

17 Bombay, 4 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra ; 1 Nilambur, Kerala; 2 Kanyakumari

District, Madras; 2 Bastar, M.P.; 1 Manbhum, Bihar; 1 Calcutta;
1 Andamans ; 2 Burma. :

The males are larger than the females, eight of each sex from around

-Bombay having their wings 195-218 av. 208, and bills 51 (next 60) to

68 av. 61°5 against 180-203 av. 193, and 55-60 av. 57:5, respectively.

42a Ardeola grayii phillipsi Scheer (Addu Atoll, Maldives)
nil.

Described from the Maldives in 1960 as ‘ they tend to be whiter on
the primaries’ (Vaurie 1965: 63). It is significant that two males
from Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, West Coast, Nos. 20973 and 22307 differ
from all the others, including those in breeding plumage, in having white
Shafts to all the primaries. In ralloides all adults have them white and
this is quoted as an index of maturity.

13 [12]

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

43 Ardeola bacchus (Bonaparte) (Malay Peninsula) Chinese Pond
Heron 6 : 356

nil.

EL Ardeola ralloides (Scopoli) (Krain)
6:13 292 30? (1 juv. ; 3 in breeding plumage).
1 Medina ; 5 Persian Gulf.

EL Bubulcus ibis ibis (Linnaeus) (Egypt)
232.36.
Sheik Saud, Mesopotamia.

Both are in non-breeding plumage and I cannot separate them from
Indian birds.

44 Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert) (Coromondel) Cattle
Egret 6 : 349
23:1233 1092 10? (4 in breeding plumage).
1 Meerut, 1 Shahjahanpur, U.P. ; 1 Rajputana ; 2 Gujarat ; 15 Bombay ; 1 Nasik ;
1 Andamans ; 1 Burma.
Of the four in breeding plumage, the three sexed are males. Some

skins with slight traces of the breeding plumage on the upperparts are
marked females.

Though the smallest wings of both sexes are identical, the males are
larger—233-263 av. 251, against 233-253 av. 242 in the females. Curianelys
their bills and tarsi do not show any differences.

45 Egretta alba alba (Linneaus) (Sweden) Large Egret 6 : 345
1 0? Manchar Lake, Sind.
Wing 447 ; Bill from feathers 126, from gape 163 ; Tarsus 215.

46 Egretta alba modesta (Gray) (India) | —66: 346
8:345¢6 422 10?
1 Kutch ; 3 Gujarat ; 2 Bombay ; 1 Andamans ; 1 Burma.

The males are larger than the females and the Andamans bird was
originally wrongly identified as intermedia (Abdulali, JBNHS 62 : 554).

47 Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler) (Java) Smaller Egret 6:347 |
Sel ka Oe |
1 Saugor, C.P. ; 1 Bharatpur ; 3 Bombay.

All with yellow bills, except black in a 2 dt. 17-7-1959 in which the

dorsal plumes project far beyond the tail. The sexes show no difference
in size and measure :

Wing Bill Tarsus
296-305 av. 301 70-77 av. 73 99-110 av. 105°4
[13]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—I1 = 195

F

The measurements in the FAUNA (6 : 347) are erroneous (see Abdulali,
JBNHS 62 : 554).

[48 Egretta intermedia palleuca Deignan (Muang Chiang Rai, Siam)
This race from Thailand, Burma, and eastern India separated for
having the bill yellow at all seasons is not now accepted. Egrets and

herons change the colour of their bills and other soft parts for very short
and transitory periods. ]

49 Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linnaeus) (North-east Italy) Little
Egret 6 : 348
Bi4gd 292 1.0?

1 Baghdad; 1 Gujarat; 1 Gondia, Bhandara Dist., 3 Bombay, Maharashtra ;
1 Kanyakumari Dist., Madras.

50 Egretta gularis schistacea (Hemprich & Ehrenberg) (Red Sea)
Indian Reef Heron 6: 353
Mr 6S5 392 2.0?
1 Muscat ; 1 Indus Delta, Sind ; 3 Kutch ; 4 Bombay, 1 Nasik, 1 Ratnagiri.
_ The males are slightly larger than the females.

There is no all-white specimen available, but two are dark slaty black
with a prominent patch of pure white wing-coverts about half way down
the edge of the wing. One is a male from Kutch and the other an un-
sexed bird from Muscat which, being larger than all the others (wing
293, bill 99), is probably also a male. A third is almost as dark but
lacks the white on the wing. The colours of the feet are not noted on
all, but the bird from Kutch had them bright yellow (as in the Little
Egret, E. garzetta) and the same was noted in another dark bird with a
white wing patch recently seen (October 1965) at Rewas, Alibag,
Maharashtra.

The other specimens are in varying shades of lighter grey with an
unequal amount of white on the underparts.

Ripley and Vaurie (1965, p. 70) both state that the form occurring in
India is schistacea (Type locality : El Tor, Sinai Peninsula), but the latter
adds that it is larger than the nominate gularis. His measurements
(marked with asterisks below) however, compared with those of the
few available, show that the wings of Indian birds are nearer to gularis
and the bill and tarsus intermediate between the two races ; the single
unsexed bird from Muscat agrees with schistacea :

Wing Bill Tarsus
* 10 3S schistacea 272-311 av. 288°3 94-103 av. 98°5 92-116 av. 103.55
6 3d Indian 272-285 av. 276 85- 98 av. 92 97-101 av. 99
* 10 $3 gularis 263-285 av. 277°1 80- 94 av. 84:7 80- 95 av. 89. 5
10? Muscat 293 99 101

With the material available it is not possible to suggest any con-
Clusions.

[14]

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

51 Egretta sacra (Gmelin) (Tahiti) Reef Heron 6: 351
7:5 33 (including 2 white) 299.
1 Middle Andamans ; 5 Car Nicobar ; 1 Camorta, Central Nicobars.

52 Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) (Southern Europe)
Night Neron. 6 : 359
20:8 386-592 7:0? [1 ch.; 6 juv.; 12 ad. 34 albino (Bihan),
5 Mesopotamia and Persia ; 2 Chitral; 1 Punjab ; 1 Gujarat ;7 Bombay ; 2 Bihar ;
1 Burma ; 1 Peking, China.
The 6 adults collected from January to March have a green gloss on
the upperparts while the same number from April to November do not.

53 Gorsachius melanolophus melanolophus (Raffles), (Western Sumatra).
Malay or Tiger Bittern 6: 361

6:13 292 30? (4 in adult plumage, 2 juv.).

2 Mysore ; 3 Karwar ; 1 Ceylon.

54 Gorsachius melanolophus minor Hachisuka (Katchel Island,
Nicobar Islands)

nil.

55 Ixobrychus minutus minutus (Linnaeus) (Switzerland) Little Bittern
10:3¢¢ 392 40? (5 in adult male plumage ; 1 female ; 4 juv.).

4 Mesopotamia ; 5 Kashmir ; 1 Bombay.

The register included under this species 4 birds, g, 2 and o ?, which
have pale buff margins to the feathers of the upper surface, are smaller
(wing 125-137 av. 131, against 142-151 av. 146), and do not have a black
cap ; they also have the first primary shorter than the second, as in the
specimens of sinensis available, against the first and second being equal
in 9 of the 10 minutus, a character which is mentioned in the BR. HANDBOOK
(3: 165). I think they are sinensis and have listed them accordingly.

56 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin) (China) Chestnut Bittern 6 : 367
19:73 6260? (7 all-chestnut ; 6 juv) :
1 Sind; 1 Daman, Gujarat ; 4 Bombay; 1 Poona; 3 Kanara; 1 Kottayam,
Kerala; 2 Tirhut, Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market; 1 Assam ; 1 Trinkut, Central
Nicobars ; 1 Burma; 1 Ceylon.
The 7 all-chestnut birds include a 9. From the material available it
is not possible to understand the sequence of plumages.

57 Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin) (China) Yellow Bittern 6.: 365

112466: 5 99 20? Cad do: tad 2:
1 Kashgar, 1 Burma; 2 Sind; 1 Chapra, Bihar; 1 Kutch; 2 Bombay; 1 South ©
Andamans ; 2 Trinkut, Central Nicobars.

58 Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Latham) (India) Black Bittern
6: 368
1:4 Ataran, Burma.
Bill 85 (69-82 in FAUNA).
[15]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--1 197

59 Botaurus stellaris stellaris (Linnaeus) (Europe, restricted to
Sweden) Bittern 6 : 370

14°: 792.70?
_ 2 Mesopotamia ; 1 Shiraz, Persia ; 4 Sind ; 3 Punjab ; 1 Kutch ; 1 Agra ; 2 Bombay.

Curiously, the seven sexed specimens are all females. The unsexed
birds have their wings and bills slightly larger and may include males.

60 Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant) (Ceylon) Painted Stork 6: 331

6 : none sexed (5 ad. ; 1 in juvenile plumage, but not smaller in size).

1 Bhavnagar ; 1 Bombay Harbour ; 3 Baghowni, Bengal ; 1 no data.
~The range of measurements is slightly different from that in the
FAUNA.

Wing 490-523 av. 505 (490-510) ; tarsus 205-242 av. 225 (240-250) ;
culmen 230-256 av. 246 (252-278).

Vaurie (1965 p. 86) refers to Ticehurst’s records from Baluchistan,
which have been omitted in the SYNOPSIS.

61 Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert) (Pondicherry) Openbill Stork
6 : 333

Bes 3S l Q:
1 3 and 1 2 are in juvenile plumage with almost no gap in bill.
1 Malwa, M.P.; 1 Baghowni, Bengal ; 1 Darbhanga, Bihar ; 1 Burma.

62 Ciconia episcopus episcopus (Boddaert) (Coromandel Coast)
Whitenecked Stork 6 : 324

12:733 492 10?

1 Malwa, 1 Gird, M.P. ; 1 Ratnagiri; 7 Bihar ; 1 Nepal; 1 Burma.

The males have wings (471-523 av. 493) slightly larger than the females
(450-516 av. 485).

63 Ciconia ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus) (Sweden) White Stork 6 : 320

4:43.
1 Persian Gulf ; 1 Patan, Satara, Maharashtra ; 2 Baghowni, Bengal.

64 Ciconia ciconia asiatica Severtzov (Turkestan) White Stork
6 = 322
nil.

Biswas in his comments on the sYNopsis (JBNHS 60 : 680) says that
Severtzov’s asiatica is synonymous with nominate ciconia and presumably
suggests that the remarks regarding asidtica wintering in ‘ Burma, Assam,
East Pakistan, south to the Sunderbans’ should apply to boyciana
(Swinhoe) as in the FAUNA (6: 322). Vaurie (1965 : 64) has accepted
asiatica as a good race with a larger bill (184-235 av. 215 against 169-
206 av. 189, all males from skull) and expressed the opinion that boyciana
is a different species, separated by its black bill, red skin on the face, and
larger size. From the references immediately available to me, I have

[16]

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

no evidence of the occurrence of the White Stork in that area, except
for Stuart Baker’s statement (loc. cit.) that he saw a pair with black bills
in Khulna in Bengal. Smythies in BIRDS OF BURMA (1953 : 520) speci-
fically states there are no records of the White Stork from Burma, while
it is mentioned in the SYNOPSIS.

La Touche in HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA (1934) measures
the wings of 2 boyciana as 665 and 680 against 590-614 av: 600 in the 3
males of nominate ciconia from India. The bills are also 225 against
198-202 (from feathers) in the Bombay specimens.

65 Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Black Stork 6 : 323

3: ON
1 Persian Gulf ; 2 Baghowni, Bengal.

66 Xenorhynchos asiaticus asiaticus (Latham) (India) Blacknecked
Stork 3 6 : 326

3:0? 2 adult; 1imm.
1 Gwalior ; 2 Baghowni, Bengal.

67 Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin) (India) Adjutant 6 : 327
nil.

68 Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsfield) (Java) Lesser Adjutant 6 : 329
nil.

69 Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham) (India) White Ibis 6: 314

2:13 10? Both immature, with grey-feathered heads.
1 Bhuj, Kutch ; 1 no data.

The FAUNA (6: 314) measures the bills 139-170; both the present
specimens are 183 from feathers, which measurement would increase as
the feathers recede.

70 Pseudibis papillosa papillosa (Temminck) (India) Black Ibis 6 : 316
6:13 492 10?
1 Sind; 1 Ahmedabad; 1 Meerut, U.P.; 1 Malwa, C.I.; 1 Darbhanga, Bihar ;
1 Baghowni, Bengal.
The male, wing 360 (365-400), bill 127 (138-158), tarsus 60 (75-85), is
smaller than the range indicated in the FAUNA.

71 Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus (Linnaeus) (Austria and Italy)

Glossy Ibis 6: 318
4:12 30? ee
1 Manchar Lake, Sind; 1 Honavar, North Kanara; 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 no
data.

[17]

|

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION—I _ 199

72 Platalea leucorodia major Temminck & Schlegel (Japan) Spoon-
bill 3 6.331)

ese? 207

1 Sind ; 2 Nasik, Maharashtra ; 1 no data.

Stuart Baker in the FAUNA states this is a poor subspecies while Vaurie
(p. 78) includes this as a synonym of the nominate form,

73. Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas (Mouth of the River Volga, South
Russia) Flamingo. 6: 373
13:33 292 80? [5ad.,4juv. (marked * below), 4 ch.]
1 Aden*, 1 Persian Gulf * ; 3 Sind ; 4 Rann of Kutch (ch.); 2 Gulf of Kutch ;
_ Bhayander*, 1 Manmad + etarehic
The 2 males have larger wings, 430-447 av. 438 and tarsi 335-365 av.
350 against 398-435 av. 416 and 280-365 av. 322 in the females. The
juvenile with the smallest 339 wing, and 216 tarsus (its bill is 129 and
almost full grown), presumably flew to Bhayander near Bombay, from
Kutch, the nearest breeding place, which is almost 400 miles away.
Two adults obtained in August have pink bills, while the three others,
all collected in December, do not have any pink, The colours in the
‘dry’ state may be of little significance.

74 Phoeniconaias minor (Geoffroy) (East Africa) Lesser Flamingo.

6 ; 375
2:12 10?
1 Bombay Zoo (imm.) ; 1 Gulf of Kutch.

(to be continued)

[18]

Reviews

1. NATURE’S PARADISE. By Jen & Des Bartlett. pp. 360
(32:5 X24 cm.). With many ccloured, and black and white photo-
graphs. London, 1967. Collins, St. James Place. Price 5 gns.

The only way for a layman to review this book is to describe it
carefully. It is one of these large, opulent coffee table productions;
it belongs to the class where, a few years ago, art and architecture
had the field to themselves, but where natural history is gaining
rapidly. The authors, a husband and wife team of photographer-
naturalists went to Africa for 6 months and stayed ten years studying
the flora and fauna, taking photographs and making films for
the BBC. 7 ie

The present volume—heavily conservation-biased, is really a
book of photographs, coloured as well as black and white. It is
divided into sections according to the type of country. Beginning
with the coral reef on the coast, we go through dry thornbrush, open
bush and woodland, the plains, the forest, lakes, and so. on. Each
section is intreduced by a few pages of text which while it does not
attempt to teach the reader too much, links the habitat with the
inhabitants, tells enough for us to interpret and understand the
photographs intelligently. The authors’ attempt is not so much to
amaze us with their magnificent pictures of individual animals, as to
enable us to connect their physical characteristics with their food,
habits, and environment. It is this subtle line of education which
makes this book more valuable than just a luxury book of splendid
pictures.

As far as the photographs themselves go, one still finds oneself
marvelling at modern technology. To say this is not to belittle the
talent, hard work and perseverance of the authors. Those seemingly
effortless close-ups, with every hair and bristle clear and alive, must
have meant many hours of patience supported by years of experience
and expertise. There is a portrait of a panther, showing each detail
of the fly on his nose; at the other end of the scale are slugs, bugs,
the minute inhabitants of shallow pools, each scarcely visible bit of
life filling a whole quarto page in accurate delineation. Night
prowlers and those that live in dark small caves have also somehow
been made to ‘sit’ for the author. Fortunately, Des Bartlett is not
one of those writers who inflicts a blow by blow account of the

REVIEWS — ey) 201

history of each picture. He leaves us free to imagine that he was
out for a walk when a——happened to run up and posed in front
of him. Luckily he had a camera handy.

The pattern of the book is broken to describe, in words and
pictures, some of the operations of capturing animals either to save
them from drowning when the Kariba Dam was built, or to transport
’ them to stock new reserves, and parks. The speed with which
emergency operations were carried owt, the enthusiastic and efficient
help from the highest quarters are almost unbelievable to those of
us accustomed to Indian conditions. The sport of shikar has, it
seems, turned upon itself; and the sportsmian with a gun is now
teplaced by the man with rope and harness, catching and resettling
animals in safer areas. Future generations will owe much to him.

bak.

2. MONGOOSES—THEIR NATURAL HISTORY AND
BEHAVIOUR. By H. FE. Hinton and A.M.S. Dunn. pp. 144 (15x
22:5 cm.). With 16 plates and 26 figures. London 1967. Oliver &
Boyd. Ltd. Price 42s. |

_ The snake-killing propensities of the mongoose have always
attracted man’s attention and the animal has a prominent place in
Indian and Egyptian mythology. The present book is a welcome
attempt to bring together all that is known of the 36 species of the
subfamily Herpestinae which occur in the African and Oriental
regions, and of which 6 are from our area.

The titles of the 17 chapters, ‘In the West Indies’, ‘In Ancient
Egypt’, “Life Span’, ‘Play’, ‘Indian Folk Tales’, ‘Colour Vision’, etc.
indicate the nature of the information collected but the very fact that
some of the chapters, e.g. Mongooses as Pets, cover little more
than a page, is an index of how little is known about them.

The reports on the introduction of the mongoose into Hawaii,
the West Indies and into other parts of the world for the control of
Snakes or rats are quoted in some detail, but as to results they are
conflicting and it is not possible to be certain if the introductions can
be said to have been successful. The mongooses ate the rats and
snakes, but did great damage to poultry and ground-nesting game
birds and were also accused of killing newly-born deer. The black
trat’s damage to sugarcane was reduced, but the rat became arboreal
and transferred its attention to cocoa. Barbados had to have its

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Mongoose Destruction Act of 1904, while Trinidad paid bounties for
the destruction of over 30,000 mongooses in 1928 and 1929. All
this stresses the complex nature of such introductions and the danger
and uncertainty accompanying them.

The list of 259 references at the end includes about 30 from the
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society many of which
appeared as Miscellaneous Notes, thus drawing attention to the
importance of recording the smallest piece of information which adds
to recorded knowledge. Notes, which at first sight appear of little
value, can often form the basis of much further research by those
who have the opportunity.

The book makes interesting reading and may prompt readers with
experience of Indian conditions to fill in some of the many gaps in
our knowledge.

H. A.

3. GENERAL ENTOMOLOGY FOR AGRICULTURAL
STUDENTS. By H. L. Kulkarny. pp. xv+291 (22x14 cm).

With 198 figures. Bombay, 1967. Asia Publishing House.
Price Rs. 15/-.

The book contains 32 chapters, the first 17 of which contain
general information regarding insect life, including their anatomy,
physiology and classification. One chapter each in this section is
devoted to beneficial and harmful insects. For a general reader and
for a student of entomology as well, this portion of the book is en- —
lightening. The chapter on how to collect insects could have been ~
more elaborated by adding a paragraph to it on preservation of
insects. This subject has been touched slightly at the end of the —
chapter but one would think it deserved better treatment in view
of the importance it has gained in recent years. An entomology
student, general or agricultural, would surely !ook to such books for
guidance in this direction.

The next 15 chapters contain brief descriptions of the orders of
insects and some of their important families, with a brief study of their
life cycle. Names of insects, harmful to agriculture and their host
plants are mentioned under each family. There is neither a /
description of the insect, their life history and habits nor is there
a mention of the part of the plant attacked by each. One would
surely expect to find this information in an agricultural entomology
book. Again, no mention is made of the various control measures in

REVIEWS 203

use against the pests, cultural, mechanical, chemical etc. or the
apparatus used for the same. Ia fact it should form an important
section in any book dealing with agricultural entomology.

The book contains a large number of illustrations. This is as it
should be, but the figures in some cases are misleading. Some of
the figures are drawn without proper care, some are partially, and
some totally, incorrect. Fig. 71 Periplaneta americana, and Fig. 105
Bombyx mori are poor representations whereas Fig. 106 butterfly of
the castor leaf eating caterpillar is not that of a butterfly but of a
moth.

In the foreword it is stated that the English books, now prescribed
for Indian students but written for foreign students should be re-
placed by Indian books suited to local conditions. It is difficult to
see how this ideal is being fulfilled by the book under review as
nothing of particular interest to India is discussed in it except that
it mentions some Indian agricultural pests. In addition the author
recommends to the students, for further information, under each
chapter, reading of foreign books only, almost to the complete
exclusion of Indian agricultural entomology books, periodicals, reports
etc. which though few, are worth studying as they are full of
information.

INE Te N:

4. ECOLOGICAL ENERGETICS. By John Phillipson. pp.
57 (21:5 14 cm.). With 20 text-figures and 9 tables. London, 1966.
Eaward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.. Price 12s. 6d. Hard . cover,
7s. 6d. Paper back.

Science, Sir Julian Huxley said, has two functions, viz., com-
prehension and control. To achieve scientific exploitation of the
limited sources of nature man must have a complete understanding
of energy flow within ecosystems. John Phillipson’s new book is a
clear and concise introduction to this specialized field.

Energy is defined here as the capacity to do work. Nuclear trans-
mutations within the sun release energy on which life on earth
depends. The photons of light energise electrons in the chlorophyll
molecules and in the course of a cyclic reaction the plant cells extract
this energy and store it. To complete photosynthesis solar energy is
used to build energy rich glucose from energy pcor carbondioxide
and water, In respiration energy is recovered from glucose and used

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

to do work. Such energy transformaiions within the living cell obey
the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

The living things as well as the physical features of the environ-
ment, together form the ecosystems. There are autotropic organisms
which can synthesize organic materials using inorganic chemicals and
energy from the envircnment. The heterotrops utilize the tissues of
other organisms as source of energy. From the quantity of solar
energy available to plants only 1-5 per cent is used in photosynthesis,
the rest being lost as heat of evaporation and sensible heat. The
synthesis of plant materials by autotrophs is termed primary production
and the amount stored by them per unit area per unit time, gross
primary production. Gross primary production minus the energy
spent for respiration is termed net primary production. The various
plants and the animals of an ecosystem can be sequentially placed
into food chains of plants, herbivores, and carnivores. By suitable
techniques like introduction of radioactive isotopes of phosphorus into
plants which form the initial food source the structure of food chains
can be elucidated. The food chains of a particular ecosystem with
its complex webs can be represented diagrammatically in ecological
pyramids on the bases of numbers, biomass, or energy. The author
prefers the pyramid of energy, which represents energy in kilocalories
used by the different feeding types in a square metre over one year,
as a unifying and unambiguous concept. The productivity of different
regions can thus be compared in terms of energy.

The calorific values of the different species can be determined by
combusting small quantities of materials from each, in miniature bomb
calorimeters. In laboratory studies of ecological efficiency, one can
use the concept of gross ecological efficiency which is a ratio of
the calories of prey consumed by the predator to the calories of food
consumed by prey. Laboratory studies by Slobodkin on Chlamy-
domonas/Daphnia/Man systems showed a maximum gross ecological
efficiency of the order of 13 per cent. For natural ecosystems.
ecologists suggest a value of the order of 10 per cent as the most
probable. Assuming a constant gross ecological efficiency of 10 per
cent presupposes that for every 1000 calories of plant material
consumed by herbivores only 100 calories are passed on to the
carnivores, and of those only 10 reach the top carnivores. Eco-
logically the most economic use of solar energy when converted into
protein is human consumption of herbivore flesh. Beef cattle raised
on grass land consume only one-seventh of the total primary
production, the rest being consumed by the herbivores and de-
composers which are of no direct food value. The amount of plant

REVIEWS 205

material converted into food proteins can be increased by adopting
modern methods of farming and animal husbandry such as strip
grazing, and raising of chickens, calves, and pigs in specially con-
structed buildings. Livestock should be used for food at a period
when their growth efficiency is maximum, i.c. when they are youog.
To meet the food requirements of an increasing world population
both farming methods and feeding methods and feeding habits of man
have to be changed. Production of protein eaten by man can be
increased by preferring high individual growth efficiency and the
maximization of food energy reaching the livestock. Farming of the
sea and use of unconventional materials such as starfish as poultry
feed are among the steps recommended by ecologists.

Throughout the book, the stress is on the thermodynamical aspects.
The formulations of energy flow at the different trophic levels are
discussed in some detail. The specialist student for whom the book
is meant will find the book immensely useful. Anyone interested
in the food economy of the future will find the last chapter specially
interesting.

DN. M.

5. SEAWEEDS AND OTHER ALGAE. By C. L. Duddington.
pp. 207 (14X22 cm.) London, 1966. Faber and Faber Limited.
Price 36s. net.

This little book gives a general over-all picture of all types of
algae such as freshwater forms, soil forms, epiphytic, endophytic
and parasitic forms in addition to seaweeds. Written in a lucid
and effortless style, and supplemented by excellent plates and
simple line drawings, the book condenses a wealth of information
within its short compass of 207 pages. A useful glossary enhances
the value of the publication.

The dust cover indicates that the aim of the book is to acquaint
the intelligent general reader with this absorbing subject, as also to
furnish ‘background reading’ to the student of elementary botany in
order to bolster his knowledge of the algae. The book has more
than succeeded in its objective, for the fairly up-to-date matter it
contains should prove equally useful to, also, the student of advanced
botany. |

The majority of the chapters deal with the general characteristics
of the major groups of the algae together with brief life histories of

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

judiciously selected forms belonging to them. Although the types
selected are ones with which most students of botany are familiar,
interest is, nevertheless, sustained by the inclusion of significant in-
formation from specialized works, apart from little-known facts, not
generally found in text-books, about these types.

Unfortunately, because of the need for economy of presentation
in a book of this size, and, perhaps, because of a desire to widen
its popular appeal, important stages in life histories are cursorily
mentioned or occasionally overlooked. To give only one example—
the manner of formation of autocolonies in Gonium, Pandorina and
Eudorina is not clearly explained. Evolutionary tendencies and
phylogenetic relationships are also not discussed. Such omissions are
understandable and, in no way, detract from the merit of the book.

The remaining chapters are concerned with the physiology, ecology

and uses of algae. Containing valuable data collated from various:

sources, these chapters make fascinating reading and contribute to the

special appeal of the book to the curious layman and its specialistic

flavour to the avewed student of botany. To the several general

books on algae, this one is certainly a welcome and commendable
addition.

EG.

6. COMMON BIRDS. By Sdélim Ali and Laeeq Futehally.
pp. x+118 (4x20 cm.}. With 97 coloured plates. New Delhi,
1967. National Book Trust, India. Price Rs. 9 (paper back).

COMMON BIRDS by Salim Ali and Laeeq Futehally is a very wel-
come addition to the National Book Trust series.

In this small book, nearly 100 common birds are described. It
opens with an introduction followed by three important chapters
entitled (i) Ornithology and Birdwatching (ii) Reproduction and (iii)
Migration. They cover a wide range and provide a rich background
of knowledge required for the study of birds. Beginning with an
explanation of the system of classification of birds, the authors trace
the history of Indian Ornithology, and offer instructive suggestions
for field identification of birds. They explain how the physiological
readiness for reproduction in birds is adapted to an assurance of
an optimum food supply, which again depends upon the seasonal
cycle. The chapter on migration is particularly stimulating because
Dr. Sdlim Ali is a pioneer in the field of bird ringing in India and

REVIEWS 207

~

has been carrying on this work for the last ten years or more.
Thanks to his initiative and leadership, more than twenty thousand
wagtails, several thousand Spanish Sparrows, ducks and waders have
been ringed by the Bombay Natural History Society. (Several
important recoveries have been reported mainly from the U.S.S.R.).

For the classification, the authors have adopted the Wetmore
order. Each family has been assigned a brief introductory section.
The descriptions of individual birds leave nothing to be desired and
contain a wealth of information. The style is lucid and entrancing.
The admirable text is supplemented by numerous coloured illustr-
ations borrowed from the earlier editions of Dr. Salim Ali’s Book
OF INDIAN BIRDS. A few of them are new. Almost every bird is
illustrated.

The printing and get-up are of high quality, the format is of a
convenient size and the quality of binding ensures that the book opens
flat for easy reference. The price of Rs. 9 is very reasonable
considering the profusion of illustrations and the quality of printing
and binding. The book is also available in hard cover.

There is a crying need for trained field ornithologists who should
study different aspects of bird life, such as migration, breeding
biology, population study, role of birds in agriculture etc. COMMON
BIRDS will help beginners to learn to recognise with confidence the
common birds of their localitv. [It would appeal equally to seasoned
ornithologists. A book like this richly deserves wide circulation.

EG:

Miscellaneous Notes

1. NOTES ON THE BIHAR DROUGHT

We recently revisited the Palamau National Park and stayed in one
of the attractive forest bungalows in an adjoining block. This bungalow
lay in the centre of an area of about two hundred square miles in which
we felt we had come to know every hill and nullah, and every bump on
the jeep tracks for miles around. Almost overnight the jungle had
become unrecognizable, for lush green grass hid the tracks while the
vegetation had thickened and become almost impenetrable. Not so
very long ago we had seen this jungle as a barren waste, a place of ter-
rific burning heat during the day-time where even the sparse shade
offered by the leafless trees was unbearable—and in this heat Bihar had
faced the worst drought in living memory.

During the drought, coming after the failure of two monsoons, the
water level had fallen. It was only with the aid of the powerful Halco
drills donated by UNICEF, which could bore a hundred feet through
rock in a few hours, that water could be reached at all, and pumps put
in for the villages. Huge aid schemes came into action for the famine
struck people of the State. No outside aid however was available for
the unprotected wild life, until in answer to a letter of appeal the
R.S.P.C.A. in London donated £1000 through the Animal Welfare
Board in Madras. £500 of this money was given to the Bihar S.P.C.A.
and £500 came to the Save the Wild life Fund which we had started
in Calcutta.

The Forest Department, aware of the danger to wild life, had started
a system of filling water tanks by a jeep tanker in the small sanctuary at
Betla. Large herds of gaur and chital could be seen congregated in the
mornings and evenings around these waterholes. Mr. Shahi, the Chief —
Conservator of Forests, Bihar, who is a naturalist, photographer and
keen wild life conservationist, did all in his power by touring the vast
areas of forest in the State to inspect and encourage the digging of water-
holes.

Our task in the comparatively small area allocated to us was formid-

able for here water-holes already dug had either dried up or contained |

only an inch or so of murky water. These small water-holes situated
often at a distance of ten miles apart were ringed with poacher’s hides.
The local poachers, taking full advantage of the situation, were respon-
sible for more deaths than the drought. There was no time to build
the cement tanks we had planned, and with the co-operation of my hus-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 209

band’s firm, Andrew Yule & Co., who had started a scheme to deliver
water to the villages, lorry loads of drums were sent to Palamau from
Calcutta. These drums were cut lengthwise and installed in nullahs
where the water-holes had dried up, and where further digging had failed
to reach water. We had organized earlier the digging of a tank in the
dry river bed of the Auranga, where water could be pumped from an
underground stream to fill the drums and water tanks hauled by the
company jeeps. The organization of delivering water had then to be
operated daily and this proved to be hot, hard work. It was gratifying
to see from the fresh slot and pugmarks around our water troughs in
the mornings that thirsty sambar, chital, barking deer and the occasional
tiger and leopard had come immediately to drink. In the daytime a
myriad of birds congregated around the troughs—drongos, paradise and
whitebrowed flycatchers, white-eyes, the spotted and rufous doves,
redvented and whitecheeked bulbuls, pittas, orioles, bee-eaters,
junglefowl and peafowl—to name only a few, we saw with open beaks
and obviously suffering from the extreme heat. Chital we saw in the
day-time were open-mouthed and panting, while the normally fat wild
pig looked half starved.

With only four jeeps to cover the two hundred square miles allotted
to us, the daily delivery of water to villages and filling water troughs took
from dawn until dusk. Young Assistants from the Calcutta Office and
two British V.S.O.’s volunteered for this work. By evening everyone
was exhausted and our forest bungalow was a welcome place of rest.
But the nights were often disturbed by our endeavours to stop illegal
poaching. Hides and machans had continually to be destroyed and were
as continually rebuilt by the poachers. We tried to catch these men by
waiting near the water-holes, or creeping up on them in the dark.
Although they were too clever for us, they must have been aware of our
efforts for the shots at night became less frequent. The Forest Depart-
ment have taken strong measures to enforce the law and protect the
animals of the beautiful sanctuary at Betla. Elsewhere the scale of the
poaching astounded us by its magnitude and this side effect of the drought
caused the greatest damage. We learnt from the villagers who worked
for us, and others whom we had helped, that the poaching is done by
headmen shooting with licensed shot guns and muzzle loaders. The
meat of deer and occasionally gaur, is sold mainly to lorry drivers who,
in turn, profit by selling to restaurants on the Grand Trunk Road and
inthe towns. To quote from a book written many years ago by a Forest
Officer, the Hon. James Best—‘ The activities of the local poacher is
mainly responsible for the disappearance of game in India’.

Licenses for guns given to headmen to protect the crops, are being

continually misused for the slaughter of wild life for profit. It is the
14

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

opinion of most of the people I have met that these guns should by law
have sawn off barrels. A special force of game wardens could also be
formed to help stop the destruction of wild life by illegal shooting.

The beautiful jungles of Palamau always notoriously short of water
in the summer can only conserve its wild life in the years to come by the
building of properly maintained protected watering places, so that people
and animals alike can never again be struck by the great tragedy of
drought.

14, BALLYGUNGE PARK ROAD, ANNE WRIGHT
CALCUTTA,
November 24, 1967.

2. CAN YOUNG BATS COMMUNICATE WITH THEIR
PARENTS AT A DISTANCE ?

I write to report an experience similar to the one reported by me in
August 1965 at page 539 of Volume 62 of your Journal. Once more,
though it was in a different house, the bats had made their home in the
electric meter box. This time there was only one young one and it fell
to the floor at about 7 p.m. I put it on the cement floor near my small
wicket gate and, switching on the verandah light, I settled down to keep
watch. Immediately, the bat began to move and wriggled its way to-
wards the verandah, a distance of about seven yards. Reaching the
steel door-mat it wriggled halfway across. Then, evidently not liking
the feel, it turned about and went back to the gate, where it settled down
peacefully. About fifteen minutes later it repeated the performance,
and again settled down. Half an hour thereafter, when two adult bats
appeared and made six or seven low sorties over it, the baby suddenly
came to life with renewed energy, not only crawling back towards the
verandah but even making low hops in an evident attempt to rise in the
air. I feel definite that some kind of message was interchanged. Or,
was it merely an acute sense of smell that was responsible? After a
few minutes the adults departed and the baby lay down at the gate as if
dead. This new performance was repeated five times over by adults
and baby, till on the fifth occasion one of the adults alighted near the
baby and took it back to its home in the meter box. The time was then
8.40 p.m. Throughout the proceedings I did not hear a sound.

OFFICERS’ QUARTER A-l1,

OLD POLICE LINES, Lt. Col. A. DAVID
MoRIGATE ROAD,

DELHI-6,

October 3, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 211

3. NOTES ON THE COMMON PALM CIVET OR TODDY CAT
PARADOXURUS HERMAPHRODITUS (PALLAS), WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE AGE AT SHEDDING OF
THE MILK TEETH

(With two plates)

On 12-viii-1965 a female kitten of Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
(Pallas) was given to us by members of the priestly community in charge
of the great temple here, Lingaraj or Bhubaneswar, in the compound of
which they informed us that they had captured her on the previous day.

This kitten (Plate I, above) was completely weaned when received
and was able to eat raw meat quickly and deftly. She has not become
tame, perhaps because she was too old when captured. In 1966, thanks
to Mr. Ghanashyam Naik, the Superintendent of the Nandan Kanan
Biological Park near Bhubaneswar, we have examined young animals -
who were seen by him on recorded dates before their eyes were open.
These comparisons make certain that our own animal, here discussed,
was born not later than May 1965, and most probably during the pre-
vious February.

Examination of these Nandan Kanan kittens has also enabled us to
confirm Pallas’ original description of the male genitalia published in
1777 by Schreber in Vol. HI of his SAUGETHIERE. We are grateful to
Professor Ernst Mayr for the following translation of this from the
German.

‘ Above the penis extends a longish bare area toward the anus, the
tender and white skin of which, below, where it begins, forms a double
fold with an intervening cleft [Scheidung].

‘This is the reason why uninformed people have been shown this
animal as a hermaphrodite.’

In a six months’ old individual the penis is actually in this bare area
enclosed by the two folds and the testes have not descended into an
external scrotum. The form and position of the vulva of our now adult
female is unexceptional when compared with those of dogs and cats,
though both orifices are horizontal and ventral when at rest.

After various experiments she is now fed on fruit, chiefly bananas,
which are necessary to keep her stools firm. The divergence of the nos-
trils and the vertical cleft down the centre of the rhinarium of this civet
parallel the nose structure of another banana eater, the fruit bat Cynop-
terus sphinx (Vahl). She also receives daily one raw egg and a helping
of flesh, either mammal, fish, prawns or snails, supplemented by insects
and the small vertebrates that our dog maims or kills, but does not eat
herself. The only mammalian butcher’s meats the civet will now accept

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

are raw goat’s liver, and various preparations of cooked and salted pork.
She accepts cakes and sweets, but not their raw materials such as gur
or chopped coconut. Care has to be taken to vary what is offered to
her, as she is the first non-human animal known to us who shows the
human corruption of alternating periods of greed for a food substance,
with periods of refusal to accept it.

She breaks an egg by steadying it with her forepaws and biting into
it. Usually this steadying is performed by lifting the egg with paws
several centimetres off the ground (Plate I, below), and gradually lower-
ing it so that when the teeth penetrate the shell it is cupped between the
pads of her paws, and the knuckles rest on the ground.

That insects are food may explain a peculiar reaction of which we
publish two photographs. On both occasions on which she was first
offered a new blanket of thick, rough, eri [Philosamia cynthia (Drury)]
silk, she reacted as though she were afraid of it, withdrawal alternating
with timid experimental bites dragging the blanket towards (Plate II,
above) her, and then letting go to retreat from it (Plate II, below). The
behaviour pattern resembled that exhibited by a dog to a mechanical
toy, and may have a similar explanation. A dog in this context is in-
terpreted as being frightened because the toy has movement like a living
being, but is not alive.* It is possible that this raw silk even after spin-
ning, weaving and some laundering still smelt significantly of insects,
smells which certainly excite her, and for which, in captivity, she may
be starved. Such a smell associated with a non-insect form might excite
the fear reaction observed.

Prater (1965) states that civets are silent animals. Ours has pro-
duced no sound except a cat-like explosive spit when she fears she may
be touched. This is often accompanied by a stamp. She hits the floor
abruptly with one of her forepaws, thus making a sharp sound coin-
cident with the vocalization and contributing to the effect.

On 23-v-66 it was noticed that her right lower canine was missing.
While demonstrating this absence immediately afterwards, the left lower
canine was seen to be leaning outwards in its socket, i.e., it too was work-
ing loose. On 24-v-66 both the empty sockets were seen, but on 27-v-66
she possessed two new lower canines already erupted sufficiently to show
their characteristic shape, and for their crowns to extend above the
level of the adjacent incisors and molars. No partial double row of
teeth could be seen in the lower jaw, as can be seen in young cats when
they are replacing their milk, or deciduous, dentition by their permanent
dentition. Thus the milk canines were replaced by their permanent

1 Since making the first draft of this note we have seen our dog react similarly
ambivalently to a somewhat naturalistic scarecrow in a turban and pyjamas. Until
this we have always believed that scarecrows were ineffectual, being based on in-
accurate suppositions about anima! behaviour.

J. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE I
Jayakar : Common Palm Civet

Above: & born 1965—on 13-8-65
(Photo: J. C. Hoard)

Below: & born 1965—eating egg on 16-1-66
(Photo : S. D. Jayakar)

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) PLATE II
Jayakar : Common Palm Civet

=

¥
t
§

Above : & born 1965—15-1-66 timidly attacking a new silk blanket
Below: Two or three minutes later, apprehensively watching
the same blanket (in the top right hand corner of picture)

from a distance
(Photos: S. D. Jayakar)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

representatives when this palm civet was 12 to 15 months old, and the
eruption of the latter was explosive. This would seem appropriate to
the way of life of a full grown herbivorous and insectivorous carnivore
(Davis quoted by Diicker 1965). No other losses of teeth have been
noted, but we were away from Bhubaneswar between 20/vi and 13/vii,
1966. As is usual after such an absence, changes were found to be con-
spicuous, and the dentition of her lower jaw (which, in the cage provided,
is seen more frequently and easily than that of the upper) had become
more robust and the teeth more differentiated. Therefore we conclude
that tooth replacement had continued.

We have seen only a fraction of the relevant literature on this group
but neither Ewer (1963) nor Diicker (1965), both of whom bred viverrids
in conditions of intimacy, give any information about tooth replacement.
Information on this in any species seems rare. Mivart (1881) writing
of the milk teeth of the domestic cat says, ‘ They begin to fall out after
the seventh month, but the lower true molar comes into its place before
the deciduous molars fall out’. Sisson & Grossman (1953) state that the
process in domestic dogs begins when they are between four and five
months old, the canines being among the earliest to be replaced.

When dogs and cats are similar, as in this, in their gestation periods,
and their expectations of life there is a tendency to assume that they are
typical of the smaller fissipede carnivores. However Maxwell (1960)
quotes the first owner of one of his otters as stating that she replaced
her milk teeth by her permanent teeth coincidentally with weaning, and
they estimated this to be at not more than 3 months old. Ina later book
Maxwell (1963) identifies this individual as belonging to Lutra cornuta,
but as this west African species is clawless, and a male grew to a weight
in the region of 50 lbs. some authorities might prefer to change the generic
designation.

Crandall (1965) gives 14 years 5 months 12 days as the record for
P. hermaphroditus in captivity, and quotes Simon (1943) that a European
otter lived for over 22 years in the Trivandrum Zoo. Thus both species
might in this respect be expected to have an expectation of life in cap-
tivity similar to dogs and cats.

We would be interested in any other records of ages at the eruption
of permanent dentitions in small carnivores. This, after all, consti-
tutes a climacteric in the development of a mammal.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY, S. D. JAYAKAR
GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, H. SPURWAY
BHUBANESWAR-3,

OrISSA, INDIA.

December, 1966.

214

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

REFERENCES

CRANDALL, E. S. (1965) : The manage-
ment of wild mammals in captivity. 2nd
ed. University of Chicago Press,

Chicago.
Dicker, G. (1965): Das Verhalten
der Schleichkatzen (Viverridae).

Handb. Zool. 8, 10 (20a) : 1-48.

———— (1963): The Rocks Remain.
Longmans, London.

MivarT, ST. G. (1881): The Cat.
John Murray, London.

Simon, E. S. (1943): Life span of
some wild animals in captivity. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 117-118.

Ewer, R. F. (1963): The behaviour
of the Meerkat, Suricata suricatta
(Schreber). Z. Tierpsychol, 20 : 570-607.

MAXWELL, G. (1960) : Ring of Bright
Longmans, London.

SISSON, S., & GROSSMAN, J. D. (1953):
The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.
4th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia and
London.

Water.

4. NOTES ON THE MALABAR SPINY DORMOUSE,
PLATACANTHOM YS LASIURUS BLYTH, 1859, WITH NEW
DISTRIBUTION RECORD

During the course of routine trapping of small mammals in the
Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) area in Shimoga District, Mysore State,
one female Spiny Dormouse was captured on February 2, 1966, from
Dasangadde, near Sagar in Shimoga District (Altitude 1800 Ft. ; Lati-
tude 14° 10’). The identification was confirmed by Mr J. C. Daniel of
Bombay Natural History Society. Subsequently another specimen,
also a female, was captured from the same locality on 21 May 1966.
The external measurements in millimetres of these two specimens were :

Head and body i355 140
Tail if He 85 80
Left hind paw oe 25 23
ett ear e.2: re ley 17

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) and Ellerman (1961) have reported
this species from ‘ Coorg, Travancore and Malabar in Southern Penin-
sular India’. Shortridge (in Ryley 1913), says that ‘ Platacanthomys is
known to exist as far north as Kadur District in Western Mysore’. The
finding of this species near Sagar extends the northern limits of the dis-
tribution of this species in India.

Both the specimens were trapped in Sherman traps (9” x 3” x34”)
using ‘ Pakoda’ as bait (a mixture of onion and gram flour fried in oil).
During the extensive and intense trapping of small mammals over the
past ten years in a variety of habitats, this specimen was recorded only
twice in the KFD area, and as such the species should be considered rare
in this area.

The description of this species tallies with Ellerman’s (1961) descrip-
tion except in two respects. The colour of the back is not ‘ dark red-
dish brown’. There is no reddish tinge to the coloration at all. Also

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 215

the spine-like hairs are white tipped, a fact not stated in the FAUNA OF
INDIA volume, but mentioned by Shortridge (loc. cit.)

It is quite probable that this species feeds on ripe pepper (Piper nig-
rum) and Jackfruit (Artocarpus sp.) which abound in the forests of Sagar
area. In captivity, one female is thriving very well on a feed of bananas
and groundnut for the last twenty months. During the day the animal
is sluggish and has a tendency to curl up like a hedgehog, with the
bushy tail protruding. The animal is active during the night only and
feeds voraciously. It is very shy and tries to hide in some corner when
approached and is quite tame to handle.

ViRUS RESEARCH CENTRE,? P. K. RAJAGOPALAN
Poona,
December 4, 1967.

REFERENCES }

ELLERMAN, J. R., & Morrison-Scotr, by M. L. Roonwal. Zoological Survey
T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearc- of India, Calcutta. Volumes 1 & 2.
tic and Indian Mammals, 1758-1946. 884 pp.

British Museum (Natural History), RYLEY, KATHLEEN, V. (1913):
London, 810 pp. Mammal Survey of India—Report No.
ELLERMAN, J. R. (1961): The Fauna 11 Coorg. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

of India including Pakistan, Burma and 22 (3) : 486-513.
Ceylon, Mammalia. Volume 3. Edited

5. OCCURRENCE OF THE REEF HERON [EGRETTA GULARIS
(BOSC.)] IN HYDERABAD DISTRICT -

On the afternoon of June 8, 1967, I observed a slate-blue wading bird
feeding at the edge of the Shamsabad (A.P.) tank in the company of 18
little egrets [Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus)].

It appeared to be almost exactly the same size as the egrets, and when
the flock flew up, it displayed the same manner of flight, with head pulled
in and legs trailing behind.

Closer examination—I was able to approach to within perhaps 40
feet—revealed the bird quite positively to be an Indian Reef Heron
[Egretta gularis (Bosc.)], with a conspicuous white patch on its throat
and bright yellow feet which flashed into prominence once when it flew
directly away from me. I cannot be positive as to the colour of its legs
and bill.

When I returned to the tank on the afternoon of June 17, 1967, the
reef heron was still there again feeding at water’s edge with several little
egrets.

1The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of Medical
Research and The Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a grant (3 x 4307)
of the PL 480 Funds from the National Institutes of Health, US PHS, through the
Indian Council of Medical Research, |

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

I observed the bird for perhaps two hours altogether, in conditions
of both full sunlight and overcast skies.
The south-west monsoon (light showers) arrived on June 7 in this

area (Hyderabad Dist.), but I cannot say whether this may have had

some influence in the occurrence of this western sea-coast bird so far
inland.

SHAMSABAD,

HYDERABAD DISTRICT, GEORGE F. NEAVOLL
ANDHRA PRADESH,

July 8; 1967:

6. THE FEMALE OF MOLESWORTH’S TRAGOPAN
TRAGOPAN BLYTHI MOLESWORTHI BAKER

(With a plate)

Molesworth’s Tragopan, Tragopan blythi molesworthi Baker, has so
far been known from only two specimens, both males. The holotype
was taken by Capt. A. L. M. Molesworth at Dengan La (alt. c. 2438 m.),
c. 27° 11’ N. 92° 1’ E., Scherechopka country, south-eastern Bhutan, on
31 March 1914. Ludlow (1944)? procured the second specimen from
Shingkar (alt. c. 2591 m.), Louri District, eastern Bhutan (c. 64 km.
north-west of Dengan La, the type-locality), on 1 April 1936. Its female
has so far been unknown.

During a recent ornithological survey of Bhutan undertaken jointly
with Dr. Salim Ali since 1966, I have been able to collect a female Tragopan
which clearly belongs to Tragopan blythi, but differs from the nominate
subspecies in some important details. There can, therefore, be little
doubt that my specimen represents 7. b. molesworthi, and the first known
female at that (Plate).

The specimen was taken by me above the Bulfai Pass (alt. c. 2621 m.),
c, 27° 14’ N. 91° 31’ E., Manas Valley, eastern Bhutan, on 30 March
1966. It was shot while skulking in a patch of rhododendron forest
with thick undergrowth of various herbs and shrubs, and a few scattered
clumps of ringal bamboo. It was a lone example busily feeding at
about 8.00 hours when my presence there disturbed it.

This female specimen differs from the females of the nominate sub-
species in having the whole upper plumage darker, the blackish marks
being larger and deeper coloured, grey-brown markings much deeper
grey and less brown, ear coverts subtipped rufous, rufous-centred cheek-

2 LupLow, F. (1944): The birds of south-eastern Tibet. J/bis 86 : 380-381,

‘eeulay “(loye_ rypomsajoum wyd7qg uvdosva yz) uedosery, $,yiOMso[oW

uedosely S YVIOMSI[OJ : SEASTG

‘EVN AvaWwom “f

(1) $9 ‘90S “LSIH

ao

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 217

feathers, rump and upper tail coverts greyer and not quite so reddish
in-general tone. On the underside, the rufous edges of feathers of breast
and abdomen deeper.

COLOUR OF SOFT PARTS: Iris dark brown, edges of eyelids lemon
yellow, maxilla black but brown on base, mandible very pale horny,
legs and feet brownish horny, claws horny, pads white.

MEASUREMENTS (in flesh): Wing 232, tail 155+, biil 33 mm.

Its crop contained no animal matter, but was distended with freshly
swallowed plant material. The bulk of this food consisted of green
leaves of Spirdea sp. (Rosaceae), Herpetospermum caudigerum (Cucur-
bitaceae) and young circinate leaves of fern of the Order Filicales in
approximately equal quantities, moderate quantity of green leaves of
Thalictrum chelidonii (Ranunculaceae), and a few fronds of fern of the
Order Filicales. Most of the leaves were swallowed whole or nearly so,
and two of the fern fronds were about 9°5 cm. long. There was also a
quantity of leaf fragments, bits of tender shoots, petioles and leafbuds,
_all apparently belonging to plants named above.

I am thankful to the authorities of the British Museum (Natural
History), London, for their courtesy in extending me facilities to examine
their material. I amindebted to; Mr, J. Delacour for kindly comparing
my specimen with the material at the American Museum of Natural
History, New York; Shri S. S. Saha of the Zoological Survey of India
for his generous assistance in this work; Shri V. S. Agarwal of the Botani-
cal Survey of India for kindly identifying the plant material; and to
Shri A. K. Karmakar, Artist, Zoological Survey of India, for the pre-
paration of the coloured sketch.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, |

INDIAN MUSEUM, BISWAMOY BISWAS
CaALcuTta-13,

September 18, 1967.

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE LITTLE CRAKE, PORZANA
PARVA (SCOPOLI), IN BOMBAY

In 1939 (Birds of Bombay Island & Salsette, J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 40 : 629), we referred to the Little Crake, Porzana parva (Scopolli),
_as an aberrant cold weather straggler to our area based on a specimen
obtained at Malabar Hill, Bombay, by A. H. A. Simcox.

We mentioned however that the specimen listed in the old card cata-
logue of the Society’s collection prepared by Mr. N. B. Kinnear had not
been seen (presumably being untraceable).

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

It was probably this uncertainty which prompted Ripley (1961)! to
ignore this southern-most record and to restrict them to ‘ A few win-
tering records for West Pakistan in Sind and Baluchistan, and Gilgit’.

The specimen (B.N.H.S. Col. No. 13878, 9, 27 Nov. 1914) has now
been rediscovered, having been listed among Baillon’s Crake, Porzana
pusilla (Pallas). It is admittedly very similar to this species but the
larger wing 98 (85-96 in P. pusilla), the absence of the white edge to the
first primary and to the tips of the wing coverts, the buff-coloured breast
and under-parts, the faint traces of black barring on the flanks and
under-tail coverts, the structure of the wing, and comparison with speci-
mens from Iraq, leave no doubt that the bird was correctly identified.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
HornsBiLL House, APOLLO STREET, SALIM ALI
BomBay-1, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

September 27, 1967.

8. SOUTHWARD EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE
SLENDERBILLED GULL (LARUS GENEI BREME)

The Slenderbilled Gull (Larus genei Bréme) is known to breed at
Las Belas in Baluchistan and in parts of Sind, and as a non-breeding
visitor to the shores and tidal creeks of Sind. The southern-most records
are from Bhavnagar in Kathiawar where Dharmakumarsinhji obtained
a specimen on 4 December 1948 (BNHS Collection No. 14176) and
referred to it in his BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA (1955 p. 213). Dr. Salim Ali
does not mention this bird in BIRDS OF KUTCH (1945) nor ‘The Birds of
Gujarat’ (1954, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 375), and Ripley’s SYNOPSIS
leaves the first distribution unchanged.

It may therefore be worthwhile recording that on 4 December, 1957,
I collected one (BNHS Collection No. 21330) in Manori Creek, Salsette,
Bombay, and have subsequently seen them in small parties and obtained
specimens on 28 December 1960 and 9 January 1964, in the same area
(Manori and Arnala Island). It would appear to be a fairly regular
winter visitor to the Bombay coast. It is perhaps not better known
because, not being a scavenger like the other gulls, it keeps out more
atsea. The 3specimens obtained by me and also the one from Bhavnagar
are all in immature plumage, having dark subterminal bands to the tail.

ST. XAVIER’S HIGH SCHOOL, BR. A. NAVARRO, s.J.

BOMBAY,
May 6, 1967.

1 Ripcey, S. D. (1961) : Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Pag)

9, SAP SUCKING BY INDIAN WOODPECKERS

(With a photograph)

Readers will be interested to see the accompanying photograph of
an apple tree (Pyrus malus) in the middle of a lawn, taken at the Chasme
Shahi Gardens in Srinagar (5000 feet), Kashmir, on 21 July 1967. The
lines of dark spots represent small holes dug into the bark in rings round
the stem at regular intervals of a few inches along the whole height.

The first impression was that this was the work of an idle schoolboy, but
this was dismissed in consideration of the magnitude of the work, its
commencement at almost ground level, and its extension far out of his
reach. We were discussing the possibility of its being a woodpecker,
when a gardener joined in and confirmed our suspicions. I had a vague
recollection of having seen a photograph of such holes and the name of
the American Sapsucker was suggestive, but I could not recall any re-
ference to sap-sucking in India, The HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS

220. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

(1938, 2 : 277 and 285) refers to rare instances in Britain of Picus viridis
(doubtfully) and Dryobates major (certainly) ringing trees with series of
regularly-spaced pits after the fashion of the American Sapsuckers
(Sphyrapicus). In Indian literature I have only been able to find
A. E. Osmaston’s note ‘ Curious habits of Woodpeckers in the Kumaon
Hills’ (1916, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 363-366). As this would
not be easily accessible to most members, I reproduce portions of it :

‘Those who know the hill forests of Garhwal may have noticed at
one time or another rows of small neat holes made in lines across the
stems of trees. They may be seen at any height up to at least 30 feet
from the ground and the rows are nearly always quite horizontal. Each
row consists of perhaps a dozen holes, half an inch or so apart, and the
rows may be any distance down to a few inches one above the other.
Often the distance apart is repeated with remarkable accuracy and in
this case the rows are not separated as a rule by more than 6 to 8 inches.
The holes themselves are more or less rounded and about + to } inch
across in section and they invariably pierce through the bark to atleast
half its thickness, but never in any circumstances enter the woody tissue
beneath.

For the last few years I have been endeavouring to discover what it is
that forms these holes and why they are formed. A general answer to
the first question is fairly easily given.

The holes are undoubtedly formed by woodpeckers. The species of
woodpecker responsible for this work of art.and what this objective may
be are questions not so easily disposed of.

If these holes be examined it will be found that they only occasionally
show signs of recent attack. In by far the majority of cases the holes
have been made some months or years previously and do not show any
obvious signs of having been tampered with since. Such holes may
extend only half way through the bark, but more frequently they extend
right down to the delicate cambium layer separating the cortical from the
woody tissue. Again, some of them will be found empty whilst others
will contain a core of secondary growth tissue which may have completely
filled up the lower half of the original cavity. This tissue is usually soft
and spongy and sometimes tinged green. Where no such core of
secondary tissue is present the bottom of the hole may contain a soft
fungal growth which is usually white.

In some cases, however, the holes show signs of a recent visit. This is
recognised by evidence of a fresh incision into the secondary growth
tissue at the base of the cavity.’ |

Osmaston goes on to list separately the trees most frequently
(including Pyrus pashia) and occasionally attacked such trees being found
between 6000 ft. and 10,000 ft. but usually between 6500 ft. and 7500 ft.
He had no evidence that any of the eight possible species of woodpeckers

ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 221

listed by Blanford makes the holes or that any other does not. He notes
that the Rufousbellied Pied Woodpecker Hypopicus hyperythrus (which,
incidentally, Ripley calls a sapsucker in the SYNOPSIS) systematically
visits such holes and suggests that this is one, if not the sole, perpetrator.
When concluding, Osmaston suggests that the holes are made horizon-
tally (he does not refer to rings round the stem?) merely because the
bird finds it more convenient to work sideways rather than upwards or
downwards.

My first impression also was that the boring was for insects, but I am
inclined to think that the distance between the rows is an index of the
size of the bird—each row serving as a foothold for working on the next.
The bark of the apple trees on which I found this pitting was smooth,
unlike the rough bark on which woodpeckers usually hunt for insect food.
The possibility that strikes me is, therefore, that the woodpecker starts
the pecking at a level where some foothold is available and then works
upwards using each ring of pits as a foothold for making the next ring.
Osmaston’s suggestion about H. hyperythrus being the maker of such pits
is strengthened by its having a brush-like tip to its tongue, but as regards
the locality in which I noticed the pitting I do not know if this species
could have been responsible as it is not mentioned for this area in Bates &
Lowther’s BREEDING BIRDS OF KASHMIR (1952), the woodpeckers listed
being Picus squamatus, Dryobates himalayensis and Dryobates brunnei-
frons, the last of which I noticed in the neighbourhood.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,
BOMBAY-3, 7 HUMAYUN ABDULALI
October 11, 1967.

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE HOUSE MARTIN, DELICHON
URBICA (LINN). IN SAURASHTRA, GUJARAT

On 3 April 1967, Y. S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan and myself were
walking in the evening on the dam of the Jasdan tank when we saw quite
Clearly the House Martin (Delichon urbica), a single bird, hawking with
swallows, crag martins, and swifts. The House Martin had a forked tail
and was easily recognizable by the long white patch on the rump
and upper tail coverts and also its pied head pattern. We looked up
‘Birds of Gujarat’ by Salim Ali (1954)1 in which he mentions this bird

1 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 375.

222. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

at Navsari. Our sighting of the House Martin must be the second
record for its occurrence in Gujarat.

Dit BAHAR, R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHSI
BHAVNAGAR,
April 12, 1967.

[This is a rare and sporadic winter visitor from the Himalayas, chiefly
on the western side of the Peninsula. In addition to Gujarat, as above,
has been recorded from Maharashtra (Prakasha on Tapti R.,
W. Khandesh; Sinhgadh near Poona), Madhya Pradesh (Sehore), Mysore
(Haliyal near Londa; Belgaum; Shimoga), Madras (Coimbatore ;
Nilgiris, between Ootacamund and Coonoor), and there is a specimen
labelled ‘ Travancore’ in the British Museum collection. Apparently
the eastern-most record is from Bilaspur, c. 22°N., 82°E.—Eds.]|

11. WIRE NESTS OF REDVENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS
CAFER (LINNAEUS)

On 14 October 1967, I came across three nests of Redvented Bulbul,
Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus) with 10-15 day old fledglings, in the
Hadapsar Industrial Estate at Poona. Two of these nests which were
located in the large compound of a factory manufacturing electric motors
and fans etc. were partially constructed out of fine copper wire (S.W.G.
34) generally used for winding of rotor and field coil of stator of electric
motors. Almost 50% of the nest lining of these nests was done with
this wire, which had apparently been picked from the heaps of discarded —
Wire pieces in the compound.

So far only House Crows (Hume 1889 :9 ; Baker 1932 : 16 ; Dewar
1929 : 27-28 ; Lamba 1963: 125) and Doves (Walsh 1924: 1055-1056)
have been recorded to incorporate metallic wires and strips in the nest
structure. The belief (Lamba 1967: 154) that these unusual materials
are used as an easily available substitute for the normal nesting materials
and comparative scarcity of the same in the nesting area is amply streng-
thened by this find.

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

1182/2, F.C. ROAD,

POoNa~-5S, B. S. LAMBA
October 17, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

223

REFERENCES

Hume, A. O. (1889): Nests and eggs
of Indian birds. 1.2nd Ed. R.H. Porter,
London.

BAKER, E. C. S. (1932): Nidification
of the Birds of the Indian Empire. 1.

LAMBA, B. S. (1963) : The Nidification
of some Common Indian birds. Part I.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 121-133.
— (1967) : Some Indian Corvi-
dae, a contribution to their breeding
biology. Unpublished.

Taylor and Francis, London.
Dewar, D. (1929): Indian Birds

WALSH, W. P. P. (1924): Wire nests.
Nests. Thacker Spink and Co., Bombay.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29 : 1055-1056.

12. CETTIA MONTANA VERSUS C. FORTIPES
(AVES: SYLVIINAE)

In Vol. 60 : 683, Dec. 1963 of this Journal, Biswas advocates changing
the name Cettia fortipes to C. montana on grounds of priority. Ripley,
in his supplement immediately following (p. 687-689), does not mention
the point. It would thus appear that neither of these authors, nor the
several others consulted by Biswas, is familiar with the facts in this case.

Earlier, Delacour had also used montand in a revision of Cettia in
1943. I, and doubtless others, called his attention early in 1946 to the
fact that it is preoccupied ; he published a correction (Auk 64: 129,
1947), unfortunately without giving a bibliographic citation of the rather
obscure first publication of the name.

The fact is that the name Sylvia montana Horsfield, 1821, given to a
Cettia, is a homonym of the little-known Sylvia montana Wilson, 1812
(American Ornithology 5: 113, pl. 44, fig. 2). It is thus still-born and
can never be revived, even though Wilson’s bird has never been satis-
factorily identified. It has been considered a doubtful synonym of
Dendroica virens (Gmelin) by Ridgway (United States National Mus.
Bull. 50, part 2: 784, 1902), or a ‘lost species’ of Wood Warbler
(Parulidae). In view of Wilson’s care and accuracy, and of the strange
hybrids and freaks in this family of birds that have recently been
captured, it is not unthinkable that Wilson may have drawn certain of
his plates from abnormal specimens or hybrids.

Be this as it may, the name Cettia fortipes (Hodgson), 1845, should
stand, and the changes suggested by Biswas (loc. cit.) should not be made.

Another of Biswas’ points (loc. cit., lines 13-12 from bottom) is not
invariably correct. The type locality of a form is not automatically ‘ the
place of origin of the first specimen (type)’. If an author has specimens
from various places, all are equivalent cotypes unless his description or
comments eliminate some from consideration as cotypes, or unless he
designates one or more types. Biswas is correct, however, that the

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

locality of a mere sighting is ineligible, except in those rare cases where a
species is described with no specimen in hand.

APARTADO POsTAL 19-138,

Mexico 19, D.F., ALLAN R. PHILLIPS
MEXIco,

July 1967.

Dr. Biswas whose comments were invited writes:

When the homonymy between Sylvia montana Wilson, 1812, and
Sylvia montana Horsfield, 1821, was discovered both nominal species
had been transferred to different genera and there was no danger of
confusion since at the time of discovery of the potential homonymy the
two species are no longer included in same genus.

In his revision, Delacour (Jbis 85 : 27-29, 1943) used the name ' Coe
fortipes for the species and montana as the subspecific name of the Javan
population. I have not seen Delacour’s correction referred to, but
apparently he did not think much about it, for in 1949, while giving mea
copy of his Cettia paper, he himself changed fortipes to montana as the
specific name (on p. 27 of the paper) and told me that montana was
older. And, I find that even in the recent comprehensive work of Vaurie
(BIRDS OF THE PALEARCTIC FAUNA : Passeriformes, pp. 223- 224, 1959),
Cettia montana Horsfield has been retained. Ripley verbally informed
me that he followed Delacour’s paper.in using the name Cettia fortipes
for the species.

Regarding the second point, that is, about type-locality, my point is
indeed invariably correct, for the place of origin of ‘ the type’ (=type
specimen=holotype) must necessarily be its type-locality. What
Dr. Phillips says is also correct, but only in regard to syntypes from
different localities, which does not arise here, for all the ‘ first specimens ’
(=syntypes) of Graminicola bengalensis were taken in Cachar.

B. BISWAS

[We might add that in a subsequent letter Dr. Phillips draws attention
to Vaurie’s using the name Cettia montanus in his BIRDS OF THE PALEARCTIC
FAUNA and ‘It now occurs to me that, by failing to mention Vaurie, I
perhaps implied that the oversight was original with Biswas rather than
general ’—Eds. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | : 225
13. SOME BIRD RECORDS FROM KUTCH

This morning while driving along a kuchha motor road outside Vijaya
Vilas Palace, I saw and shot from a little pond a Sheld-duck [Tadorna
tadorna (Linnaeus)]. As you will observe the only specimen mentioned
in the BIRDS OF KUTCH was obtained by Col. C. B. O’Brien who evidently
shot it at a tank near Bhachau in 1921. So this is the second specimen
obtained in Kutch so far. Both the bill and the legs were pale pink.
Therefore, I presume, it was a female.

The other bird I noticed in the compound of Sarad Bagh Palace,
Bhuj, on November 25, was the male of the Paradise Flycatcher Terpsi-
phone paradisi (Linnaeus). It tallied with the description given on page
162 of the BIRDS OF KUTCH.

PALACE,
Buus (KUTCH), MAHARAO OF KUTCH
December 4, 1966.

14. SOME INTERESTING MIGRANTS IN KUTCH

On December 11, 1966, I went up to the Laeja Creek, 8 miles west of
Mandvi, to watch the waders and in the middle of the creek I saw a soli-
tary Indian Skimmer (RhAynchops albicollis Swainson). I have seen this
bird only once before in August 1947 in the same place (1956, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 190).

In addition to the Paradise Flycatcher [Terpsiphone paradisi
(Linnaeus)] seen by H. H. Maharao Saheb in the Sarad Bagh garden in
Bhuj last November, I saw one in Mandvi on December 10, (also male).
Although this bird is rare in Kutch I have seen it on many occasions,
mostly in the Vijaya Vilas Palace grounds at Mandvi.

The other rare visitor seen by me on December 18, was the White-
browed Fantail Flycatcher (Rhipidura aureola Lesson) at Vijaya Vilas.
I have seen this flycatcher only once before in Rapar (Rav).

This year also I was lucky enough to add one more bird to the Kutch
list. On January 10, I came across the Forest Wagtail (Motacilla indica
Gmelin) in my own compound at Bhuj. Only one bird was observed by
me which seems to have taken up its residence in my garden here, for I
saw the bird again today. This bird is not at all shy and allows a very
Close approach. Though very like the other wagtails in its general
appearance, unlike the others, which move their tails vertically, this one
moves it horizontally and with this movement of the tail its whole body
also appears to sway gracefully. ,
BHUJ,

KuTCcH, M. K. HIMMATSINHSJI
January 16, 1967.
15

226.

~15.. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

Ring No.
and Species

C-1471
Anas crecca

C-1580
Anas crecca 3

C-2585
Anas crecca 3

C-342

Anas crecca 3

C-1366
Anas crecca 6

C-1466
Anas crecca 8

C-2526

Anas crecca & (?)

C-2563
Anas crecca 0 ?

C-2607
Anas crecca 6

C-2658
Anas crecca 3

C-2692
Anas crecca &

C-2848
Anas crecca

C-2849 »
Anas-crecca $

—

C-2852
Anas crecca $

19.10.1966. do. -

“23:10,1966 do.”

23.10.1966. do.

Date and place of
ringing

Date and place of |
recovery

JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

Remarks

10.10.1966. Bharatpur, + 30.4.1967. Altaisk Reported — by
Region near Kuchuk Bird Ringing

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
Ni; (32,8)

12.10.1966. do.
19.10.1966. do.

6.2.1964. Manjhaul,
Monghyr Dist., Bihar
(c..25° 23° N., 86° 30°
| he Few oy
8.10.1966. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
IN 7532 ES)

10.10.1966. do.

15.10.1966. do.
18.10.1966. do.

19.10.1966. do.

20.10.1966. do.

23.10.1966: do.

~ 26.3.1967.

-. “naisk Region,

(335 230° N., 827, 266
E,)
4-2: 19.3:1967. or Madjik

S.S.R., near Dushanbe
(38° 35’ N., 68° 47’ E.)

S.S.R., near Suzak
(40° 57’ N., 72° 55’ E.)
+ 12.5.1967. Yakutian
A.S.S.R., Aldan Dist.,
near Chulman (c. 56°
50°N.,: 124° 537\B:)
+ 18.3.1967. Kazakh
S.S.R., Dzhambul Re-
gion, near Furma-

novka (c. 44° 18’ N,, .
A IZOS551 EB.) Ae

+ 8.4.1967. Uralsk Re-
gion, near Uralsk. (c.
51° 17OIN., 31° 238.)
+ 26.3.1967. Alma
Atinsk Region, near

- Sarkand (c. 45° 24’ N.,

1D 58 Ee?)
+ 18.3.1967.
bul Region,

150 km. north from

the town of Dzhambul -

+ 8.5.1967. . Sverd-
lovsk Region, near
Taborg (c. 58° 31’ N.,
64° 36’ E.) -
+ 22.4.1967. Kusta-
near
Uritskoe (c.53° 207-N.,
65° 30’ E.)
+ 30.4.1967.
Region, near
kovo (c. 52° 13’ N., 81°

Altaisk

24) E.)

+ 4,5,1967.
Region, near Yautla
E56 40’ N., 64° 26’
3) = "

+ 7,5.1967. Tomsk Re-

gion, near Molcha-
novo;.(cs. 57°, 357 |N.,

ARO Eye ee

+ 7.5.1967.. Krasno-

yarsk Region, near
Achinsk (c. 56° 17’ N.,
90° 30’ E.)

Kirghizian

Dzham-.
about

do.

Meini- ~

Kurgan do.

‘do. © #48

Centre, Mos-
cow, U.S.S.R.

Id@y V33)
do.

do.

do. ?

do.

do.
do.
do.

do. -- |

do. Ce

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.
and Species

Date and place of
ringing

C-2853
Anas crecca $

C-2913
Anas crecca 0?

C-2983
Anas crecca $

C-2522
Anas crecca 6

C-2646
Anas crecca 6

C-2711
Anas crecca 3
(juv.)

C-2984

Anas crecca & (?)

C-339.
. Anas crecca 3

C-1352

Anas crecca 3

C-2623
Anas crecca 6

C-2666
Anas crecca 3

C-2938
Anas crecca &

C-119
Anas crecca &

23.10.1966. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

IN woes)
24.10.1966. do.
19.1.1967. Naopara,

Chiika Lake (c. 19° 28’

& 19° 56’ N., 85° 86’

io ai)

15.10.1966. Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
Ny 70° S24E.)

19.10.1966. do.
20.10.1966. do.

19.1.1967. Naopara,
Chilka Lake (c. 19° 28’
& 19° 56’ N., 85° ou

E.

6.2.1964. Manjhaul,

Date and place of
recovery

+ 11.4.1967.
zian S.S.R., Osh Re-
gion, near Guicha
(c. 40° 19’ N., 73° 28’
E.)

+ 6.3.1967. Dzinam-
bul Region, near Mik-
hailovka (c. 43° 00’ N..,
Die Sie Es)

+ 7.5.1967. Near Kras-
noyarsk (c. 56° 00’ N.,
92°) 527 Ee)

+ 22.4.1967. Karag-
andinsk Region, near
Kievka (50° 18’ N.,
(AS SM)
+ 5.5.1967.
birsk Region
+ 3.6.1967. Tyumen
Region, near Tarko-
sale (64° 47’ N., 77°
40’ E.)

Novosi-

+ 5.5.1967. Krasno-
yarsk Region, near
Shushenskoe (53° 20’
NS 9 Da Ee)

7.5.1967. Altai Region,

Monghyr Dist., Bihar near Rubcovsk (51°

(ci, 25, 23 '(N.. 86° 30;
; E.)
6.10.1966. Bharatpur

19.10.1966. do.

19.10.1966. do.

_ 25.10.1966. Bharatpur

18.2.1964.

Monghyr Dist., Bihar
(c. 25° 23’ N.,. 86° a"
E.

Manjhaul,

30’ N., 81° 11’ E.)

18.9.1967. Grkutsk Re-
gion near Kazachin-
skoe (56° 17’ N., 107°
350.)

+ 5.9.1967. Semipaia-
tinsk Region, Ayaguz
District, Sasyk-kul’-
Lake (46° 14’ N., 81°
00’ E.)

+ 21.4.1967. Kara-
ganda Region (c. 50°
Sie Na 702072 Es)
29.9.1967. Altai Region
near Altaiskoe (51°
SWINGS 852 Ln. B)
0.8.1967. Irkutsk Re-
gion near Nizhnjaja
Karelima (57° 58’ N.,
107° 51’ E.)

227

ECTS

Remarks

oe

Kirghi- Reported by

Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS (contd.)

SSS REE Se cos a

Ring No. Date and place of Date and place of Remarks

and Species ringing recovery
C-427 28.11.1964. do. 4.3.1967. Andizhan Re- Reported by
Anas crecca $ gion near Andizhan Bird Ring-
(40° 48%.N.;:72° 22’ ing Centres
E.) Moscow,
U.S.S.R.
C-2534 15.10.1966. Bharatpur 29.9.1967. Karagan- do.
Anas crecca & (?) disk Region near Abai
a Karabas (49° 30’ N.,
72° 48’ E.)
C-2600 19.10.1966. do. 23.9.1967. Tselinograd do.
Anas crecca 3 Region, Tselinograd

Dist., Aizegul Lake
(50° 22" N:, 717 18’ EB.)

C-2643 19.10.1966. do. 0.9.1967. Karagan- do.
Anas crecca § (?) dinsk near Karabas
(49> 3070N:,, 72° - 487
EF.)
C-2656 19.10.1966. do. 5.9.1967. Novosibrisk do.
Anas crecca @ (?) Region
C-2787 22.10.1966. do. 0.9.1967. Kurgan Re- do.
Anas crecca 8 gion near Petukhoro
(55° 03’ N., 67° 30’ E.)
C-2928 25.10.1966. do. 29.9.1967. Alma-Ata do.
Anas crecca @ (?) Region near Aksu (45°
39° Ni? 79" 307 E.)
C-3600 SL L967 do: 16.12.1967 Sitapur Reported by
Anas crecca & Dist., U.P., 30 miles Mr Chandra
from Lucknow Bhan Singh,
Sitapur
C-2829 20.10.1966. do. 20.12.1967. Gangiri, Reported by
Anas crecca & (?) Aligarh (c. 27° 29’ N., Rajendra
W229" -B.) Behari Lal
Sharma

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
HoORNBILL HOUSE, EDITORS
BomsBay-l, .
January 25, 1968.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 229

16. NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF HEMIDACTYLUS
(GEKKONIDAE: REPTILIA) IN BHUBANESWAR

The observations described below were made in Bhubaneswar, Orissa.
One of the two common domestic species in the new town of
Bhubaneswar is Hemidactylus brooki. The other is almost certainly H.
Jeschenaulti. In our house, the latter species seems the commoner by
far, but this may be due to the fact that H. brooki is more shy. The
numbers of ‘ groups’ of eggs found of the two species are the same ;
however, the number of eggs found of H. leschenaulti are almost twice as
many as for H. brooki.

OVIPOSITION

Twelve ‘ groups’ of eggs were found from 1964-66, 11 in our house
and 1 in the laboratory, situated in the Agricultural College. A ‘group’
of eggs consists of those found simultaneously at the same spot. All the
eggs were found in dark places, most commonly in drawers and some-
times in distribution boxes of electrical connections. Eggs of H. brooki
were found between April 9 and August 29; those of H. leschenaulti
between April 4 and July 7. (Most copulations were observed in the
month of May). Table 1 gives the dates of collection and hatching of
the eggs. It is clear that eggs hatch in pairs. This suggests that they
are laid in pairs as has been stated previously as a generalisation about
geckos (Goin & Goin 1962, p. 268). What is striking is that the periods
between the pairs of hatches is fairly constant for H. leschenaulti, varying
from 9 to 13 days. The only similar period obtained for HAH. brooki
was 29 days. In H. leschenaulti therefore, it would seem reasonable to
infer that the eggs of one group are laid by a single female who returned
to the same laying place as successive pairs of eggs became ready to be
laid.

This observation does not seem to be generally known. Smith (1935,
p. 27) for instance, suggests that groups of eggs found together are the
layings of several different females. The above data make this inter-
pretation unlikely. The period between consecutive layings of a female
H. leschenaulti would seem to be about 11 days in this population. There
are not enough data to provide similar evidence for H. brooki.
However, if in the latter species also a female returns regularly to the
same place for laying, the interval between consecutive layings is pro-
bably considerably longer in H. brooki. This I infer from the much
longer periods recorded between collection of eggs and the first hatch
in H. brooki (average 26 days) compared with those for H. leschenaulti
- (average 11 days). The average number of eggs per group is 2:3 for H.
brooki and 4:0 for H. leschenaulti. The bigger average for H. lesche-

er Oe a
a

SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

230

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 231

naulti would be expected if H. brooki laid eggs after longer intervals.
The maximum period between the collection of an egg and its hatching
is 39 days for H. brooki and 32 days for H. leschenaulti.

The eggs of both species are very variable in size. Table 2 shows
the sizes of the largest and smallest eggsin each group. The small

TABLE 2

EXTREME SIZES OF EGGS IN DIFFERENT GROUPS

No. of
Group eggs Largest egg Smallest egg
Al. brooki
4 4 ‘86x °*76 St 79) X 21269)
5 2 “S45e 275 "84x +74
8 4 1:18 x 1:02 S80 eS
10 2 “88x -76 Oh 76
H. leschenaulti it
a 187 x16 ‘80x ‘68
if 3 ‘85x +76 83 x °74
11 6 1°:12x1:10 1°16 x 1:04
5 1:20x1:06 1:14 x 0°96

12

variation in size within a group compared to the variation in the species
also suggests that a group of eggs is laid by a single female. Darwin
(1882, p. 260) and many subsequent authors have remarked on the idio-
syncratic quality of hen’s eggs. However, much more data will be neces-
sary before this inference is given statistical precision.

MOVEMENTS

In order to observe the movements of an individual gecko, I first
tried painting individuals with different colours of nail varnish.
However, the application of the nail varnish almost always induced the
lizard to moult it off within 2 or 3 days, so that this method was not
successful. *

1 However, in Calcutta, though the nail varnish was sloughed off as quickly as in
Bhubaneswar, marking did provide some striking observations. There, in a first
floor flat, I had started the routine of catching geckos anywhere in the flat and then
releasing them at a fixed place. From these observations, I got the impression that
usually during the winter, geckos tended to return as quickly as possible to the place
where they were captured. This included a gecko which was released at a spot diago-
nally across the flat from where it was captured, and had returned to the place of capture
in about 12 hours. In the part of the year when they were sexually active however
they tended to remain in the room where they were released. In the Calcutta popula-
tion I have also observed cannibalism, breaking up of a copulation by a third individual
leading to vicious fighting, and licking of the genitalia by both sexes after copulation.
| have not, however, been able to find out what species the Calcutta population was.

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

I have, however, been fortunate enough in Bhubaneswar to find
several individuals of H. leschenaulti with deformities of the tip of the
tail which are very good distinguishing marks. 4 different individuals
have so far been so distinguished. The first had a tail which was forked
at the tip. The second hadadouble bend at the tip which is, therefore,
S-shaped. The third had the tip deflected to the left and the fourth to
the right. However only the two former have so far provided data
enough to test statistically. Observations on Gecko 1 were started on
21/iv/64, and it has not been seen since 2/viii/65. Observations on
Gecko 2 were started on 26/viii/64 and were continued till 3/ii/67.
Every time a gecko was seen, the time and the place where it was ob-
served were recorded. These observations were then arranged accord-
ing to date. This series was then divided into three roughly equal por-
tions for each gecko separately. Results are shown in Table 3. The

TABLE 3

OBSERVATIONS ON MOVEMENTS OF TWO INDIVIDUALS OF H. leschenaulti

Gecko 1 Room(s)
Period A C B,D ‘Total
8/1-5/2 1 16 4 21
17/2-11/5 6 7 6 19
25/5-25/11 15 3 2 20
4290)
Gecko 2 | Room(s)
Period C ADE Total
9/1-19/2 26 0 26
13/2-15/6 18 8 26
16/6-24/12 17 9 26
x ,®=10°94

letters A to E each refer to a particular room. The value of X? in Table
3 for Gecko 1 should be interpreted with caution due to the small
numbers. However, the probability of obtaining such a value is so small
(P < 0°001) that we can safely infer that there is a difference in the pro-
portions of observations in different rooms during different parts of the
year. In the case of Gecko 2 also the difference is significant (P < 0°01).
Further, since the two latter periods do not show any difference, we can
group them into one period. If we do this we get a 2x2 table with

x =10°9 (P <0°091). Interpreting this biologically we see that during
1

January and February these lizards are very conservative in their move-
ments, whereas later in the year, that is roughly when they are sexually

=

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (1)

Tikader : Ophisaurus gracilis

> $ %S ‘ * oF
: ees eee x
ee & ts SF

Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray) on natural habitat

Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray) on hand
(Photos: Mrinal Kanti Sen)

é

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 233

active, they range over a wider area. From available data, I cannot
clearly state what their behaviour is immediately after their breeding
season is over. However, during this period Gecko 1 frequented a
different room than it did during the winter. Geckos | and 2 both
spent the winter of 1965-66 behind a cistern in a bath room and were
often seen together.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY,

GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, | S. D. JAYAKAR1
BHUBANESWAR-3,

September 23, 1967.

REFERENCES

Darwin, C. (1882): Animals and W. H. Freeman and Company, San
plants under domestication, Vol. 1. Francisco and London.
John Murray, London. SmiTH, M. (1935): Fauna of British
GOIN, COLEMAN, J. & GOIN, OLIVE, B. India. Reptilia 2.
(1962) : Introduction to Herpetology.

17. OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIMBLESS LIZARD
OPHISAURUS GRACILIS (GRAY) FROM SHILLONG, ASSAM

f

(With a plate)

The limbless lizards of the genus Ophisaurus are uncommon and
only one species, Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray), occurs in India. This
beautiful snake-like lizard was first described by Gray (1845) from Khasi
Hills, Assam. I collected nearly half a dozen specimens of the limbless
lizard Ophisaurus gracilis (Gray) from Shillong. The animal (locally
known as naingbaen) hides under logs and stones during the day and
comes out after sunset in search of food, mainly insects and worms.
It is quite harmless, and makes no attempt to bite when handled. It
is sluggish, and shams dead when handled. The measurements of the
largest specimen in my collection are as follows : snout to vent 185 mm. :
tail 284 mm., and girth 38°50 mm. (Plate, figs. 1, 2).

I am thankful to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey

of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong, for a live specimen of limbless lizard
for my study. 7

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. K. TIKADER
SHILLONG-4 (INDIA),

November 8, 1967.

eae

A RIT A RR SP

? Present address: Instituto di Genetica, Universita di Pavia, Pavia, Italy.

234. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

18. PAROXYURICHTHYS LATERISQUAMATUS (M. WEBER):
FIRST RECORD FROM INDIAN WATERS

(With a photograph)

Paroxyurichthys Bleeker, 1876 is so far known from two species,
Paroxyurichthys typus Bleeker and P.-laterisquamatus (M. Weber) (vide
Koumans, 1953) from Ambon and New Guinea. A single well pre-
served specimen of Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus was recently dis-
covered in a collection of gobiids by Shri G. Ramakrishna, from the
Mahanadi estuary in November, 1962. The other gobiids in the same
collection were Butis butis (Hamilton), Periopthalmus yulgaris Eggert,
and P. barbarus (L.).

This is the first record of Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus (M. Weber)
from Indian waters. The distinguishing characters together with varia-
tions observed in the present specimen are given below :

Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus (M. Weber)

Oxyurichthys laterisquamatus M. Weber, 1908, Nova Guinea 5, Zool. 2; 271.
(type loc : New Guinea) ; Fowler, 1928, Mem. B. P. Bishop Mus. 10 : 415.

Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus Koumans, 1953, Fish. Indo-Austr. Arch. 10: 51.
Material: One, 45 mm. total length; Khira Gachha-Madeli,

Mahanadi estuary, c. 8 km. west of Fisheries Bungalow ; 11-11-1962 "

G. Ramakrishna ; Zoological Survey of India, Reg. No. F. 521/9/2.

Paroxyurichthys laterisquamatus (M. Weber)

bis

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 235

Description :
DViis De bk ld;,Ail.10 ; P. 16:51. 1. a 60.

Body elongate, compressed, height 6°9 in total length. Head 4°5
in total length. Eye diameter 4:0 in head length, interorbital about half
eye diameter. Snout equal to eye diameter. Mouth oblique, lower
jaw prominent. Maxillary extends to below posterior half of eye.
Teeth small, in 3 rows in both jaws. No canines. No teeth on vomer.
Tongue weakly convex in front. Head scaled behind eye. Scales of
cheek and opercle cycloid. Scales of body ctenoid posteriorly, cycloid
anteriorly. The rays of all fins are very prolonged. Ventral fins
united, oblong. Caudal fin long, pointed and as long as head. Colour
light brown. Fins hyaline.

The specimen differs in certain details from Koumans’ description
(1953). The eye is larger and the maxillary is longer extending to the
posterior half of the eye.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India
for encouragement and to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending
_ Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India for his helpful suggestions in the
preparation of this note.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, P. K. TALWAR
CALCUTTA, T. K. SEN
May 5, 1967.

19. MURAL-THOONDI, A GEAR FOR HALFBEAK FISHES

(With a text-figure)

The mural-thoondi is an indigenous gear for the capture of halfbeaks
in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (Mandapam area). Capture by
this gear is so ingenious as to be worthy of record.

The main part of the gear consists of a miniature sailed raft made up
of two parallel pieces of wood about 40 mm. in length and a transverse
piece over which paimyra leaves are fixed vertically and serve as a sail.
A long line with about 30-40 hooks (text-fig.) is attached to the raft.
The hooks are baited and the raft is allowed to drift with the wind.
When the halfbeaks are hooked the line is pulled back to the shore and
relaid. Polychaetes (Nereis, Heteronereis), and Balanoglossus, dug

&
236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

out from the sandy shore, are generally used as bait on these lines. Bet-
ween 20 to 30 fish are caught in a single operation during a good fishing

1

Ks
A\
XY
Se

Lis
HAN

Mural-thoondi

day. The species commonly caught by this gear are Hemirhamphus
far (Forsk.) and Hyporhamphus quoyi (C. & V.).

CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, P, K, TALWAR
MANDAPAM CAMP,
July 6, 1967.

20. A NOTE ON THE USE OF CROTON TIGLIUM LINN.
SEED AS A FISH POISON IN PONDS!

(With a photograph)

Several plants growing wild or in a state of cultivation are reported
to be reputed fish poisons (Chopra et al. 1949). Though these plants have
been used for catching fish from streams and ponds, hardly any scientific
study has been made on their use as fish poisons. During the years 1960-

1 Published with the kind permission of the Director, Central Inland Fisheries

Research Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal; presented before the 53rd annual
session of the Indian Science Congress, 1966,

ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ao)

64 the author was engaged in studies in the use of several plants occurring
in Assam for eradication of unwanted fishes from nursery ponds.
Studies on three plants viz. Millettia pachycarpa (Bhuyan 1967), Millettia
piscidia (Bhuyan & Vijayalakshmanan, in preparation) and Croton
tiglium have been completed and a summary of the results with the
last plant reported (Barrackpore, C.I.F.R.I., 1964-65 ; Bhuyan 1966).

Croton tiglium Linn. plant.
Age—9 months old.
Maximum height attained—165 cm.
Starts flowering in January.

Seeds and oil of Croton tiglium are widely used as fish poisons (Chopra
et al. 1958 ; Nadkarni 1954; Babu 1965). It is commonly available in
Assam (local name Konibin) and N.E.F.A. (local names Engosinam and
Kusere) and is frequently used by tribal people for killing fish in streams
and ponds. According to Hora & Pillay (1962) powdered croton seeds
are used by Chinese fish culturists for eradication of unwanted fishes
from nurseries before stocking of spawn and fry. The seed kernels of

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (i)

Croton tiglium contain two toxic proteins or ‘toxalbumins’ (Chopra et
al. 1956) which ‘are essentially blood poisons’ (Chopra ef al. 1949).
Babu (1965) reported results of his laboratory studies on the use of seeds
of Croton tiglium as a fish poison. Results of field trials with C. tiglium
carried out by the author are briefly reported in the present note.

Field applications of the poison were made in six ponds of 0°025-0°035
hectare water spread, with 0°3 to 0°78 metre depth, and under water

temperatures ranging from 20 to 35°5°C. The ponds had either a |

natural stock of common miscellaneous fishes or they were stocked with
them prior to the experiment. The requisite quantity of seed powder
was taken in a fine markin cloth bag, kept soaked in water in a bucket
for about half an hour and by repeated squeezing of the bag a milky
emulsion was obtained. This was diluted and sprayed uniformly on the
ponds which were then netted repeatedly with a fine mesh drag net for
thorough mixing of the poison. Three doses, 4:0, 4:7, and 5°3 p.p.m.
including the non-toxic seed coat which accounts for about 25% of the
total weight (corresponding doses of seed kernel powder alone being 3:0,
3°5, and 4:0 p.p.m. respectively) were tried, with two replicates for each
concentration. The results are given in the Table.

TABLE

LENGTH CONCENTRATIONS OF Croton tiglium SEED POWDER FOR ERADICATION
OF COMMON FRESH-WATER FISHES IN PONDS

Concentrations
p.p.m.

Temperature - Species of fishes killed within
range °C 3 to 6 hours of exposure

4-0 22°5-33:5 |
(3.0) | neus, Cirrhinus mrigala, Clarius batra-
| Chus, Colisa fasciata, Esomus danrica,
i Glossogobius giuris, Labeo gonius, Labeo
| rohita, Macrognathus aculeatum, Mystus
bleekeri, M. seenghala, M. tengara, Nandus
| nandus, Notopterus notopterus, Ompok
bimaculatus, Ophicephalus punctatus,
Oxygaster bacaila, Puntius sophore,
Rasbora elanga, and Wallago attu.

°7 20:0-22'3 All the above plus Cyprinus carpio, Hetero-

5 j pneustes fossilis, and Ophicephalus gachua.
3 20°3-25°0 -do-

- (4:0)

Aw

As may be seen from the Table, 4 p.p.m. of the seed powder
(i.e. 3 p.p.m. seed kernel powder) was sufficient to eradicate most of the
common fresh-water fishes including the larger predators like Wallago
attu ‘and Mystus.seenghala within three to six hours. With a slightly
higher concentration of about 5 p.p.m. of the seed powder even hardy

Amblypharyngodon mola, Anabas_testudi-~

ee ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 239

air breathers like Ophicephalus gachua and Heteropneustes eas were
eliminated.

~ The action of the poison on the fishes is not violent. The affected
fishes came to the surface, showed occasional convulsive movements and
gradually died. The fishes could not be revived when transferred to
fresh water immediately after they are affected. The doses applied did
not kill prawns and insects like notonectids, coleopterans or hemipteran
bugs. Though zoo-planktons were killed they were found to develop
again about a week after treatment. The poison caused no adverse
changes in the physico-chemical conditions of water. The toxicity of
the poison was not affected by low temperatures.

According to Babu (1965) fishes like Ophicephalus spp., Anabas,
Tilapia and Heteropneustes are killed within about 3 hours by 4 p.p.m.
of the seed powder and within about 64 hours by 3 p.p.m. and toxicity
persists only for 72 hours with 4 p.p.m. However, the present field
studies indicate that about 5 p.p.m. was necessary for complete eradi-
cation of all fishes commonly found in ponds and the toxic effect of such
a dose persists for 3-4 days.

Thus the seeds of C. tiglium provide a useful fish poison which unlike
root poisons, can be collected without destroying the plant. The plant
under favourable conditions bears fruits when about two years old and
continues to yield for several years. From a full grown plant about
8-10 kg. of fruits can be collected every year which will give about
_ 3-3°5 kg. of seeds. This will be sufficient for clearing six nurseries each
of 0:02 hectare water spread, with an average depth of 1 metre.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Mr. K. H. Alikunhi for guidance in this
work and to Dr. M. T. Philipose and Mr. S. parareswatau oe help in
ee eecrion, of this note. ei

POND CULTURE UNIT, - B. R. BHUYAN!
CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
JOYSAGAR, ASSAM,
February 8, 1966.

i

—- me pe i

= Present Address :—Regional Research Laboratory, Jorhat, Assam.

240

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS’ (1964-65): Annual Re-
port, Central Inland Fisheries Research
Institute (Mimeo).

BABU, N.(1965) : Observations on the
toxicity of the seed of Croton tiglium
Linn. on predatory and Weed Fishes.
Sci. & Cult. 31 (6) : 308-310.

BHUYAN, B. R. (1966): Studies on
the use of seeds of Croton tiglium Linn.
as a poison for clearance of predatory
and weed fishes from nursery ponds.
Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. 53 (3): 381-
382 (Abstract).

CHoprA, R. N., BADHWaR, R. L. &
GuHosH, S. M. (1949) : Poisonous Plants
of India. p. 19. Govt. of India Press,

Calcutta.

———.,, CuHoprRa, I. C. & Kapur,
LL. Dd. (1958) : Indigenous Drugs of
India. p. 578. U.N. Dhar Pvt. Ltd.,
Calcutta 12.

—— (1956): Glossary of Indian
Medicinal Plants. p. 82 C.S.I.R. (India).
Hora, S. L. & Pittay, T. V. R. (1962) :
Hand Book of Fish Culture in the Indo-
Pacific Region. p.399. F.A.O. of U.N.

———— (1967) : Eradication of un- Rome.
wanted fish from ponds by using indi- NADKARNI, K. M. (1954): The
genous plant fish poisons. Sci. & Cult. Indian Materia Medica. 399. 3rd
33 (2) : 82-83. ed. Popular Book Depot, Bombay 7.
21. NOTES ON ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS : DROMIID

CRABS, CRYPTODROMIA TUBERCULATA PILEIFERA
ALCOCK, 1899 SHELTERING BENEATH COMMENSAL
SPONGES

Whilst collecting marine fauna in the inshore regions of Great
Nicobar Island during February-May 1966, an interesting animal associa-
tion between dromiid crabs and hemispherical commensal sponges was
observed. The details of this association together with some experi-
mental observations are presented in this note.

The inshore region of Great Nicobar Island is mainly coralline inter-
spersed with sandy patches and rock boulders. The coral reefs abound
in madreporarian corals and harbour an extremely rich fauna including
sponges. Among the sponge fauna, there were a number of small
hemispherical forms, ranging in diameter from 15 mm. to 18 mm. on
corals exposed in the intertidal region during low tide.

As the apparent movements of these sponges attracted attention these
were picked up, and it was found that each hemispherical sponge shel-
tered a small crab underneath. On examination the crab was seen hold-
ing the sponge as a cap by means of the last two pairs of ambulatory legs.

In addition to the specimens examined and experimented upon in
the field, the following material was brought to Calcutta for study:

No. of sets Stn. No. Collection No. Date Locality

l.. One 1 221 6.3.66 From low tide re-
gion of Camp-
bell Bay. |

2. Two 10 776 2.4.66 From low tide re-
gion of Casua-
rina Bay.

CM Sib 20 L122. 15.4.66 From low tide re-

gion of Shiv-
dutt Bay. —

ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 241

Following Alcock (1901) and Buitendijk (1950), the crabs have been
identified as Cryptodromia tuberculata pileifera Alcock, 1899, belonging
to the family Dromiidae. The carapace of the largest specimens (male
and female) are 8°5 mm. long and 10°5 mm. broad. The older collec-
tions of Z.S.I. comprise pceiaers from Port Blair, Great Cocos Islands
and Little Andaman Island. ;

The sponges are all encrusting forms Edens to the family Suberi-
tidae. |

OBSERVATIONS

The following observations have been made in the field-laboratory :

Three sets of animal association obtained on 2-4-66 from Casuarina
Bay were left in separate bowls containing sea-water. At the bottom of
the bowl some sand and pieces of corals and rock were arranged to
simulate conditions of the inshore region at low tide. The sponge caps
were carefully dislodged from the crabs and the associates were released
in the same containers. Within two hours the crabs had covered them-
selves with the detached caps, in all the three bowls.

In a second series of experiments where specimens of denuded Crypto-
dromia were released into large tanks containing sea-water along with
_live encrusting sponges and were not provided with removed sponge
caps, it was observed that the crabs broke off pieces of live sponges and
held them by their last two pairs of legs over their backs pressed close
to their carapace.

In a third series of experiments where these specimens of Crypto-
dromia were released into tanks containing simple ascidians, empty
bivalve shells, encrusting sponge etc. it was noticed that the crabs did not
use the material other than encrusting sponges for protecting their
carapace. |

REMARKS

These observations reveal that these dromiid crabs prefer any en-
crusting sponge for protective purposes, because the sponge may even-
tually spread over the entire carapace. According to Alcock (1902)
and Hyman (1940) the members of the family Dromiidae have the habit
of sheltering under small animals such as sponges, ascidians, and empty
valve of lamellibranch shells. In the case of Cryptodromia tuberculata
pileifera Alcock it is probable that it covers itself only with ay ay
available species of encrusting sponge.

16

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

This type of bipartite relationship between sponges and crabs is pro-
bably mutually beneficial. Because of the disagreeble taste and odour
as well as the bristly spiculation, sponges are seldom eaten by other
animals (vide Hyman 1940) and therefore are of benefit to the crabs for
shelter and protection. The sponges, however, are benefited to a limited
extent only. Being sedentary in habit they get the advantage of being
carried from place to place and also obtain oma particles of food scat-
tered about by the crab.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India,
for facilities to undertake this work and to various members of Z.S.I.
party for helping in the collections and observations. Thanks are also
due to Dr. K. K. Tiwari and Shri. A. S. Rajagopal for going through the
manuscript.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. DANIEL
CALCUTTA, V. K. PREMKUMAR
August 19, 1967.

REFERENCES

Atcock, A. (1889): Materials for a BuITENDIIK, A. M. (1950): On a
Carcinological fauna of India. No. 5. small collection of Decapoda. Bra-
The Brachyura Primigenia or Dromiacea. chyura, chiefly Dromiidae and Oxyrhyn-
J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 68 : 1-104, 123-169. cha, from the neighbourhood of

(1901): Catalogue of the Singapore. Bull. Raffles Mus. 21:
Indian Decapod Crustacea (Pt. 1, Fasc. 59-82. :

1), Calcutta : 1-80. HyMaNn, L. H. (1940): The Inverte-
(1902): A Naturalist in brates: Protozoa through Ctenophora.
Indian Seas. London. New York and London.

22. GREGARIOUSNESS AND MIMICRY DURING COCOON
STAGE BY THE BUTTERFLY EUREMA HECABE (L.)

In the month of August 1965 at Shillong, I observed that almost all
Acacia mollissima Willd. and Albizzia sp. trees were heavily infested by

whitish green caterpillars, subsequently identified as the larvae of Eurema —

hecabe (L.).

Within a month’s time the attacked plants were completely defoliated
by the caterpillars and just after complete defoliation, the caterpillars
Started to make their leaf-like cocoons on the naked leaf midribs of the
host-plant. The cocoons were arranged serially and hung by their stalk
in such a way on the midribs that they looked like the leaves of the plant.
The size and shape of the cocoons were nearly the same as that of the leaf
of the host plant.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 243

I counted more than a hundred cocoons hanging in a small infested
branch. It was a beautiful example of: gregariousness and mimicry by
butterfly cocoons.

- ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. K. TIKADER
SHILLONG-4, ASSAM,
July 23, 1966.

23. ON THE SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS AND BIOLOGY
OF ANAPHOTHRIPS FLAVICINCTUS (KARNY) ON PANICUM
MAXIMUM IN MADRAS

(With six text-figures)

Studies on Anaphothrips flavicinctus, one of the common grass infest-
ing species in south India and often called the ‘ wheat thrip’ in other
parts, are limited to its taxonomic position (Schmutz 1913, Karny 1919,
Shumsher Singh 1942), its bionomics in relation to the wheat plant
(Patel & Patel 1953) and alary polymorphism (Ananthakrishnan 1961).
In view of their occurrence in considerable numbers on Panicum
maximum, the guinea grass throughout the year, an attempt was made to
observe their fluctuations in density, in relation to variations in climate
involving temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and wind velocity for
a period of two years, 1965-67.

For the purpose of estimating the density of the population 40 sweeps _
were taken as the unit of a count with each sweep not overlapping the
preceding one (Cederholm 1963). Relative humidity was measured by
using a hair hygrometer and the temperature with a standard centigrade
thermometer, with both the instruments placed within the rows of grasses
at the time of collection. Wind velocity and rainfall were obtained from
the Meteorological Observatory, Nungambakkam, very near the site of
investigation. The thrips collected alive were narcotised with ether
vapour, counted and subsequently on activation, released on to the host.
For studies of their life cycles, the individuals were reared on pot plants

_ in the laboratory.
Both sexual and parthenogenetic modes of reproduction occur in

_ this species. Larvae hatched from random eggs were reared and on
becoming adults, the sexes were isolated and both types of reproduction
| studied. Adults were observed to mate 36-48 hours after emergence
| and copulation lasts for about five minutes. The first batch of eggs is
| laid 2-4 days after copulation. The time taken to lay a single egg ranges

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

from 5-10 minutes. Prior to oviposition, the female moves its antennae
and abdomen in various directions, the abdomen subsequently arching
upwards, introducing the ovipositor into the leaf tissue at an angle, and
laying the eggs parallel to the veins. The parthenogenetic female was
observed to have a longer oviposition period and often laid more eggs than ~
the fertilised female. Presumably the increased longevity of the
parthenogenetic female is the causal factor. The rate of oviposition
during the months of January-February is 7-8 for the first 3-4 days and
gradually decreases and oviposition is completed after 6-8 days. On the
other hand oviposition records during the months July-August, reveal
that the adults have a comparatively shorter longevity during this period
and the oviposition rate is correspondingly higher. The oviposition
period was also less and rate of oviposition per day high. This appears
to be an adaptation to cope up with the increased temperature during
these months.

TABLE 1

OVIPOSITION RECORDS FOR 1966

Average | Type of | Pre-ovi- | Oviposi-| Post-ovi-| No. of | Total Adult
_ temper- repro- position tion position | eggs per| eggs female
ature duction | period | period | period day laid longevity

January-February

25-28°C Sexual 2-3 6-8 6-8 3-7 20-47 16-21
days days days

25-28°C Partheno- 3-4 9-10 6-9 4-8 41-56 18-23
genetic days days days

33-36°C Sexual 1-2 4-5 4-5 5-13 25-52 11-14
days days days days

33-36°C Partheno- 2-3 5-6 6-7 9-13 54-65 13-16
genetic days

Egg mortality in either type of reproduction was almost as high as |
50% and heavy mortality (50%) also occurred in the first instar |
larvae. All the parthenogenetically reproduced offspring were females _
and in the case of sexual reproduction, 92% were females. |

Duration of Instars at different temperatures

As in the case of the oviposition records, the duration of the various |
larval instars fell within the same range in both the sexual and partheno- |
genetically reproducing individuals, but it was influenced by temperature.
The duration was observed to be shorter in the individuals reared in |
July-August when the average temperature was higher.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4
Oo
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25

(a) Fluctuations in relation to Temperature

Graph I.

o

1966-67

500

450

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Graph TI. (5) Fluctuations in relation to Temperature

246

No or TwRPs

Noe or Tories

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

9 o 63
1965- 66 PO aes st
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RHX#

RAY

247

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

TABLE 2

DURATION OF LARVAL INSTARS IN 1966
(Average temperature 25-28°C)

Duration in days

No.
S.No. Stage
| observed Maximum Minimum
January-February

1 Egg | 27 9 5
2 Ist instar 14 3 Z
3 Lind”. .; 11 6 4
4 Prepupa 12 D 1
5 Pupa 10 4 3

July-August

(Average temperature 33-36°C)

1 Egg 21 6 3
2. Ist instar {2 3 2
3 IInd _,, 12 5) 3
40 Prepupa 11 1 1
5 Pupa 11 3 1

An analysis of the density of thrips populations for the two years
shows that in both the years the number of thrips was highest (400-450)
during the months February-April, when the temperature range was
31-34°C, relative humidity 72-75% and rainfall is insignificant. There
was a distinct fall in number (125-250) in both the years during the months
May and June when the temperature range was 36-38°C, the relative
humidity 59-67°%. The number again showed an increase in July-August
1965 (300) when the temperature, humidity and rainfall were the same as
in February-April, but it was practically negligible for the corresponding
period in 1966 due to regular and increasing amounts of rainfall
(150-250 mm.). During the months November-December the counts,
were almost nil in both the years due to heavy rainfall (450-550 mm.)
high relative humidity (80-90) and low temperature (28-29°C). As such
the optimum conditions appear to be a temperature, range of 31-34°C,
relative humidity 72-75%, and insignificant rainfall.

LOYALA COLLEGE,

MADRAS-34 T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN
August 8, 1967. A. JAGADISH
REFERENCES
ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N. (1961): PATEL, N. G. & PATEL, 2 es (1953) :
Proc. 1st Zoological Congress, Jabalpur. Indian J. Ent., 15 (3) : 251
CEDERHOLM (1963): Opuscula Ento- SHUMSHER SINGH (i943) Ne ds

mological Supplementum 22: 215 pp. Ent. 4 (2): 17-18,
Karny (1919) : Marcellia 9°: 115, - .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 249

24. FURTHER DATA ON HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS
(TACHARDIIDAE, HOMOPTERA)

An additional list of host-plants of lac insects has become necessary,
in view of the delay between the original submission of the supplementary
(world) list of lac-hosts in 1963 and its publication in the previous issue
of the Journal [Vol. 64 (3): 488-511] in 1968, despite two revisions in
1964-65 and additional corrections on the proof. This list comprises
more records of lac host-plants from India which I have comeacross
since we submitted the main list. Further, the nomenclature of some lac-
hosts has been revised in accordance with recent literature by Maheshwari
(1963), Raizada (1966) and Santapau (1967).

1. Abrus precatorius Linn. (Leguminosae). Lac cells were observed
on it, while the shrub twined on a lac-inoculated Butea monos-
perma, at Rajnagar, Madhya Pradesh (Mehra & Gokulpure 1967,
pp. 695, 703).

2. Acacia planifrons W. & A. (Leguminosae). Lac bearing tree of
Travancore (Barker 1921, p. 8). |

3. Alchornea tiliaefolia | Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Laccifer
(now Kerria) chinensis (Mahdihassan) was found in small colonies
with good encrustations of lac on it, in Mungpu forest and ad-
joining areas in Darjeeling District, West Bengal (Ghose 1963,
pei25): :

4. Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth. (Leguminosae). It was found
carrying sparse and small cells of aghani lac at Jhalda, West
Bengal (Das Gupta & Mehra 1967, pp. 332, 336).

5. Combretum ovalifolium Roxb. (Combretaceae). New lac-host
recorded from Rajnagar, Madhya Pradesh ; the shrub rested on
a lac-inoculated Butea monosperma (Mehra & Gokulpure 1967,
pp. 695, 701).

6. Hardwickia pinnata Roxb. (Leguminosae). Lac bearing tree of
Travancore ; only one specimen of lac seen on it. Locally called
as ‘acha’ (Barker 1921 ; p. 10).

7. Hemidesmus indicus Sch. (Asclepiadaceae). New _lac-host

recorded from Compt. 109, Madhya Pradesh ; the shrub was

- twining round a lac-inoculated Zizyphus xylopyra Erne &
Gokulpure 1967, pp. 696, 701).

8. Marlea begoniifolia Roxb. (Alangiaceae). Syns. Alangium
chinense (Lour.) Harms; A. begoniifolium (Roxb.) Baill. It
is one of the recorded hosts of the Indian lac insect.in Assam

| [vide, WEALTH OF INDIA, Raw materials, 6 (L-M), 1962, p. 304].

9. Vitis sp. (Vitaceae). New lac-host found at Bamhani and Katangi,
Madhya Pradesh (Mehra & Gokulpure 1967, pp. 696, 701).

10. V. latifolia Roxb. [=Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.]

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

(Vitaceae). New lac-host recorded from Rajnagar, Madhya
Pradesh ; the vine was climbing a Butea monosperma (Mehra &
Gokulpure 1967, pp. 696, 701).

The nomenclature of certain earlier known lac host-plants, given in
Roonwal-Raizada list, has recently undergone changes. These plants,
with their new name first, are noted below, in order to make the list more
useful.

LEGUMINOSAE

1. Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. subsp. indica (Benth.) Brenan Syn. A.
arabica (Lamk.) Willd.

2. A. polyacantha Willd. Syn. A. suma Buch.-Ham.

3. A. sinuata (Lour.) Merr. Syns. A. concinna DC., A. rugata Merr.

MORACEAE

4. Ficus virens Ait. Syns. F. Jacor auct. non Buch.-Ham., F. infectoria
Roxb., F. lucescens Blume.

5. FF. microcarpa Linn. f. Syns. F. benjamina auct. non Linn., F. retusa
auct. non Linn.

DIPTEROCARPACEAE

6. Shorea roxburghii G. Don. Syns. S. talura Roxb., S. robusta Roth
non Gaertn f.,.S. laccifera Heyne ex Wall., Vatica laccifera W. & A.
(Kashyapa 1961, pp. 543-544).

RUTACEAE

7. Pleiosperonium alatum (Wall. ex W. & A.) Syn. Limonia alata Wall. -
ex W. & A.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The library help received from Botanical Survey of India, Eastern
Circle, Shillong, is gratefully acknowledged. |

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, | | '
EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, |. ~ R. K. VARSHNEY
SHILLONG-4, | i

November 30, 1967,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fi

REFERENCES

BARKER, S. G. (1921): The Shellac

‘industry and _ its possibilities in
‘Travancore. Bull. Dept. Indus. Govt.
Travancore, No. 7.

Das Gupta, J. M. & MEHRA, B. P.
(1967) : Recorded and unrecorded lac-
hosts from West Bengal. Indian Forester,

93 (5).

GuHosE, S. K. (1963): Lac insects
(Lacciferidae, Hemiptera) from West
Bengal. Indian Agric. 7 (1 & 2).

KaSHYAPA, G. (1961): Shorea talura
Roxb., a synonym of S. roxburghii
G. Don. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
58 (2).

MAHESH WARI, J. K. (1963) : The Flora

MeuRA, B. P. & GOKULPURE, R. S.
(1967) : Recorded and unrecorded lac-
hosts from Madhya Pradesh. Indian
Forester 93 (10).

PRASAD, U. N. & MEHRA, B. P. (1967) :
A new record of rangeeni lac on Grevillea
robusta A. Cunn. (Fam. Proteaceae)
from Namkum,_ Ranchi. Indian
Forester, 93 (6). [Vide, No. 119 in the
main list].

RaIzADA, M. B. (1966) : Nomencla-
tural changes in Indian plants. Indian
Forester 92 (5).

SANTAPAU, H. (1967): The flora of
Khandala on the Western ghats of India.
3rd_revised ed. Rec. Bot. Surv. India

of Delhi. Council of Scientific and

16 (1).
Industrial Research, New Delhi.

25. PARASITES, PREDATORS AND OTHER NATURAL
ENEMIES OF SUGARCANE PESTS IN MAHARASHTRA

Sugarcane is one of the major commercial crops extensively grown
in Maharashtra State, in an area of about 3°75 lakh acres. Forty-four
species of pests including borers, fulgorids, coccids, etc. have been re-
corded to infest the crop and they are a serious menace to its successful
cultivation. Of these, the internal feeders are very difficult to control
with modern pesticides. Attempts are therefore being made in various
countries for their successful control through large scale use of their
natural enemies, thereby saving huge annual losses.

A beginning in this direction has already been made in India and
various workers have recorded several natural enemies of sugarcane
pests in States like Mysore, Bihar, Madras, etc. Krishnamurti &
Usman (1954) have described about 20 different parasites on sugarcane
pests while Gupta (1954), and Gupta & Awasthi (1956) have given a brief
account of the parasites of sugarcane pests recorded in north India.
Butani (1958) has listed about 99 species of parasites and predators
recorded on the pests of sugarcane throughout India. A brief account
of about 40 natural enemies recorded in Mysore State with details of
their alternate hosts, time of occurrence, the percentage parasitization
etc. is given by Shivashankara Sastry & Appana (1958). Besides
recording the natural enemies, attempts for large scale multiplication of
the promising species with a view to controlling the noxious pests, have
also been made. (Puttarudriah & Usman 1958, Puttarudriah & Sastry
1958, Subramaniam 1937, Tirumala Rao et al. 1954).

However, in Maharashtra, the use of these natural enemies in con-
trolling harmful pests of sugarcane has not been fully exploited except

7
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

252

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256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

for the attempts made for large scale multiplication of Trichogramma
minutum Riley and Tetrastichus sp. egg and pupal parasites respectively,
for the control of sugarcane borers (Bagal & Patel 1952 ; Anonymous
1958). It was, therefore, felt necessary to carry out detailed survey of

the major sugarcane growing areas of the State and record natural ©

enemies of the pests of sugarcane crop. The information regarding the
host-range, locality, period of occurrence etc. of the various species
recorded is given above in a tabular form which would be useful in under-
taking further work on successful utilization of some of the promising

natural enemies in controlling these pests.

ENTOMOLOGY SECTION,
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
POONA-5),

May 17, 1967.

REFERENCES

Anonymous (1953 & 1958): Annual
progress report of scheme for studies of
sugarcane pests, Walchandnagar, by
Govt. of Maharashtra.

BaGAL, S. R. & PATEL, G. A. (1952):
Sugarcane stem borer and its control by
use of Trichogramma parasites, Farmer
Bombay 3 (8) : 1-2.

BuTaNnl, D. K. (1958): Parasites and
predators recorded on sugarcane pests.
in India. Indian J. Ent. 20 (4) : 270-282.

CHERIAN, M. C. & ISRAEL, P. (1937) :
Studies on Elasmus zehnteneri F. a para-
site of sugarcane white moth. Madras
Agric. J. 25 (9) : 273-279.

Gupta, B. D. (1954): A note on the
scope of biological control, of sugarcane
pests. The second biennial, conference
of sugarcane Research and Development
Workers, India. By Indian Central
Sugarcane Committee, New Delhi: 229-

233:

— & AwastTuHI, P. N. (1956):
Recent advances in sugarcane entomo-
logy in India. Indian sugar 5 : 541-548.

KRISHNAMURTI &- USMAN (1954):
Some insect parasites of economic im-
portance noted in Mysore State. Indian
J. Ent. 16 (4) : 327-344.

ManI, M. S. (1939): Description of
new records of some known Chalcidid
and other hymenopterous parasites from
India. op. cit. 1 (1 & 2) : 68-99.

NARAYANAN, E. S. & KUNDANLAL
(1953) : Studies on Chalcid egg parasite
of Pyrilla sp. occurring in Delhi. op.
cit. 15 (3) : 173-179.

—_—_——, SuspBA RAO, B. R. & Kaur,
R. B. (1957): Some known and new

records of parasites of sugarcane scale
insects from India. op. cit. 19 (2):
144-146.

PUTTARUDRIAH, M. & CHANNA BAS-
VANNA, G. P. (1956): Some beneficial
coccinellids of Mysore. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 54 (1) : 156-159.

& (1957) : Some

insect predators of aphids in Mysore.
Mysore Agric. J. 32 (3-4) : 158-161.

— & SHIVASHANKARA SASTRY
(1958): Studies on the biology of
Tetrastichus ayyari R. with attempts to
utilize it in the control of sugarcane
borers. Indian J. Ent. 20 (3): 189-198.
— & Usman, S. (1958): Brief
notes on recent investigations on some
beneficial parasites in Mysore. Mysore
Agric. J. 33 (2) : 76-79.

SHIVASHANKARA SASTRY & APPANA, M.
(1958) : Parasites and predators of some
common insect pests of sugarcane in

Visvesvarayya canal tract, Mandya —
District, Mysore State. op. cit. 33 (3):
143-153.

SUBRAMANYAM, T. V. (1937) : Prelimi-
nary experiment on mass production of
Trichogramma parasite for control of
sugarcane borers in Mysore. Indian J.
Agric. Sci. 8 (1) : 149-155. —

STEBBING, E. P. (1903): Predaceous
coccinellidae of Indian region. Jndian
Museum Notes 6 (1): 47-62.

TIRUMALA RAO, LEELA Davin, V. &
MoHAN Rao, K. R. (1954): Attempts
at the utilization of Chilocorus nigritus
F. in Madras State. Indian J. Ent.
16 (3) : 205-209.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2

26. A NEW SPIDER OF THE GENUS JISCHNOTHYREUS
SIMON (FAMILY OONOPIDAE) FROM INDIA

(With five text-figures)

The spiders of the family Oonopidae are little known in India and
the genus Ischnothyreus Simon, has not been reported previously from
India. While examining a spider collection from Shillong, I came across
a new species of spider of the genus Ischnothyreus, which is described
here.

The type specimen will in due course be deposited in the National
Zoological Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Ischnothyreus shillongensis sp. nov.

General : Cephalothorax reddish-brown, legs and abdomen green.
Total length 2°80 mm. Carapace 1°20 mm. long, 1:10 mm. wide ;
abdomen 1°70 mm. long, 1:00 mm. wide. }

Cephalothorax : Slightly longer than wide or nearly as long as wide,
‘clothed with fine hairs. Middle of cephalothorax high and sloping both
sides. Eyes six and pearly white but posterior median eyes less white
than others, arranged in two rows, posterior median eyes smaller than
others. Ocular area provided with conspicuous black patch. Clypeus
moderate. Chelicerae vertical, boss absent, double row of hairs beside
promargin, tooth and denticle absent (fig. 4). Sternum heart-shaped,
longer than wide, clothed with fine hairs, mid-anteriorly with a longi-
tudinal black mark. Legs clothed with fine hairs and a few spines.
Femora and tibiae of I and II legs with three and four robust ventral
spines respectively.

Abdomen: Nearly elliptical, clothed with hairs. Anterior side
provided with small conspicuous scutum (figs. 1 and 2). Ventral side
slightly lighter than dorsal, and anterior portion up to epigastric grooves
with a_ scutum (fig. 2). Epigyne as infig. 3. Male smaller than female.
Male palp as in fig. 5.

Holotype: One female, paratype two females and allotype one male
in spirit.

Type-locality : Shillong Peak, Shillong, Assam, India. Coll.
Shyamrup Biswas, 6.4.1967.
_ This species appears to be closely related to Ischnothyreus omus
Suman described from Hawaii Islands. However, Ischnothyreus shil-
_longensis differs from I. omus by the structure of the male palp and female

epigyne. The dorsal scutum of J. shillongensis is smaller than that of
iy

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

258

5 wan

ir

hee £5

Figs. 1-5. Ischnothyreus shillongensis sp. nov.

>

2. Lateral view of female, legs omitted
5. Male palp.

.
)
e
>

tted

i

4. Lateral view of chelicera

°
>

Dorsal view of female, legs om

1.

3. Epigyne

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 259

I. omus. The cephalothorax of J. shillongensis is reddish-brown but in
I. omus the cephalothorax has a pair of large brown patches behind
the eyes.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. K. TIKADER
SHILLONG-4 (INDIA),

16 December, 1967.

REFERENCES

Locket, G. H. & MiuLuipce, A. F. TIKADER, B. K. (1966) : A new species
(1951): British spiders. Ray Society of spider of the genus Triaeris Simon
London. 1: 76. (Family Oonopidae) from India.

SUMAN, T. W. (1965): Spiders of the Current Science 35 (20) : 520.
family Oonopidae in Hawaii. Pacific 3 ;

Insects 7 (2) : 225-242.

27. ON THE ABUNDANT OCCURRENCE OF DESMOPTERUS
GARDINERI TESCH 1910, (THECOSOMATA : MOLLUSCA),
IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

(With a map)

The genus Desmopterus was created by Chun in 1888 to include a
single species D. papilio. This species is known to have a wide range of
distribution from 35°N to 40°S latitudes in the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans (Meisenheimer 1905 ; Tesch 1910, 1946).

Tesch added a new species, D. gardineri in 1910, based on a single
specimen collected near the Chagos Archipelago (Map) during the Percy
Sladen Trust Expedition (Tesch 1910). D. gardineri is distinguished
from D. papilio by the form and arrangement of the muscle bands of the
two fins. In both species the muscle bands run in two main directions,
at right angles to one another. But in D. gardineri, the muscle bands
are distinctly broader and clearly separated from one another, in
contrast to D. papilio.

Since 1910, the only noteworthy collections reported on from the
Indian Ocean are the Dana collections of 1928-30 Tesch (1946, 1948).
He was unable to find examples of either species of Desmopterus in the
Indian Ocean stations, and only one record of D. papilio from the
Atlantic (vide p. 41, Tesch 1948). The present author has been unable
to trace any published record of D. gardineri from the Indian Ocean or the
Other oceans of the world, since the date of original description.

The studies now in progress in the Indian Ocean Biological Centre,
| Ernakulam, (Kerala), on the Thecosomata (Opisthobranchiata, Order

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Thecosomata: Mollusca) of the International Indian Ocean Expedition
Collections, have revealed that both species of Desmopterus occur over
wide areas of the Indian Ocean. Though D. gardineri is less abundant
than D. papilio, it has been recognized in 32 stations out of the 395
stations examined so far (Cruises of Argo and Anton Bruun). It was
identified in ten stations in the Bay of Bengal, fivein the Arabian Sea and
seventeen in the south-west region of the Indian Ocean as depicted in
the Map, extending as far as 32°S latitude. Areas of relatively greater
abundance may be mentioned as the central part of the Bay of Bengal,
the east coast of Somalia and the north-west coast of Madagascar (Map).
The number of specimens of D. gardineri estimated till now, totals 125
and the largest number from a single haul, (20 individuals) was in a
station in the Bay of Bengal. A fuller account of the systematics, mor-
phology and distribution of Desmopterus and other pelagic Thecosomata
will be published elsewhere.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his gratitude to Dr. N. K. Panikkar and Prof.
John McGowan for encouragement and sincere thanks to Mr. L. R.
Kasturirangan for offering suggestions.

INDIAN OCEAN BIOLOGICAL CENTRE,

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY, M. SAKTHIVEL
ERNAKULAM-6, ;
September 27, 1967.

REFERENCES = |

MEISENHEIMER, J. (1905): Pteropoda. ———— (1946) : The Thecosomatous
Wiss. Ergebn. der. Deut. Tiefsee expedi- Pteropods. I. Atlantic. Dana Rep. |
tion ‘ Valdivia’. 9 : 1-314. 28 : 1-82.

TescH, J. J. (1910): Pteropoda and (1948) : The Thecosomatous |
Heteropoda. Report Percy Sladen Trust Pteropods. ii. Indo-Pacific Dana Rep.
Expedition. iii. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 30: 1-44. .
Zool, (2) 14: 165-189. |

28. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BOMBAY

Najas marina Linn. Sp. Pl. 1015, 1753 incl. var. 8 et ¥ ; Rendle, |
Trans. Linn. Soc. II, Bot. 5: 389, t. 39, f. 1-30, 1899; Hutchinson, _
Fam. Fl. Pl. 2: 561, f. 356—A-H, 1959 ; Duthie, Fl. Upper Gang. |
Plain 2:376, 1960 (reprinted); Prain, Bengal Pl. 2:847, 1963 —
(reprinted) ; de Wilde, Fl. Males. 6 (2): 163, 1962. Najas major All. |
Fl. Ped. 2 : 221, 1785; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 6 : 569, 1893 ; Haines, |
Bot. Bihar & Orissa 3 : 892, 1961 (reprinted). a

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 261

Slender, dichotomously branched herbs rooting at lower nodes ;
internodes 1°5-4:0 cm. long, glabrous or with scattered spinous teeth.
Leaves 10-15 <0°7-1:0 mm., linear, flat, somewhat fleshy ; apex blunt or
acute ; spinous teeth brown, 4-8 on each margin and a few on back ;
sheath 2:0-2°5 x3°0-3°9 mm., with one to two inconspicuous teeth on
each side. Spathe of male flowers 4:01:75 mm. Anthers 4-celled.
Female flowers espathaceous, 1°9-3°9 mm. long. Seeds 2°5x1°5 mm.
brown, elliptic, somewhat asymmetrical.

Occasional, in brackish water at Nal Sarovar, North Gujarat (R.J.P.
without number, dated 1-2-1965) and in fresh water of Mahi River near
Galteshwar, Central Gujarat (M.H.P. without number, dated December,
1966), mixed with N. minor All.

Flowers and fruits : December-February.
Distribution ; Cosmopolitan, according to Duthie.

Critical notes: It differs from N. minor All. as follows (adapted
from Prain) :—
- Dioecious ; leaf teeth large, few, back of leaf and internodes with

Similar teeth. -anthers,4-locularis o.oo ea bs Smee es ees N. marina
Monoecious ; leaf teeth rather numerous, back of leaf usually with-
Outstecther anthers Wlocular si... ee elas Ge uns eee snins a8 N. minor

Eupatorium odoratum L. forma squarrosum Koster f. in Blumea
7 (1): 290, 1952.

Annual herbs 30-60 cm. tall, sometimes up to 90 cm. high ; stem and
branches terete, faintly striate, glabrous or sparsely hairy in older parts,
thinly pubescent in younger. Leaves 4:0-6°0<0°8-2'5 cm., ovate-
lanceolate, entire or slightly crenate, faintly three lobed near base,
sparsely hairy and minutely gland dotted beneath, petiole 7:0-10°0 mm.
long, with a few scattered hairs. Heads homogamous, 6:0-10°0 mm.
long, cylindrical, in terminal corymbs. Bracts 3-5 seriate, those of inner
series longest, 2°0-7°0 x 0°5-1'0 mm., linear glabrous but for appressed
minute scales on back, prominently 3-5 nerved from base, nerves dark-
green ; apex obtuse or subacute ; base rounded ; margins entire, hairy
in upper part. Flowers pale bluish-purple. Pappus uniseriate, scabridly
hairy, as long as corolla. Corolla 4:5-6:°0 mm. long. Achenes
2°0-3°0 mm. long, triquetrous, obconical, black, glabrous or sparsely
hairy on angles.

The plant is a native of warmer parts of America, introduced as an
ornamental hedge plant in V.P. College garden where it is now found
wild (Shah 13048). In August 1966, one of us also found a few plants
in the forests of Chhotaudepur, East Gujarat (M.H.P. without number),
probably an escape. 7

Flowers and fruits: Mostly during monsoon, sometimes March-
April.

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Trigonella uncata Boiss. & Noé, Diagn. Ser. II 2 : 12.

Diffuse herbs 20°0-30°0 cm. long; stem and branches slender,
glabrous, faintly striate. Leaves trifoliate, alternate ; rachis 1:2-1°5 cm.
long, hairy in younger parts, almost glabrous in older; leaflets 3,
terminal one largest, all 2°0-4-0 x 1:3-3°0 mm., sessile or shortly petio-
lulate, obovate, inciso-serrate in upper half, glabrous above, appressedly
hairy beneath, cuneate at base ; stipules 3°0-4°0 mm. long, glabrous,
deeply cut into 3-5 subbulate segments. Flowers yellow, 4-6, in axillary
capitate racemes ; peduncle 3°0-5:0 mm. long, sparsely hairy, ending in
a sharp awn. Pods 5°6 x 1°5-2°0 mm., Blabrous, linear, curved, shortly
beaked. Seeds 4-6.

Rare ; a small patch seen in sandy loam soil in Mahi River bed near
Timba Road Station in Panchmahal District, East Gujarat (M.H.P.
without number).

Distribution: Arabia, then ranging eastwards from Jordan, through
Iraq, Iran, Baluchistan and N.W. India as a native. The present report,
therefore, gives an additional locality of its distribution in India.

The authors are deeply thankful to The Director, Rijksherbarium,
Leiden, for the identification of the first two plants and to The Director,
Kew Gardens, England, for the identification and usefulinformation on
the distribution of the last plant.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, G. L. SHAH
SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY, | R. J. PATEL
VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, ; M. H. PATEL
GUJARAT STATE,

May 24, 1967.

29. THE SPIRALITY OF MAIN STEM AND ITS
RELATIONSHIP TO THAT OF OFF-SHOOTS IN
EUPHORBIA ANTIQUORUM LINN.

(With a text-figure):

The stem of some euphorbiaceous species twists either clockwisely
(left-handed) or counter-clockwisely. This twisting is easily perceivable
in stems bearing one or more wings, grooves, rows of leaves or spines.
This brief report shows how the twisting of the main stem and that of the
first order of off-shoots in Euphorbia antiquorum are related. In this
species, the stem is a succulent cladode which bears three or four wings,
each wing possessing pairs of spines at intervals and small caducous _
leaves. In many varieties of E. antiquorum the stem does not show any
twisting, but in-one variety, very common in south India, twisting of the |
stem is clearly noticeable (Fig. 1). Data were collected in January 1965

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 263

from a population of this variety in a village near Coimbatore, south
India.

BR) WK Y

Sloe Ne

S \ \Wig f
~~ ~ NN. yi it
NAW!

z wp th?
\y* —
INSS Q
BSN
SSS

Fig. 1. Right- and left-twisting stems of Euphorbia antiquorum

1,500 main stems were examined of which two per cent showed a

reversal of the twisting from one type to the other. A fraction of these
Showed double reversals as seen in Table 1.

TABLE 1
Euphorbia antiquorum : NATURE OF MAIN STEM

Left-handeds .. 748

Right-handeds pean 992

Left turning right Pee)

Right turning left is, i,

Left to right to left as 3
. Right to left to right cil al)
| EB U¥o1al .. 1.500... ee
“ x $ ove ey o.. Peg MPa, ~ | eael, ap. ees vo gt.

264. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

50°88 per cent of the regularly twisting stems were left-handers. A
further 200 main stems were cut randomly from a further lot of plants.
As mentioned, the stem has either three or four wings at the “ internodal ’
region. Out of the 200 plants, 58 had four wings each and the rest three.
The stem may produce one branch each from a wing, and so a four-
winged stem may have four off-shoots although in many they may be
reduced to 3, 2, 1 or nil. Similarly, a three-winged stem may have less
than four or no off-shoots. The few stems producing no off-shoot were
excluded. Very rarely a wing produced more than one off-shoot. In
Table 2 details of the off-shoots produced from the 200 main stems are
given.

TABLE 2

Euphorbia antiquorum : No. OF OFF-SHOOTS PER ‘ INTERNODE ’
(ALL WINGS) OF 200 MAIN STEMS

| Number of off-shoots

Main stem 4-winged stems : | 3-winged stems

Spiral No. 4 3 2 1 Total | 4 3 2 Ll * Total
3 : : Tame a Se pe:
Left 117 fe 22 10 5 — ST. a Si ='.24 4 80
Right 83 | J2 § = 1 21 | — 4 #15 4 62
J

lee
Total 200 tout | 200 | : 34 5 awe n5Q. |e OA wero aes 142

Like : main stems, the off-shoots also showed asymmetry by twist-
ing either clockwisely or conversely. A smaller percentage of these off-
shoots, however, did not show any twisting and they were recorded as
neutrals. From the 200 plants, 572 off-shoots were examined for their
spirality and the data are given in Table 3.

TABLE 3
Euphorbia antiquorum: DIRECTION OF OFF-SHOOTS OF 200 PLANTS

OFF - SHOOTS

Mai : :
age imei: Right: Neutral:
stem
observed % observed wh observed WA Total yA
Left 243 71°26 qe 21°11 26 T62) . 341 100°00
Right 66 28°57 145 62°77 20 8°67 =. 231 100°00
L+R 309 54°02 217 37°94 46 8°04 572 100°00

aaa

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 465
o

To find out whether there is a correlation between the kinds of twist-
ing of the off-shoots and of the main stem, the observations were split
up for the 4-winged shoots and 3-winged shoots and are presented in
Table 4.

TABLE 4
Euphorbia antiquorum : ASYMMETRY OF OFF-SHOOTS IN
. RELATION TO MAIN STEM

Spiral of Nature of off-shoots

main stem

|
| off-shoots Wit aM aGasna ha ao
| Left Right Neutral Total

4-winged off-shoots (Total 198)

, observed stee LOO 16 12 128
Left ) percentage Set te, 7A cea (4 12°50 9.38 100°00
\ percentage on all
. shoots ae eo Oe 4°69 3792 37°54
‘ observed - Alea baa (S, 47 10 70
Richt percentage eo gL B8S7 67°14 14°28 100°00
1g percentage on all |
shoots 2 5°63 20°35 4°33 30°30
3-winged off-shoots (Total 374)
ee , observed .. 143 56 14 213
Left ) percentage ta OF 14 26°29 6°57 100-00
eit percentage on all
| shoots .. 41°94 16°42 4°11 62°46
/ observed se? D3 98 10 161
meh | percentage bee 6325925)», 60:87 6°21 100-00
‘Right \ percentage on all
| shoots ». 22°94 42°42 4°33 69-70

The expected values for all the groups have been calculated and given below :

Off-shoots
Main stem. —-
: L R N Total
Lef; observed we 243 72 26 341
as { expected wise 210 129:365 27°423
ie) observed sa 66 145 20 231
Right erecoed "| 124-788 87-634 19°783
Total .. 309 217 46 572
arr EE EE LT ES

x =109°522
2
17A

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (i)
@

The value of %? is highly significant both at the 5% and 1% levels,
which clearly demonstrates the positive dependence of the off-shoots
on the main stems with regard to the type of twisting. Similar values
for the data relating to the 4-winged stems and 3-winged stems as given
in Table 4 were calculated and in each case, the X,? value turns out to be
highly significant even at the 1 % level.

4-winged off-shoots—X’?= 71°314
3-winged off-shoots—X ?= 147-984

There is an interesting analogy to the above situation. In Cordyline
rubra of Agavaceae, the leaves are arranged in two spirals, both of them
running either clockwise or counter-clockwise in a shoot. The lamina
is convolute in bud, rolling either clockwise or converse. Ina shoot with
right-handed foliar spiral, about 81 per cent of the léavés have right-
handed convolution. In a left-spiralled shoot, on the other hand, the
convolution in about a similar percentage is left-handed(Davis & Ghosh,
in press). However, in Dieffenbachia sp., the foliar spiral and convolution
of the lamina in a plant move oppositely. In Pothos scandens, a leaf of
left convolution is generally followed by a leaf of right convolution, and
rarely by one with involute rolling (Davis, in press).

Help received from-Mr. Cyril Selvaraj of the Agricultural College.
Coimbatore in collecting the data is gratefully acknowledged.

Crop ScIENCE UNIT,
INDIAN STATISTICAL INSTITUTE, T. A. DAVIS
CALCUTTA-35, | ic
November 20, 1967.

oe

Davis, T. A. & Guosu, S. S. :. Foliar Davis, T. A.: Pre-foliation in ‘Pothas
spiral and ptyxis in Cordyline rubra. scandens Linn. (In press).
~Hueg. ex. Kunth. (In press). Poa Aeny

30. NOTES ON BOERHAVIA

"While visiting a local Municipal Hospital on 17 December 1966 I
collected a Boerhavia growing on waste land in its compound. -— It
attracted my attention for two reasons, it was extraordinarily tall (about
| metre) and had conical fruits.

-On careful examination in the Blatter Herbarium, the specimen
matched with specimens of two species viz. Boerhavia erecta Linn. and
Boerhavia punarnava Saha & Krishnamurthy. Our B. punarnava speci-
mens have been collected from the type locality by Mr. B. Shrinivasan
and B. erecta specimen were received in exchange from Dr. L. H.
Shinners, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 267

In order to confirm the specific identity of this erect Boerhavia from
Bombay a duplicate herbarium specimen was sent to Dr. Shinners. He
confirmed its identity as Boerhavia erecta Linn. and commented that
it was an American weed and had perhaps found its way to India with
food grain imports. He also directed my attention to its reference in
the Flora of Java, Vol. 1 (1963) by C. A. Backer, and that Linnaeus,
although he wished to honour the Dutch Botanist ‘ Boerhaave ’, spelt it
originally with only one a, explaining that he considered this to be better
latin.

Dr. Shinners’ remarks indicate that Boerhavia punarnava Saha &
Krishm. and Boerhavia erecta L. are synonymous.

Blatter Herbarium also contains two specimens of this species
(Boerhavia erecta L.) collected on 20 January 1958, by Dr. S. K. Wagh
from Cuddapah (though identified as Boerhavia crispa Heyne).

This led us to examine further the Indian species of Boerhavia. We
obtained Boerhavia collections from the various Indian herbaria on loan
and I give below a key for the five Indian species which are very distinct.

KEY BASED ON THE CHARACTERS OF FRUITS:

ae raM MAU AUSELN OHCIM CIS) Soe yyaln, Pa cenaree ete € one ocd. Nov'e'e.c aoe + & of o/avdiw ve aeons B
B. Fruit linear- oblong. eotands numerous along the 5-
TAGS htee Te OM Se ha es Ste ee BOLE? -....l B. chinensis

B. Fruit club-shaped with only five glands forming crown at

UE LO Ps Pe, weime we as fe: Bee see aes 2 2B. verticillata

A. Fruits without FOMPET DCIS RO I SC ea Re oi SM hc ti C
C. Fruit obconical with five distinct ridges and furrows.

Ne Ms UERKCIe CUyeecaty Wee ca ieee agg s srSie 5 G2 wei Spee werecta

GC, emi exate oblons with five distinct ridges and furrows
Me ee eR ee aie Eee vig Main te eeead a2 D

D. Fruits glabrous. Pedicels glabrous, thin and elon’

Sabet aa sue Gales 8. Sb as dese. 4 B. elegans

D. Fruit pubescent, pedicels hairy and not elongated....

Ret oeeee es SR McNeal asia ates, Pisa ats ore > B. diffusa

KEY BASED ON VEGETATIVE AND FLORAL CHARACTERS :

A. Erect or semi-erect herbs. Inflorescence terminal or axillary

SCLC Sag wi sfjuia ih sper tyne Phas ine a Be oes eevee oes 3 1 B. erecta

- A. Prostrate or scandent herbs. Inflorescence terminal or axillary
Parle Be ain ies ioes Saree tia Gls Siz aod ORE Bald ans bedi eghvars ve B

_. B.. Pedicels thin, elongated and glabrous........ 2 B. elegans

B. Pedicels pubescent, not elongated,..... ae 3 B. diffusa

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

A. Scandent or climbing herbs. Inflorescence umbels or whorled
PACEMES $).-.[255Rs Das es el ee se Oe C
C. Flowers 3-8 in an umbel at the end of the peduncle......
sis Ups AGAR AO eR eee Seca ae ees 4 B. chinensis
C. Flowers arranged in whorls on a peduncle..............
dele ARE ee ae ee 5. B. verticillata
I have been unable to locate reliable herbarium specimens of the
following two species:
1. Boerhavia fruticosa Dalz.
2. Boerhavia crispa Heyne
Herbarium specimens marked Boerhavia fruticosa Dalz. from
Talbot’s collection, received from Central National Herbarium, Calcutta,
turned out to be Siegesbekia orientalis L. a composite.
Boerhavia crispa Heyne does not seem to be represented in any Indian
herbarium, according to replies to our specific requests.

BLATTER HERBARIUM,

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, M. R. ALMEIDA
BomBay-1,

November 30, 1967.

31. THREE NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR WEST BENGAL

During field collections undertaken in connection with ecological
studies on the vegetation of West Bengal Coast, a few interesting plants
were obtained, of which three were found to be new records.

Cyperus arenarius Retz. Obs. 4: 9, 1786; Clarke in Hk. f. Fl. Brit.
Ind. 6 : 602, 1893 ; Prain, Beng. Pl. 2 : 860, 1963 (repr. ed.). _

A perennial rhizomatous sedge growing on sandy clay soil and sand-
dune habitat at Digha and Higli. It is a sand binder sometimes found
in association with Indigofera glabra Linn., Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.

and Borreria articularis (L.f.) F. N. Will. Its frequent occurrence shows —

that it is now more or less widespread in the coastal sandy areas of W.
Bengal. vs |

Digha: A. K. Mukherjee and L. K. Banerjee 4450, 24-8-1966 ;
T. A. Rao 4087, 25-2-1965 ; Higli, A. K. Mukherjee 4491, 25-8-1966.

Portulaca tuberosa Ron (Hort. Beng. 91, 1814, nom. nud.) FI.
Ind. 2 : 464, 1832.

A perennial succulent herb with a fusiform root, and Sate flowens
The plant grew on moist sand at Digha coast; hitherto it was
not recorded from W. Bengal. The increasing frequency of its collec-
tion along the Indian coastal areas would seem to indicate that this species
is now well established all along the coast,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 269

Digha coast: A. K. Mukherjee and L. K. Banerjee 4454, 24-8-1966.

Syzygium ruscifolium (Willd.) Sant. & Wagh in Bull. bot. Surv. India
5: 109, 1963. Myrtus ruscifolius Willd. Sp. Pl. 2: 970, 1800. Eugenia
bracteata Roxb. ex DC. Prodr. 3 : 264, 1828 ; Duthie in Hk. f. Fl. Brit.
ind. 2: 502; 1879 > Prain,, Bens. Pl,.1 : 357, 1963 (repre ed.):

A hardy perennial shrub, common in dry situations on sand-dune
habitats, characterised by rusty-villous peduncles, white flowers and
orange-red berries. It is common along the eastern side of Sagar Island
growing in association with Dodonaea viscosa (Linn.) Jacq., and Excoe-
caria agallocha L. ; also found growing near inland sand dunes and sandy
plains near Contai. In India it isreported from Sylhet, plains of south
India, and also near the sea in Orissa. The occurrence of this plant in
West Bengal at Sagar Island and Contai indicates the range of its distri-
bution throughout West Bengal-Orissa coastal belt.

Sagar Island: Dhablat, A. K. Mukherjee and L. K. Banerjee 5914
April, 1967 ; Contai, T. A. Rao 4064 (a), 25-2-65.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. K. MUKHERJEE

CALCUTTA-14, L. K. BANERJEE
September 25, 1967.

32. TETRALOCULAR FRUITS IN CLEISTANTHUS
COLLINUS (ROXB.) BENTH. EX HOOK. F.

(With a photograph)

The fruits in the genus Cleistanthus Hook. f. are described as trilo-
cular by J. D. Hooker (Hook. f. in Hook. Ic. Pl. 8, t. 779, 1848) while
erecting the genus on the basis of an African species, Cleistanthus poly-
stachyus Hook. f. According to Pax & Hoffmann (Pflanzenfam. 19C:
34, 1931) the genus Cleistanthus Hook. f. is distinguished from Bridelia
Willd., its closest ally, by its trilocular capsules and from the genus
Godefroya Gagnep., another close ally, by the divided styles and trilo-
cular capsules. In J. D. Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (5 : 274-282,
1887) all the species of Cleistanthus Hook. f. are described as having
trilocular fruits except C. ferrugineus (Thwait.) Muell.-Arg. which is
described as having tetralocular, rusty tomentose, capsules. It isa
Ceylonese plant.

Tetralocular fruits in Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook. f.
have not been reported hitherto. There are no specimens of C. collinus
(Roxb.) Benth. with tetralocular fruits either in the Madras Herbarium
(MH) or in the Central National Herbarium (CAL). Specimens of

270. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook. f.—(Subba Rao 19787)
collected from Cheedipalem, Visakhapatnam Dt., Andhra Pradesh and
deposited in the Herbarium of the Southern Circle (MH), Coimbatore
are noticed to have tetralocular glabrous capsules together with trilo-
cular glabrous capsules (all tetralocular fruits deeply lobed) on the same
plant (cf. photograph). This condition was observed on several trees
of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. in that locality.

Tetralocular fruits in Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex. Hook. f.

My thanks are due to the Director, Botanical Survey of India and
Regional Botanist, Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India for their
kind encouragement and facilities provided and to the Keeper, Central
National Herbarium for comparing the tetralocular specimens under
reference with the specimens at Central National Herbarium.

SOUTHERN CIRCLE, 3
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, G. R. KUMARI

COIMBATORE, Lp
August 1967.

‘MISCELLANEOUS NOTES x, 271
33. ALGAE OF SIMLA

During a botanical excursion to north India, the author collected a
few algae from Simla on 5 and 6 November, 1966. Simla is situated
at 31°6’N., 77° 10’E. The altitude ranges from 2200 to 2450 metres.
January is the coldest month with a mean temperature of 5°C and the
mean temperature of June, the warmest month, is 20°C. The average
rainfall for the whole year is 180 cm. The period of greatest rainfall
is from June to October.

These algae have been collected from Simla, on way to the Glen, and
from Mushobra, a place 10 km. away from Simla. Algae could be col-
lected from a few places only as most of the collection spots like cata-
racts, dripping rocks, road side pools and puddles were dry. There was
only one pond with an area of 15 sq.m. at Mushobra. This pond yield-
ed 54 taxa belonging to 20 genera.

In this paper 78 taxa belonging to Chlorophyceae, Charophyceae,
Xanthophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Cyanophyceae are recorded.

CHLOROPHYCEAE

- |. -Pandorina morum (Muell.) Bory.
Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

2. Gloeocystis gigas (Kuetz.) Lagerheim
In a pond, Mushobra.

3. Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenberg) Ralfs y. tetraodon (Corda) Raben-
horst

Very rare. In a’‘pond, Mushobra.

4. Coelastrum microporum Naegeli
Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

5. Trochiscia zachariasii Lemm.
Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

6. Scenedesmus bijuga (Turp.) Lagerh. v. alternans (Reinsch)
Hansgirg ;

Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

7. §. brasiliensis Bohlin.
Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

8. SS. denticulatus Lagerheim
Planktonic in a reservoir, Simla. ~

272

alkoe

10.

Le

12:

13.

14.

15.

16.

17:

19.

20.

DA

22.

23%

24,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1)

S. dimorphus (Turp.) Kuetzing
In a pond, Mushobra.

Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs
Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Selenastrum westii G. M. Smith
Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Botryococcus sudeticus Lemmermann
In a reservoir, Simla.

Stigeoclonium tenue (Agardh) Kuetzing
Attached to water pipes in a reservoir, Simla.

Protococcus viridis C. A. Agardh
On moist earthen walls of houses, Mushobra.

Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kuetz.
Attached to sticks, stones in a reservoir, Simla.

Oedogonium nanum Wittock. Tiffany

Epiphytic on Cladophora filaments in a water reservoir, Simla.
Only female filaments were observed.

Cylindrocystis brebissonii Menegh.

In a pool, Glen, Simla.

Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii (Bréb.) De Bery
Rare. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Closterium acerosum (Schrank) Ehrenberg
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. dinae Ehrenberg.
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. dinae Ehrenberg y. arcuatum (Bréb.) Rabenhorst
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. idiosporum W. et G. S. West
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. kuetzingii Bréb.

In a pond, Mushobra.

C. leibleinii Kuetzing

In a pond, Mushobra.
Cells much shorter (up to 100 y» long).

2:

26,

oe

28.

ao;

30.

Spl

a2.

33%

34,

35:

36.

ae

38.

39:

40.

MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES 273

C. rectimarginatum Scott et Prescott v. maius Kamat
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. venus (Kuetzing) Brébisson
In a pond, Mushobra.

Cosmarium abbreviatum Racib. f. pygmaeum Missik.
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. laeve Rabenhorst
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. meneghinii Bréb.
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. punctulatum Bréb. v. rotundatum Klebs
Submerged mucilaginous masses in a reservoir, Glen, Simla.

C. regnellii Wille
Abundant. Ina pond, Mushobra.

C. regnesi Reinsch
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. subretusiforme W. et. G. S. West v. maiums Kamat
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. succisum West v. hyalinum Skvortzow
In a pond, Mushobra.

C. undulatum Corda v. minutum Wittrock
In a pond, Mushobra.

Euastrum verrucosum Ehrenberg
In a pond, Mushobra.

Staurastrum dickiei Ralfs
In a pond, Mushobra.

S. muticum Brébisson
In a pond, Mushobra.

S. orbiculare Ralfs v. depressum Roy et Bisset
Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Sphaerozosma granulatum Roy et Bisset
In a pond, Mushobra.

274. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

CHAROPHYCEAE

41. Chara corallina Willd.

Abundant in a pond, Mushobra. Plants comparatively far
more delicate than those found in Maharashtra State.
Mosquito larvae were present in abundance very close to
these plants.

XANTHOPHYCEAE

42. Tribonema bombycinum (C. A. Agardh) Derbes et Solier
In a streamlet, Simla. On dripping rocks, Mushobra.

43. Vaucheria sessilis (Vauch.) De Condolle
Common. On shaded moist soil, slopes, Simla, Mushobra.

EUGLENOPHY CEAE

44. Euglena oxyuris Schmarda
Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

45. E. sanguinea Ehrenberg
In a pond, Mushobra.

46. E. spirogyra Ehrenberg v, abrupte-acuminata Lemmermann
In a pond, Mushobra.

47. Phacus curvicauda Swirenko
In a pond, Mushobra.

48. P. orbicularis Hiibner
In a reservoir, Glen, Simla.

49. P. polytrophos Pochmann
In a pond, Mushobra.

50. P. triqueter (E.) Duj.
In a pond, Mushobra.

51. P. unguis Pochmann
In a pond, Mushobra.

52. Trachelomonas cylindrica E. sec. Playfair
In a puddle, Glen, Simla,

53.
54,
«55,

56.

Di
58.
59:
60.
61.
62.

63.

64.
65.

66.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES a a

T. dybowskii Drez.
In a pond, Mushobra.

T. hispida (Perty) Stein emend. Deflandre
In a pond, Mushobra.

T. subverrucosa Deflandre
In a pond, Mushobra.

T. volvocina Ehrenberg
In a pond, Mushobra.

CYANOPHYCEAE

Aphanothece castagnei (Bréb.) Rabenhorst
On moist soil, on bark of trees, Simla, Mushobra.

A. microscopica Naegeli
On dripping rocks, Mushobra.

Merismopedia elegans A. Br.
In a pond, Mushobra.

M. punctata Meyem
In a pond, Mushobra.

Oscillatoria corakiana Playfair v. nongranulata Kamat
In a pond, Mushobra.

QO. formosa Bory ex Gomont
In gutters, Glen, Simla.

O. mougeotii Kuetzing

Forming a dark blue-green layer on submerged soil in a pond,
Mushobra.

O. prolifica (Grev.) Gomont
In a pond, Mushobra.

O. proteus Skuja
On moist soil near the pond, Mushobra.

O. pseudogeminata G. Schmid

In a pond, Mushobra. In the mucilaginous masses of other
algae, Simla.

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

1%

Ts
74.

735:

76.

O. quadripunctulata Briihl et Biswas y. unigranulata R. N. Singh
f. ahmedabadensis Kamat

In a pond, Mushobra.

O. rubescens DC. ex Gomont
Common in gutters, Simla.
On wet bricks, Mushobra.

O. tenuis Ag.
Common. Ina pond, Mushobra.

Lyngbya allorgei Fremy

Adhering to submerged iron pipes, Glen, Simla. On moist
soil, Simla,

The filaments are slightly broader (up to 4°35 broad) than those
in the type.

L. antarctica Gain
Cement gutters, Simla.

L. lachneri (Zimmermann) Geitler
Adhering to submerged iron pipes, Glen, Simla.
In cement gutters, Simla.

L. martensiana Meneghini
Adhering to submerged iron pipes, Simla.

L. nordgardhii Wille
Embedded in mucilaginous masses of Aphanothece, Simla.

Microcoleus vaginatus (Vauch.) Gomont v. vaucheri (Kuetz.)
Gomont
On moist soil, Simla.

Schizothrix pallida (Naegeli) Geitler

Thallus woolly, reddish brown; filaments curved, branched,
22-30-50 « broad, sheath yellowish brown to _ reddish
brown, distinctly stratified, at the ends pointed, outside even,
with 1-4 trichomes, coloured violet by chlor-zinc-iodide ;
trichomes not constricted at the cross-walls, blue-green, not
tapering at the ends, cells 9-9°6 u broad, 7-8 long, end cell
bluntly conical. :

On dripping rocks, Mushobra.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 277

77, Cylindrospermum musicola Kuetzing ex Born. et Flah.
Blue-green mucilaginous masses on slopes, Glen, Simla.

78. C. stagnale (Kuetz.) Born. et Flah.
On moist soil, Glen, Simla.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, |
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, N. D. KAMAT
NAGPUR,

April 12, 1967.

Gleanings

Elephant Birth

KYH Magazine, published by the Shikar-Safari Club (11681
San Vincente Blvd., Los Angeles, Calif. 90049) carries in
its Winter 1966 Conservation Issue an interesting account by
Salvation Army Brigadier Young of an elephant birth witnessed by
him in Kruger National Park. The expectant mother with the ‘birth
bag’ already protruding from her vagina and with a young female
in attendance was about 200 yards away from the rest of the herd.
Groaning loudly while she laboured she busily churned up the soil
into a large patch of loose sand. Within five to ten minutes the
first twin dropped, covered with ‘white/yellowish mucus and blood.’
While the baby lay still the mother cleaned off the mucus and blood
by squirting it with the sand. In another 20 minutes or so the
second twin arrived, and was cleaned in like manner. Meanwhile,
the attendant female circled around keeping off the vultures which
had quickly gathered. Shortly thereafter the young ones got up on
their feet, unsteady and stumbling at first and requiring the mother’s
help. Finally, with the babies under her and trying to suck, the
mother cleaned herself with the useful sand.

Karatasi Yenye Habari, Winter 1966, Conservation Issue, p. 40.

Behaviour Patterns of Onagers

In a paper based on observation of Onagers in the Badkhyz
Reserve in south-eastern Turkmenia extending over a period of three
years, A. O. Solomatin reports the interesting fact that lactating
females avoid water of a salinity exceeding 10 grammes per litre.
The important watering places for Onagers are freshwater basins.
In summer the feeding grounds are generally within 10 to 15 kilo-
metres of their water supply; this limit may extend to as much as
20 to 30 kilometres in Autumn, and even more later.

A. O. Solomatin: Visitations of Sources by Onagers and
Behavioural Patterns on the Watering Places. 1967, Bulletin of
Moscow Society of Naturalists. Biological Series, Vol. 72 (4), pages
25-35.

GLEANINGS 279

An unusual mammal breeding pattern

Experimenting with a pair of tree shrews from south-east Asia,
Robert Martin, of the Zoology Department, Oxford, has discovered
an unusual breeding pattern. Two nests are used; the mother and
her mate occupy one, while the young ones are left unattended in
the other from birth the mother visiting them for a few minutes
just after dawn every second day for one month to feed them.
Owing to this discovery he has been able to breed successfully from
them in Oxford. As the mother continues to feed the young ones
even after they have been handled by humans, this discovery opens
up many possibilities for laboratory purposes.

P. D. Rodgers: The Rearing of the Shrew. New Scientist,
30 March 1967, 33 (538) :661.

Insect Control by Use of Sex Pheromones

Lyle K. Gaston and others of the Department of Entomology,
University of California, report a first success in the use of artificial-
sex-phermone concentration to inhibit orientation in mate-seeking
insects. The experiment was carried out over six nights with ten
virgin female cabbage looper moths (Trichoplusia ni) in a trap at
the centre of a “‘pheromone-baited’ area, the site of which was varied
at random every second night. Whereas in the control area 600
metres away, the site of which was similarly varied every second
night, 102 males were caught, no male was caught in the ‘pheromone-
baited’ area. Experiments are in progress to determine the minimum
concentration of pheromone necessary to inhibit male-to-female
orientation.

Lyle K. Gaston, H. H. Shorey, and C. A. Saario: Insect
Population Control by the Use of Sex Pheromones to _ inhibit
Orientation between the Sexes. Nature, 18 March 1967, Vol. 213,
No. 5081, p.1155.

The States of Sleep

In a paper dealing with the states of wakefulness and sleep in
cats Michel Jouvet divides sleep into light sleep and what he calls
paradoxical sleep. In light sleep the muscles retain some tension
and the cat is easily wakened. After ten to twenty minutes of light
sleep there follows paradoxical sleep, which is marked by complete
relaxation of the muscles and is not readily disturbed; the name is
explained by the fact that this state is associated with movements

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (1)

of the eye and other parts of the body and with cortical activity,
such as are generally associated with a state of wakefulness. The
author discusses the processes and structures involved and puts
forward the hypothesis that the raphe system in the brain stem is
responsible for light sleep and operates through serotonin, and that
the control for paradoxical sleep operates through adrenalin and is
located in the locus coeruleus lower down the brain stem. Round-
the-clock recordings have shown that cats spend about 35% of the
time in a state of wakefulness, 50% in light sleep, and 15% in
paradoxical sleep. Systematic examination in the laboratory suggests
that paradoxical sleep does not occur in the lower animals, for
example the reptiles, and rises in the scale through birds and the
lower mammals to the higher mammals: hunting species seem to
enjoy a higher proportion of paradoxical sleep as compared to total
sleep than do the hunted species,

1967, Michel Jouvet: The States of Sleep. Scientific American.
Vol. 216, No. 2, pp. 62-72.

Co-operative Bird Ringing )

In the ‘hope of inducing readers elsewhere to get together and
form small bird-ringing groups, to co-operate with work being done
at Bird Observatories and to provide individual ornithologists with
Opportunities for original work that they would not otherwise have
had, B. S. Nau describes in a stimulating paper the origin and
development of the Rye Meads Ringing Group and mentions some
of its achievements during its short existence of about ten years.
The group must be small enough for the individual members to keep
personal touch with each other and yet large enough for work to
proceed continuously; about thirty seems to be a suitable number.
Ringing will be confined to a restricted area and careful records kept
in rather more detail than is usual. It is not sufficient to keep the
records; they must be studied within the group. Mr, Nau discusses
how the necessary enthusiasm for the successful launching and
running of such a group can be worked up.

1967, B. S. Nau: Co-operative bird ringing. Bird Study, Vol. 14,
No. 1, pp. 1-9.

Notes and News

Field Work Grant

Arising out of a donation made by Mr. Humayun Abdulali, the
Society has at its disposal Rs. 1200 for assisting naturalists,
amateur or professional, engaged in field studies (including collecting
trips) preferably in vertebrate zoology. Applications, giving particulars
of the work proposed and the extent of the assistance required, are
invited. Applications should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Bombay 1-BR.

Book of Indian Birds—Eighth Edition
For over two decades the BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali has

remained an indispensable field guide for every one who wishes to

enjoy the rich and varied bird life of the sub-continent. The eighth
edition, now in press, retains all the features of its immediate
predecessor and in addition describes and illustrates eight more
birds bringing the number of species of the commoner birds of the plains,
foothills, inland waters, and the sea-coast, described and _ illustrated,
to 264. Copies will be available by mid-1968.

Announcement
DIPLOMA IN RESOURCES ECOLOGY

Banaras Hindu University, India announce the institution of a
one-year Diploma course in Resources Ecology with effect from August
1968. The course is designed to train prospective and in-service
personnel engaged in landscape and range management, utilization
and management of biological and other resources, and nature con-
servation. The Institute will serve as the International Centre for
Training in Resources Ecology.

The duration of the course shall be two semesters. The candidates
must hold a B.Sc. (Pass or Honours) degree with any of the two
following subjects: Botany, Zoology. Geography and Geology.

The details of the course can be had from Professor R. Misra,
Chairman, International Committee for Education and Training in
Resources Ecology, and Head of the Department of Botany, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi-5, India, to whom the applications for
admission must reach before July 15, 1968.

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CONTENTS

¢

A REpPoRT ON Witp Lire Surveys IN SOUTH AND West INDIA. November-
December 1966. By J. Juan Spillett

Heteromysis zeylanica TATTERSALL (CRUSTACEA: MYSIDACEA), AN ASSOCIATE |

OF MADREPORARIAN CORALS IN SOUTH INDIAN WATERS. By

N. Krishna Pillai Ws Sh a ae sa
RECORDS OF RARE FISHES OF THE FAMILY CHAETODONTIDAE FROM BOMBAY. By
B. F. Chhapgar and J. K. Jatar a Ee Z

PREFERENCE OF CASTOR VARIETIES FOR FEEDING AND OVIPOSITION BY THE LEAF-
HOPPER, Empoasca flavescens (F.) (HOMOPTERA, JASSIDAE) WITH PARTICULAR
REFERENCE TO ITS HONEYDEW EXCRETION. By S. Jayaraj 4s 4A

OBSERVATIONS ON AGE AND GROWTH OF Tachysurus sona (Ham.). By Vijai D.
Singh and M. S. Rege se b ie

ALGAE OF ALIBAG, MAHARASHTRA. By N. D. Kamat

THE BIOLOGY OF THE WHITEWINGED GROSBEAK, Mycerobas carnipes HODGSON,
IN KAZAKHSTAN. By I. A. Dolgushin, E. I. Gavrilov, and E. F. Rodionov

Coccips (COCCOIDEA : HEMIPTERA : INSECTA) AFFECTING FRUIT PLANTS IN BIHAR
(INDIA). By S. Mohammad Ali

SEA ANEMONES (ACTINIARIA) OF BOMBAY. By Arun Parulekar

THE NESTING ACTIVITIES OF THE VESPOID POTTER WASP Eumenes campaniformis
esuriens (FABR.) COMPARED WITH THE ECOLOGICALLY SIMILAR SPHECOID
Sceliphron madraspatanam cae waiagiec sais By S. D. Jayakar

- and H. Spurway ee eo“
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
History Sociery—1. By Humayun Abdulali nt sie 5
REVIEWS .. ve HS a oS “ ae
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES che oe Af es wg
» GLEANINGS 50 55 >. 4 »s oe
NOTES AND NEws_... 4 x ie eas ~ —

ANNOUNCEMENT af if an a 3 5

47

58

105

a Oe ee

a ee

Journal of the.

Bombay Natural History Society

| Vol. 65, No. 2

Editors
H. SANTAPAU, 8.1.,
ZAFAR FUTERALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

AUGUST 1968

Rs. 18 (Inland), Sh. 30 (Foreign)

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| _ EDITORS, , |
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Shahid Bhagat History. Societal 4
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Date

VOLUME 65, NO. 2—AUGUST 1968

of publication: 6-11-1968

CONTENTS

THE ECOLOGY OF THE LION-TAILED MACAQUE [Macaca silenus (LINNAEUS)|—A

*Pmotr Stupy. By Yukimaru Sugiyama.

text-figure)

Hedychium longipedunculatum, A NEW SPECIES OF ZINGIBERACEAE FROM SUBAN-
sIRI DistRICT, NORTH EAST FRONTIER AGENCY. By A. R. K. Sastry and

D.M. Verma. (With a plate)
“A REPORT ON WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA. November-

December 1966. By J. Juan Spillett.

NEPAL BIRDS : SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST.

(With two plates, a map, and a

(With two plates and three maps)
By R. L. Fleming

THE SCIAENIDAE OF THE COASTAL WATERS OF VISAKHAPATNAM. By S. Dutt and
V. Thankam. (With a plate)
NOTES ON THE THYSANOPTERA COLLECTED DURING WESTERN AND SOUTHERN INDIA
SURVEY, 1962, WITH A REVIEW OF THE THYSANOPTERA COMPLEX OF THE Hosts.
By K. V. Lakshminarayana ..

THE YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), A TROPICAL
DRY-SEASON NESTER. III. Two further seasons’ breeding. By S. D. Jayakar
and H. Spurway. (With two plates and two text-figures)

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI-GARHWAL STATE.
By A. C. Dey, M. R. Uniyal, and V. Shankar

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF Triops mavliensis (TIWARI), NOTOSTRACA (CRUSTACEA),
IN THE OKHAMANDAL REGION OF SAURASHTRA (INDIA). By S. V. Shanbhag

and N. B. Inamdar.

(With four text-figures)

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
History SocietyY—2, Anseriformes. By Humayun Abdulali. (With a text-
figure)

THE NILGIrRi WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION AND STATUS OF WILD LIFE IN THE NILGIRIS.

By E. R. C. Davidar.

(With two plates)

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN AGE AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PEARL OYSTER,
Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher), OF THE GULF OF KutTcH. By K. R.

Narayanan and M. S. Michael.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS.

(With a text figure)

REVIEWS :

i

Wer eos

Population Studies of Birds.
The Metabolism of Insects.
Ecological Methods. (R.R
Common Insects of India.
Avian Myology. (A. De)

(R. M. Naik)
(Almas Rizvi)
.)
«NT. N.)

(With four text-figures)

By T. V. Subrahmanyam

283

293

296
326

335
348

369

384
408

418

431

444

453

462
467
468
469
469

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

1. Sphaerias blanfordi (Thomas, 1891) from Himalayan Region of Uttar
Pradesh: An Addition to the Chiropteran fauna of India. By H.R. Bhat (p. 471).
2. Some observations on the Golden Langur Presbytis geei Ms. Khajuria Gee.
By Philip Wayre (p.473). 3. Breeding habits of the Field Rat Millardia meltada
(Gray). By O. S. Bindra and Prem Sagar (p. 477). 4. New records of Mam-
mals from Rajasthan, India. By Biswamoy Biswas and R. K Ghose (p. 481).
5. On the food habits of cormorants in the breeding season. By A. R. Sengupta
and R. L. Brahmachary (p. 483). 6. Greyheaded Lapwing Vanellus cinereus
(Blyth): New record for Rajasthan. By B. Robert Grubh (p. 484). 7. On

the occurrence of the Blackshafted Little Tern (Sterna albifrons saundersi Hume).

near Bombay. By A. Navarro, s.J. (p. 484). 8. Parental instincts in Koel,
Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus). By Dhruv Dixit (p. 485). 9. Blackcapped
Kingfisher Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) at Bharatpur, Rajasthan. By B. R.
Grubh, J. D. Panday and P. B. Shekar (p. 486). 10. Crows and companionship.
(With a text-figure). By Dhruv Dixit (p.487). 11. The Waxwing, Bombycilla
garrulus (Linnaeus), in Nepal. By Robert L. Fleming Jr. (p. 488). 12. Exten-
sion of Range of Isabelline Chat Oenanthe isabellina (Temminck). By Humayun
Abdulali and R. J. Pimento (p. 489). 13. Greywinged Blackbird Turdus boul-

boul (Latham) at Bharatpur, Rajasthan. By B. R. Grubh, P. B. Shekar and J. D.

Panday (p. 490). 14. The Green Alga, Spirogyra sp. in the diet of the White-
backed Munia, Lonchura striata (Linn.). By N. G. Pillai (p. 490). 15. Occur-
rence of the snake Typhlops diardi Schlegel in the Dun Valley. By R. K. Bhat-
nagar (p. 491). 16. Unusual behaviour of two male rat snakes Ptyas mucosus
(Linn.). By A. K. Bhattacharya and R. K. Bhatnagar (p. 492). 17. A note on
the food and feeding habits of Tor Mahseer, Tor tor (Hamilton) from River Nar-
mada. By V. R. Desai and S. J. Karamchandani (p. 493). 18. A case of albi-
nism in Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch). By M. C. Baruah (p. 495). 19. On the
introduction of Phasla jal, a gill net, for catching Hil/sa in the Ganga and
Yamuna near Allahabad. (With a text-figure). By R. K. Saxena and Ravish
Chandra (p. 496). 20. Food habits of the Bull Frog Rana tigerina (Daud.).
By A. K. Joshee (p. 498). 21. Notes on animal relationships : Hyperiid
amphipods Phronima colletti Bovallius and Phronima sedentaria (Forskal) in-
habiting empty ‘ Tests’ of pelagic tunicates. By A. Daniel and K. V. Surya
Rao (p. 501). 22. Note on Mastigochirus quadrilobatus Miers, an anomuran
(Crustacea : Decapoda) new to India. By R. Sarojini and R. Nagabhushanam
(p. 502). 23. Forms of Danaus chrysippus L. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 503).
24. Studies on some passalids (Coleoptera) of Kerala—I. Biology of Pleu-
rarius brachyphyllus Stoliczka. (With a plate). By A. Joseph (p. 505). 25. Notes
on the taxonomy and other aspects of certain species of Aphids in India. By
S. Kanakaraj David, S. G. Rajasingh and K. Narayanan (p. 508). 26. On a
new Flagellate, Trichomitus hyderabadensis sp. nov. from the frog, Rana tigerina
(Daud.). (With five text-figures). By R. Krishnamurthy (p. 513). 27. A note
on the occurrence of Dioscorea orbiculata Hook. F. in India. (With a plate). By
A.R. K. Sastry (p. 517). 28. Some infraspecific Taxa of the Panicum coloratum
L. complex. By P. P. Jauhar (p. 518). 29. Additions to the flora of Pavagadh
Hill, Gujarat State. By S. J. Bedi, S. D. Sabnis and R. P. Bhatt (p. 522). 30.
Occurrence of Aeginetia indica L. var.alba Santapau. By K. M. Vaid (p. 525).

AN APPEAL Aye iy *. ys eihe
ANNOUNCEMENT

NoTEsS AND NEWS

526
527
530

JOURNAL
Pe eoy ED TEE)

BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1968 AUGUST Vol. 65 No. 2

The Ecology of the Lion-tailed Macaque
[Macaca silenus (Linnaeus)|—A Pilot
Study

BY

YUKIMARU SUGIYAMA
Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan |

(With two plates, a map, and a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

- The Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) is a medium-sized
macaque. An average adult male weighs 6°8 kg. in body weight, and
52 cm. in head-and-body length, and 35 cm. tail length, and female 46 cm.
in head-and-body length and 27 cm. in tail length (Blanford 1888, Napier
& Napier 1967). Owing to its unique dark grey or brownish grey
whisker or ruff, and black coat it was sometimes separated from the
genus Macaca (Sanderson 1957).

This pilot study was undertaken to investigate the present distri-
- bution of the species, its ecology and social organisation in the natural
habitat. Though the data obtained were few owing to the shortness
of the study period and the difficulty of observation of this animal, the
author presents them as the study of lion-tailed macaques has not
progressed since the time of his survey, in spite of many efforts. The
field work was divided into two parts ; 10 days in September, 1961, and
I month in February, 1962, on the distribution survey trip’ and
2 months between January 5 and February 27, 1963, on a rather inten-
sive field study.

+ The distribution survey trips were made with Dr. S. Kawamura, Dr. M. D.
Parthasarathy and Mr. K. Yoshiba, members of the Japan-India Joint Project in
Primates Investigation. ,

284. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)
DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION

It is said that lion-tailed macaques occur from 14°N to the southern
limit of the Western Ghat Mountains in south-west India (Blanford 1888).
But hunting for their meat and beautiful coat or fur has considerably
-reduced their distributional range.

The author and his colleagues saw populations of lion-tailed macaques
in only 4 regions namely, Nilgiri Hills, Anaimalai Hills, Cardamom |
Hills and in the vicinity of Periyar Lake. They are restricted to
mountain ranges between 800 m. and 1300 m. in height lying between 9°
30’ and 11° 30’N (Map). The habitat is mainly evergreen or semi-
evergreen forest of more than 20 m. high trees. No information on
populations north of 11° 30’ N was obtained. Judging from the
vegetation type of the present habitat of this species, there may be no
lion-tailed macaques except in the above mentioned regions and a few
regions which the author could not visit. Even in these regions the
population of lion-tailed monkeys is very small.

Estimating from the impression of the author’s survey, the wild
population of this species is less than 1000 head and there is the possi-
bility that the wild population of lion-tailed macaques will become
extinct.

STuDY AREA AND HOME RANGE OF TROOPS

Observations on wild lion-tailed macaques were made at Panniar,
High Range, Kerala State, on the western face of the ridge which marks
the State border of Kerala and Madras. The area has steep hills covered
by evergreen forests of trees about 30 m. high with planted cardamom
(Elettaria cardamomum) on the forest floor (Plates I & II). The field
work was frequently disturbed by wild elephants, snakes and leeches.

In the centre of the study area, two troops of lion-tailed macaques
lived and had overlapping home ranges. No other troop of this species
was seen in the area. There may have been some small populations of
the species but the author saw only these two troops in the Cardamom
Hills. Other than the troops, some solitary males were observed in the
study area and nearby forests.

The home ranges of the troops during the study period were about
2 km. each (Text-fig.).

TROOP ORGANIZATION AND INTERTROOP RELATIONSHIP

Troop sizes were 16 and 22 as shown in Table 1. Both troops had
more than one adult male and adult female each, and had adolescent
animals of several generations. The sex ratio, of adult male to adult
female, was 0°375 and 0°363.

I

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pue ydess0j0yd sy} JO om]090 oY) UT sar] ToATY Jeluued oy], *jsosJoy rewueg ayy

onbeseyp pojiej-uory : ewedrsng

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at (G31 11110) i
“OWT}ABP 9Y} UI Usd AUWLOO]S SI ysoJOJ IeIUUe_ 94} JO IOTIOUT

ees Dyid aT IORIS Yo ATU @) dade Poe anbeory, poyie}-uorq : BUBAISNS
II 3LV1d Se ay (Z) $9 “D0S “LSIH “LYN AVAWOg ‘f¢

ECOLOGY OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE | 285

Large adult males led in each troop. It was noted that an adult
male kept at some distance ahead of the others when the troop was

to Munnar

’ to Madras
’ é
4 N J
U Ps * 4
’ /
\ 4
v +? Qlw0
er mm ee, cae a e’ Chundal
am we” me 4 a4
1400 we ua
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Home Ranges of Troops | & 2 in the Panniar Area

Chair circles show home ranges and numbers (1000-1700) altitude in metres

travelling and adult males were in the lead and in the rear when the troop
was moving fast (Table 2). As the overlapping part of the ranges of the
two troops had many food trees during the study period both troops
frequently came to them, and contact between the two troops was observed
many times. They were antagonistic and troop 2 was dominant.
When they came near, large adult males in each troop displayed by
whooping loudly but no direct fighting was seen. Usually, troop 1
| ‘ moved away after a short time of vocalization. Occasionally both

286. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2)

troops stayed near for a long time without trouble among peripheral
animals, :

TABLE 1

COMPOSITION OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE TROOPS

Full Full
grown Sub- grown Sub- Juve- Inf-—
Age-sex class adult adult adult adult nile ant Baby Total
re) 3 e 2
Estimated age >6 4-6 =>6 4-6 2-4 0°5-2 —0O*5yr.
Troop 1 2 L* iT 1* 3 2 0 16
Troop 2 2 2 10 1 4 0 3 22

* Killed by hunters during the study period.

Though, usually members of a troop travelled together, sometimes
some members of a troop temporarily moved away from the main group.
Troop 1 occasionally divided into two, each containing about half the
number and with adult males in both. Unfortunately I could not deter-
mine whether or not a subgroup had the same animals on different
occasions. Mating couples were often observed more than 100 or 200 m.
from their troop. Temporary division of a troop is rarely seen in

TABLE 2

SOME EXAMPLES OF PROCESSION ORDER

Troop Date/Time Order Remarks

1 Feb. 25, 10.00 FAQ, FAQ, FA9, F43, FAG+Inf, FA? An infant was
FAS Juv, Juv, Juv, FA, FA3 mis-recorded.

1 Feb. 25, 14.20 FAdg, FA, FA, FAG+Inf, FAS, Juv,
Juv, FAS, FA, Juv, FA°+Inf. FAg.

2 Feb. 12,10.33 FAg, FAS, FA2, YAS, FAd, YAS, A??,
. Juv ?, A2?, ?, Juv?, FAQ, FA2+Bab,
FAG, Juy, FAG + Bab, Juv, FA? + Bab,

FA?, YAd ?

ps Feb. 26, 11 . 30 BAe heb FA?+Bab, Juv, FA, Las Juv,
FA, YA? ?, YA¢, FAS ?, FA, F
Juv, Juv, FAS, FA, FA, a
Bab, YAS.

macaque troops, although a subordinate male and its spouse commonly
mate at a place where no other member of the troop can observe them
(Itani & Tokuda 1958, on M. fuscata and Sugiyama, unpublished, on

ECOLOGY OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE — |

M. radiata). (n lion-tailed macaque, males of mating couples which
move away from the troop were not large and might be subordinate ones.

A few animals that had noticeable characters were identified from
others and some data on the permanent social relation among troop
members-were obtained.

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR

The only important food for lion-tailed macaque during the study
period was a kind of chestnut-like fruit (species unknown), from one
of the dominant trees in the forest. After picking an unripe ‘ chestnut’,
they cracked it with the teeth and fingers spending about ten or more
minutes on this, before eating. In addition to this fruit, they ate other
fruits, nuts, flowers and young buds of many kinds of trees, insect larvae
living under tree-bark, pith of cardamom stem and so on.

MOVEMENT

Lion-tailed macaques were very shy and moved to the top of high
trees whenever the author was observing them. However, if he hid
behind a tree or rock they sometimes came down to the ground and
marks of feeding were also seen on the ground. They travelled through
trees even when undisturbed and mainly stayed on trees when feeding and
resting. Generally macaques travel long distances on the ground, though
some usually stay on the tree when they feed or rest. Lion-tailed
macaques apparently are more arboreal than most other macaques in
the natural habitat.

VocAL COMMUNICATION

The whooping display is divided into several emphatic phases and,
in this point, resembles the whooping of the Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis
johnii). Whooping as.a threat display is common in the gibbon (Hylo-
bates) (Carpenter 1940), the langur (Presbytis) (Sugiyama et al, 1965)
and the howling monkey (Alouatta) (Carpenter 1934) but is rare among
macaques. This kind of vocalization was uttered as a threat against a
kite flying overhead as well as threat display against the neighbouring
troop. Vocalization was mainly by adult males but a rather defensive
one was uttered against the author by an adult female. I was struck.by.
the resemblance of the whooping call to human vocalization and once
when I imitated the call from behind a tree, a large adult male was de-
ceived and looked around as if he was searching for an enemy or com-
petitor.

When lion-tailed macaques feed or rest undisturbed and scattered
through the forest, members keep in touch by a muttering or murmuring,

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

call [It corresponds to A-1 of the vocal list of M. fuscata (Itani 1963)].
This was also copied by the author and replied by animals. Call and
response were continued for nearly one hour when he was discovered by
an animal. : |

Ten kinds of vocalization were classified ; alert, threat or attack against
a troop member, whooping display (mentioned above), female’s scream,
juvenile’s scream, infant’s squeal, long distance communication between
troop members during travel, short distance communication (mentioned
above), male’s call during sexual excitement and female’s love call.
There may be some more kinds of vocal communication.

BREEDING ACTIVITY

On 12 occasions between January 14 and February 26 sexual behaviour
or cestrous females were observed. These were extensive mutual groom-
ing, embracing by the mating couple, love call by an cestrous female to
a male, male’s examination of the vulva of an estrous female etc. As
mentioned earlier, many mating couples were found far from their troop.
Four copulations were observed on January 14, February 13, 16 and 21.
The copulatory behaviour was similar to that of other macaques (Tokuda
1961-62). The sexual skin surrounding the anus and vulva of an estrous
female may or may not be swollen.

TABLE:3-

EsTIMATED BIRTH DATE OF NEW-BORN BABIES

Estimated birth date Found on i )
Jan. 1-5 Jan. 8
Jan. 18 ' Jan. 18
Jan. 25-31 Jan. 31

During the study period, 3 new-born babies were seen (Table 3).
The new-born baby has brown hair and pale-pink skin. One month
after birth, the skin becomes pale-brown and gradually darkens the hair
finally turns black, and only the whisker or ruff remains brown or grey.

Combining the data of sexual activity and birth, though the inference
is limited to data from two months’ observations, it appears that there
is no restricted mating season in the lion-tailed monkey. :

INTERSPECIES RELATIONSHIP

The higher hills of over 1500 oe to the east and north of the study
area had, only grasslands and shola forests (Plate I). The shola
forests held a large population of the Nilgiri langur (See Tanaka 1965,

ECOLOGY OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE 289

for Nilgiri langur, and Poirier 1968, for shola forests). The lion-tailed
macaques did not react to the loud whooping of the Nilgiri langurs.
Sometimes mating couples and solitary Nilgiri langurs wandered in-
to the range of the lion-tailed monkey. Two of them followed the troops
of lion-tailed monkeys but the latter were not aggressive. The Nilgiri
langur is similar in colour except for the head.

In the study area bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) lived within the
range of lion-tailed macaques troops. Smaller in size but with a larger
troop size (about 30 head) the bonnet macaque is more terrestrial and 1s
commoner in dry deciduous forests and the vicinity of the villages in
drier areas. In the study area it was as arboreal as the lion-tailed macaques.
Troops of both species were not overtly antagonistic. A troop of bon-
net macaque moved among lion-tailed macaques and sometimes even
travelled following the latter. Lion-tailed macaques usually did not
react to the appearance of bonnet macaques but sometimes moved away
slowly from them. Although smaller, bonnet macaques were dominant.

A similar interspecies relation existed between the bonnet macaque
and the Hanuman Langur (Presbytis entellus) in the dry-deciduous forests
and roadsides of Dharwar, Mysore State (Sugiyama 1967). The Hanu-
man langur eats far more leaves than fruits, and bonnet macaque more
of fruits and insects. In the study area the food habits of the bonnet
macaque and the lion-tailed macaque were nearly the same.

HUMAN INFLUENCE

Though a native tribe of the Nilgiri Hills, Nyakanmar, catch and
eat monkeys (Kawamura, paper presented at Primates Research Confe-
rence, 1964) the tribals, Muduvans, in the study area, do not harm them, but
hunters from elsewhere come to kill lion-tailed macaques. During the
study period, a young adult male and a young adult female that might
have separated from troop 1 were shot by hunters on January 24, 1963.
_ Human persecution has made them extremely wary and shy in their
natural habitat.

Tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus) may be poten-
tial predators of the lion-tailed macaque but their influence on its wild
population must be negligible.

DISCUSSION

In most parts of India monkeys maintain high population in their
natural habitat without much fear of man and field study of monkeys
are easier in India than in any other country. The lion-tailed macaque
is, however, constantly harassed and has become very shy and has taken
to living in high forests, For saving the,wild population of this beautiful

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

monkey from extermination, special and strong methods of preservation
are necessary.

In general appearance the lion-tailed macaque differs from other
macaques. However, though troop size is smaller and the sex
ratio, adult male/adult female, lower than in some other kinds of
macaques, the social organization and most of the behaviour patterns of
lion-tailed macaque troops resemble other macaque societies (Kawai
1964, on M. fuscata ; Southwick & Siddiqi 1966, on M. Mulatta ; Sugi-
yama 1963, and Simonds 1965 on M. radiata).

The lion-tailed macaque is more arboreal than other macaques.
However, even bonnet macaque, that are rather terrestrial in drier areas,
were arboreal in the study area. Arboreal-terrestrial ratio as a species
specific character must be largely modified by adaptation to the environ-
ment. The restriction of the present habitat of the species to high and
dense forest, is perhaps related to the influence of human agency.

It was suspected that there is no restricted mating season in lion-
tailed macaques of the study area and, if it is correct, it is similar to the
sexual seasonality of the Hanuman langur (Jay 1963 ; Sugiyama et al.
1965) and the bonnet macaque (Simonds 1965 ; Sugiyama, unpublished)
of the Deccan Plateau. There must be similar environmental influences
on sexual activity.

There is little evidence of permanent subgroup organization as in
troops of other macaques in a stable situation. Separation movements
of some animals from a troop of lion-tailed monkeys which the author
observed might be the beginning of subgroup formation similar to the
first stage of the troop division that is seen in the Japanese monkey,
M. fuscata (Sugiyama 1960). On this point more intensive observations
on the social organization of the lion-tailed macaque are necessary.

Vocal intimidation between neighbouring troops, using whooping
display is rarely seen in macaques. Neighbouring troops of Japanese
monkeys and bonnet macaque usually keep away from each other and
avoid direct contact, and so in the vocal list of macaques the whoop-
like vocalization is absent. It is interesting that the whooping of lion-
tailed macaque is similar to that of the Nilgiri langur belonging to a
separate subfamily that lives in the same habitat as the lion-tailed macaque
at Panniar. Resemblance in the body colour of the lion-tailed macaque
and the Nilgiri langur is also important. Native people who frequently
work in the forest distinguish one from another, but other people quite
often do not know that there are two kinds of ‘ black monkeys with
brown whisker’ in their forest. Similar resemblance can be seen in
the general appearance of the black ape (Cynopithecus niger) and the
moor monkey (M. maurus). Are these resemblances the result of adap-
tation to the same or similar environment ?

Similar to the interspecies relation between the Hanuman langur and

ECOLOGY OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE 291

the bonnet macaque that belong to separate sub-families, the Colo-
binae and Cercopithecinae, that of the lion-tailed and bonnet macaque’
belonging to the same genus and having allied feeding habits was little
antagonistic, though two neighbouring troops of the same species were
antagonistic. This means that antagonism between troops may not
necessarily occur from competition for the same food spread throughout
the forests, but may be due to other common forces also ; for example,
sexual desire. Two males of different species need not fight for a female
as they are not competitors on this matter, and minor interspecies
difference in behaviour patterns and action-reaction system which release
fear or anger may not fully raise the excitement of an animal of another
species. In African forests closely allied species live in harmony in the
same habitat, same range, same layer and even same branch of a tree
(Haddow 1952-53). The explanation for coexistence of closely related
primate species is not differences in feeding habits alone.

As discussed above the lion-tailed macaque has many common charac-
ters with other kinds of macaques on one hand and some common
characters with some species of different genera on the other. For
answers on the phylogenetical relationship with other species of maca-
ques and the ecological relationship with other primate species living
in India, the ecology and social habits of the lion-tailed macaque in its
natural habitat must be studied more extensively and intensively.

SUMMARY

The present distribution range and the wild population of the lion-
tailed macaque is very small and their exterminationis likely unless strong
action for preservation is taken. -Two troops of lion-tailed macaques
of Panniar forest, High Range, Kerala State, were antagonistic to each
other but their home ranges overlapped. Troop size, composition and
organization showed the standard type for macaques but vocal intimi-
dation between neighbouring troops by whooping display was charac-
teristic. In January and February sexual behaviour as well as birth of
new babies were observed and no limited mating season was believed to
exist.

In the same range there were troops of bonnet monkeys which were
dominant but the two species were not very antagonistic. In the higher
mountains close to the range of lion-tailed monkeys there were Nilgiri
langurs whose body colour is close to that of the lion-tailed macaque.
Lion-tailed macaques were not aggressive to solitary Nilgiri langurs who
wandered in its range.

292

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The data on the distribution of the lion-tailed macaque were given

by the Bombay Natural History Society and its members.

Mr. J. C.

Scott, Mr. P. G. S. Hall, Mr. M. George and many persons gave me their
help at the study areas. I would like to extend my thanks to these

persons and the organization.

REFERENCES

BLANFORD, W. T. (1888) : Mammalia.
In: The Fauna of British India, Taylor &
Francis, London.

CARPENTER, C. R. (1934): A field
study of the behavior and social relations
of howling monkeys. Comp. Psychol.
Monogr. 10 (48) : 1-168.

——— (1940): A field study in
Siam of the behaviour and social relations

of the gibbon, Aylobates lar. Comp.
Psychol. Monogr. 16 (5) : 1-212.
Happow, A. J. (1952): Field

and laboratory studies on an African

monkey, Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti
Matschie. Proc. zool. Soc. London.
122 (II) : 297-394.

ITrANI, J. & TokuDA, K. (1958):

Koshima no saru (Monkeys on Koshima
islet). _Kobunsha, Tokyo : 242 pp.

ITANI, J. (1963): Vocal communi-
cation of the wild Japanese monkey.
Primates, 4 (2) : 11-66.

Jay, P. (1965): The common langur
of north India. In: I. DeVore ed.,
Primate Behavior, Holt-Rinehart, New
York : 175-196.

Kawal, M. (1964): Nihonzaru no
seitai (Ecology of Japanese monkeys).
Kawade, Tokyo : 274 pp.

Napier, J. R. & Napier, P. H. (1967) :
A handbook of living primates. Acade-
mic Press, London : 456 pp.

Porer, F. E. (1968): Analysis of a
Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johnii) home
range change. Primates 9 : (in press).

SANDERSON, I. T. (1957) : The monkey

‘kingdom. Hamish-Hamilton, London :

200 pp.
Stmonps, P. (1965): The —_ Bonnet
Macaque in south India. In: I. DeVore

ed., Primate Behavior,
New York : 197-249.

SouTHwick, C. H. & Smpiar, M. R.
(1966) : Population changes of rhesus
monkeys in India, 1959 to 1965. Pri-
mates, 7 (3) : 303-314.

SuGIyaMA, Y. (1960) : On the division
of a natural troop of Japanese monkeys

Holt-Rinehart,

at Takasakiyama. Primates 2 (2):
109-148.

— (1963): Preliminary report
on _ the social life of bonnet
monkeys. Proc. Joint Meet. Anthr.

Soc. Nip. & Jap. Soc. Ethn. \8 Sess. :
63-65.

———-—, (1967) : Social organisation of
Hanuman langurs. In: S. A. Altmann
ed., Social communication among_pri-
mates, Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago :
221-236.

——————, YOSHIBA, K. & PARTHA-
SARATHY, M. D. (1965): Home range,
mating season, male group and intertroop
relations in Hanuman langurs. Primates,
6 (1) : 73-106.

TANAKA, J. (1965) : Social structure of
Nilgiri langurs. Primates, 6 (2): 107-
122

TokubaA, K. (1961-62) : A study on the
sexual behavior in the Japanese monkey
troop. Primates, 3 (2) : 1-40.

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Distribution of Lion-tailed Macaque

Hedychium longipedunculatum, a new
species of Zingiberaceae from Subansiri
District, North East Frontier Agency

BY

ALR. K. Sastry? and D. M. VERMA
Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong

(With a plate)

During a botanical exploration of Subansiri District, in May 1966,
a frequently occurring epiphytic Hedychium in flower, attracted atten-
tion. Apart from herbarium specimens, live plants of this were also
gathered and grown in the crotch of a Cinnamomum tree, along with
other epiphytes like Vaccinium and some orchids of the same area, in
the ‘ woodlands ’ experimental garden, Shillong. In this almost natural
habitat, the Hedychium flourished and bloomed again in May, 1967.
A detailed study of the live and dry specimens strongly suggested it
being a new species. A follow-up study at the Central National Her-
barium, Calcutta, confirmed this, and incidentally revealed two earlier
undescribed collections of identical material from Naga Hills also.
Accordingly, based upon all the material, the new species is described
here.

Hedychium longipedunculatum sp. nov.

Affine H. densifloro Wall., a quo differt foliis ellipticis, pedunculo
longissimo, spicis floralibus multo brevioribus, bracteis corollae tubo
brevioribus, staminodiis spathulatis, ovario dense villoso, antherarum
cellulis ad basin divergentibus.

Epiphyticum. Rhizoma repens, pallide, griseo-viride extus, pallide
viridescenti-luteum intus, paulum aromaticum. Radices tuberosae.
Caules annui, 25-40 cm. alti, glabri. Folia alterna, 4-6 numero, in-
feriora sessilia, superiora petiolata ; petiolis 3-16 mm. longis, vaginatis;
ligula 0°5-2 cm. longa, membranacea, ad apicem. biloba, glabra ; lamina
4-23 x 1'5-10 cm., elliptica vel oblongo-elliptica, acuta ad basin, ad
apicem abrupte spiraliter caudato-acuminata ; acumine ad 2°5 cm. longa ;

1 Present address : Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

marginibus integris, hyalinis ; facie utraque glabra, viridescente supra,
pallide purpurea infra ; nervo medio distincto, haud alte canaliculato
supra, eminenti infra ; nervi laterales plures, arcuatisursum. Pedunculi
5-14 cm. longi, paulum curvati, glabri; rachis pilosa ; spicula 4-6 cm.
longa, densiflora ; bracteae uniflorae, 11. mm. longae, 7 mm. latae ad
basin, triangulares, convolutae, 9-1l-nerviae, glabrae, 2 mm. calyce
breviores, obtusae ad apicem; bracteolae 6x4 mm., ovatae, acutae,
membranaceae, leniter 3-nerviae, hirsutae extus, glabrae intus. Flores
3 cm. longi, cremei, fragrantes. Calyx tubulosus, partim bractea in-
clusus, 11 mm. longus, oblique ad os divisus, 7-9-nervius, dense villosus
extus, glaber intus, membranaceus, duplici fasciculo capillorum longo-
rum ad apicem: Corollae tubus calyci aequilongus, glaber extus, vil-
losus intus ; laciniae 3, 16 x 3 mm., lineari-lanceolatae, 3-nerviae, pallide
rubro-brunneae maculatae, (emphatice cum siccae), convolutae, acutae
ad apicem. Staminodia bina, 17 mm. longa, 7 mm. lata, petaloidea,
spathulata, cremea, paulum crassa, obscure nervosa. Labium alte
bilobum distincte unguiculatum; ungue 5X2 mm.; lamina fere
elliptica, divisa fere usque ad basin ; lobis 10x 3 mm. , oblongis, obtusis.
Stamen unicum ; filamentum 15 mm. longum, 2 mm. crassum, labio
incumbens ; anthera 7 mm. longa, bicellularis ; cellulae ad basin diver-
gentes ; connectivum 2°5 mm. latum. Ovarium 3 mm. diam., subglo-
bosum, obscure triangulare, dense villosum, triloculare; placentae
axiles ; stylus filiformis, 3°3 cm. longus ; stigma paxilliforme ad antherae
apicem, 1 mm. latum, truncatum, ciliatum. Capsula 1°5 cm. diam.,
subglobosum, triangulare, pilosum; valvulae ternae, patentes, carnosae,
aurantiacae intus ; semina 3x 1 mm. ellipsoidea, levia ; arillus carnosus,
nitenter ruber. Mort ane | F | HH.

Holotypus, A. R. K. Sastry 45509 A, lectus ad Amjee, ad 1220 m.
alt. in Subansiri districtu 22-5-1966, positus in Herbario Nationali
Centrali (CAL) ; isotypi, A. R. K. Sastry 45509 B-H in herbario Kan-
jilal ad Shillong (ASSAM).

Hedychium longipedunculatum sp. nov.

Allied to H. densiflorum Wall., but differs in its elliptic leaves ; very
long peduncle, but much shorter flowering spikes ; bracts shorter than
corolla tube ; spathulate staminodes ; densely villous ovary and anther
cells divergent at base. |

Epiphytic. Rhizome creeping, pale greyish-green outside, light
greenish-yellow inside, slightly aromatic. Roots tuberous. Stem
annual, 25 - 40 cm. tall, glabrous. Leaves alternate, 4-6, lower sessile
upper petioled ; petiole 3-16 mm. long, sheathed ; ligule 0°5-2 cm. long,
membranous, 2-lobed at apex, glabrous; lamina 4 -23x1°5-10 cm.
elliptic or oblong-elliptic, base acute, apex abruptly, spirally caudate-

Sastry : Hedychium longipedunculatum

Hedychium longipedunculatum Sastry et Verma

1. Habit. 2. Plant. 3. Flower. 4. Bract. 5. Bracteole. 6a. Calyx. 6b. Calyx
split open. 7. Lateral corolla segment. 8. Dorsal corolla segment. 9. Staminode.
10. Lip and Stamen. (A.R.K. Sastry 45509 G.)

A NEW SPECIES OF ZINGIBERACEAE 295

acuminate.; acumen up to 2'5 cm.'‘long ; margins entire, hyaline ; sur-
faces glabrous, greenish above, light pinkish-purple beneath ; midrib
distinct, shallowly grooved above, raised beneath ; lateral nerves many,
arched upwards. Peduncle 5-14 cm. long, slightly curved, glabrous ;
rachis hairy ; spike 4-6 cm. long, dense flowered ; bracts 1-flowered, -
11 mm. long, 7 mm. broad at base, triangular, convolute, 9-11-nerved,
glabrous, 2 mm. shorter than calyx, apex obtuse ; bracteoles 6 x 4 mm.,
ovate, acute, membraneous, faintly 3-nerved, hirsute without, glabrous
within. Flowers 3 cm. long, creamy yellow, fragrant. Calyx tubular,
partly enclosed by the bract, 11 mm. long, obliquely split at mouth,
7-9-nerved, densely villous without, glabrous within, membranous, with
2 tufts of long hairs at apex. Corolla tube as long as calyx, glabrous
without, villous within ; segments 3, 16x3 mm. linear-lanceolate, 3-
nerved, light red brown dotted (distinct when dry), convolute, apex
acute. Staminodes 2, 17 mm. long, 7 mm. broad, petaloid, spathu-
late, creamy, slightly thick, obscurely veined. Lip deeply 2-lobed, dis-
tinctly clawed ; claw 5x2 mm.; lamina nearly elliptic, divided near to
the base; lobes 10x3 mm., oblong, obtuse. Stamen single, filament
15 mm. long, 2 mm. thick, resting on the lip; anther 7 mm. long, 2-
celled ; anther cells divergent at base ; connective 2°5 mm. broad. Ovary
3 mm. in diameter, sub-globose, obscurely 3-angled, densely villous,
3-celled ; placentation axile ; style filiform, 3°3 cm. long ; stigma peg-
like at anther tip, 1 mm. broad, truncate, ciliate. Capsule 1°5 cm. in
diameter, sub-globose, 3-angled, hairy without ; valves 3, spreading,
fleshy, orange coloured within ; seeds 3x 1 mm. ellipsoid, smooth ; aril
fleshy, bright red. ,

N.E.F.A.: SUBANSIRI District: Amyee, c 1220 m., 22-5-1966,
A. R. K. Sastry 45509 A (Holotype—CAL) ; A. R. K. Sastry 45509 B-H,
H in fr. (Isotypes—ASSAM) ; Begi—Amjee, 12-5-1966, A. R. K. Sastry
45222 in fl.; Hapoli vicinity, 28-5-1966, A. R. K. Sastry 45584 in fl.
(Paratypes—ASSAM).

NAGA HILLS: July 1844, Anon., s.n., (CAL, Accn. No. 466858) in
fl.; Konoma Hill, (7500’, c 2500 m.), 19-5-1895, G. Watt 11609 in fl.
(Paratypes—CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful ; to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Sur-
vey of India, Calcutta, for kindly rendering the description into Latin ;
to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, for encouragement and critical
suggestions and to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper, Central National Her-
barium, Calcutta, for loan of specimens.

A Report on Wild Life Surveys
in South and West India

November-December 1966
BY

J. JUAN SPILLETT
Wild Life Sanctuaries in Mysore State
(With two plates and three maps)

(Continued from Vol. 65 (1) : 46)

I. INTRODUCTION a Ms A Ne et OF
II. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SURVEY ie ot x S29
III. THE RANGANATHITTU BIRD SANCTUARY 2k me a 2a
Introduction ree Mi Seo ae Binet) |

Visitor Facilities .. we . wi os 8308

Fauna « m4 ef ie cemaOd

Discussion ae My oe i, .. 301

IV. THe NAGERHOLE WILD LIFE SANCTUARY ys Sk .o. 303
Introduction ie s ie Lae .. 303

Visitor Facilities .. < ud ae .. 304

Habitat ci ae ay a .. 306

Flora os i ia a .. 306

Fauna a Ne “ft ae .. 309

’- Discussion is a a et .. 309

-—V. THE VENU GopAL WILD LIFE PARK (BANDIPUR SANCTUARY) joo ene
Introduction “e he ee re ci Se

Visitor Facilities .. oe fe - te i

Habitat rs eo Bie Hu ». 1 B16

Flora 2K Ny ie. Ah 4) 316

Fauna Vs i wh ss 2No3i8

Discussion i Bi S a i 38

VI. THE CHAMARAJANAGAR WILD LIFE PRESERVE .. Py Ra: 7 |
VU. OTHER WILD LiFe SANCTUARIES IN MysoORE STATE ne as
VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. aie Ae yah ony tiles Se oe (SOE
REFERENCES see as “a ES se Ooo

TABLES AND MAps

Table 1. Species composition of the natural moist deciduous forests in the
Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary in Mysore State. oe Om

Table 2. Species composition of the mixed dry deciduous forests of Bandipur
Sanctuary in the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State .. 317

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 297

Table 3. Names of some of the mammals inhabiting the Venu Gopal Wild Life
Park (Bandipur Sanctuary) and the forests in the western part of

Mysore State Re es Ms Me ee eos
Table 4. Some of the more common birds observed in November 1966 in the

Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State i ae) 1320
Map 1. Map of the wild life sanctuaries in Mysore State an L B24

Map 2. General map of the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary in Mysore State 324

Map 3. General map of the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, including the

Bandipur Sanctuary in Mysore State a : 325

lL INTRODUCTION

The princely state of Mysore, which became a part of the Indian
Union after Independence in 1947, was world renowned for its abund-
ance of wild animals. Primarily due to the numerous royal shoots for
tiger and other big game, there was a state-wide interest in wild life.
This led to the enactment of the Mysore Game and Fish Preservation
Act of 1901, which helped to prevent the indiscriminate destruction of
the State’s wild life, and resulted in the organization of perhaps the first
game or wild life staff in India. The Maharaja of Mysore, a devoted
wild life enthusiast, was the first chairman of the Central Indian Board
for Wild Life, which was organized in 1952. A Mysore State Wild Life
Board to advise the State Government on matters pertaining to wild
life preservation also was established in 1952. The Chief Minister is
the chairman of this committee which meets annually, whereas the
Central Board only meets every other year. Mysore became an inte-
grated State in 1956 and the Mysore Wild Animals and Wild Birds’ Act
was enacted in 1963 to establish a uniform code for wild life for the
integrated State.

- The State’s first wild life sanctuary was established in 1931 and con-
sisted of a 35-square-mile area near Chamarajanagar in the District of
Mysore. It was later realized that this sanctuary was too small to con-
stitute a complete ecological unit. Therefore, the area was reverted
back to the status of a wild life preserve and in 1941 a much larger area
to the west was set apart as the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, which in-
cludes the well-known Bandipur Sanctuary. |

The large islands of Devaraja, Ranganathittu and Gandehosahalli, as
well as a number of smaller islands in the Cauvery River, were consti-
tuted as Bird Sanctuaries in 1940. The Jager Valley and Baba Buddin
Wild Life Sanctuary in Chikmagalur District was established in 1941.

1 This survey “was officially sponsored by ‘the World Wildlife Fund, Morges,
Switzerland. The project was also assisted by The Johns Hopkins University and its
Center for Medical Research and Training, Calcutta and Baltimore, Maryland (U.S.A.).
Mr. E. P. Gee, member of the Indian Board for Wild Life, made the necessary arrange-

ments with the Government of India and the Forest Department of Mysore, both of
which extended the fullest co-operation. a :

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

The Dandeli Wild Life Sanctuary in North Kanara District, which was
originally in the State of Bombay, was established in 1945. The Nager-
hole Wild Life Sanctuary in Coorg District, which was originally the
Class ‘C’ State of Coorg, was established in 1955. Both the Dandeli
and Nagerhole wild life sanctuaries came under the jurisdiction of Mysore
when it became an integrated State in 1956 (Map 1). Mysore has the
potential for presenting perhaps the best system of wild life sanctuaries
and parks of any state in the Indian Union.

II. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SURVEY

Two delegates from the Mysore Forest Department met me upon
my arrival in Bangalore the evening of November 22, 1966. Because
it was late and I planned to take the early morning train to the city of
Mysore, we only briefly discussed the wild life situation in Mysore State.
Mr. Monnappa, Wild Life Officer of Mysore, and members of his staff
met me upon my arrival in the station of Mysore on the morning of
the 23rd. The afternoon was spent visiting the Ranganathittu Bird
Sanctuary and other points of interest in the vicinity of the city of Mysore.

We travelled to the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary, approximately
50 miles north-west of Mysore, the morning of November 24. The
afternoon was spent touring some of the sanctuary’s interior roads by
jeep. The entire day of the 25th was spent on elephant back west of
the Nagerhole Forest Rest House. The following day we were accom-
panied by Mr. Syed Hussain (Coorg Divisional Forest Officer) to Thithi-
mathi and also visited the Hebballa Elephant Camp, which is located
on the banks of the Lakshmantirtha River in the heart of the Nagerhole
Sanctuary. We then returned to Mysore via Hunsur.

Mr. Monnappa and I travelled to Chamarajanagar on November 27,
where we met Mr. Alva (Chamarajanagar Divisional Forest Officer).
Mr. Alva accompanied us on a tour of the Biligirirangan Hills and the
Chamarajanagar Wild Life Preserve, which are located south-west of
the town of Chamarajanagar. It has been proposed that this area be
constituted as a wild life sanctuary, a distinction which it well deserves.
The natural beauty and the wild life of this area are worthy of note and
could readily establish it as an outstanding tourist attraction. In
addition, the basic amenities for visitors, such as forest rest houses and
a good network of roads, are present already and the establishment of
the area as a wild life sanctuary and major tourist attraction would in-
volve relatively very little capital investment. We returned to Chama-
rajanagar that night and Mr. Monnappa and I then continued on to
the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, arriving at Bandipur early the morning
of the 28th. | : we

November 28 was spent inspecting the Venuvihar Forest Rest House,
located on the summit of a 4,769-foot high hill along the northern boun-

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 299

dary of the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park and adjacent to the Venu Gopal
Temple. We also inspected a number of the tiger blocks north of the
Park and toured some of the roads inside the Park and the Bandipur
Sanctuary. -

We toured the Park roads east of the Bandipur Forest Rest House
the morning of the 29th and then spent the afternoon on elephant back
to the west. Mr. Alva arrived from Chamarajanagar that evening
and we discussed at length the problems confronting wild life in this area
and some of the possible means by which the true value of wild life in
both Mysore State and in India might be realized.

Mr. Monnappa accompanied me to the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanc-
tuary in Madras State on the morning of November 30th. Mudumalai
adjoins both the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State and an
outstanding wild life area in Kerala State, which also has been proposed
as a wild life sanctuary. With the establishment of the adjoining wild
life sanctuary in Kerala, the Venu Gopal-Mudumalai-Kerala areas
would constitute one of the most complete ecological units in India
dedicated to the preservation of wild life. This completed my brief
tour of some of the wild life areas in Mysore State.

Ill. THE RANGANATHITTU BIRD SANCTUARY

INTRODUCTION

The Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary was established in 1940 and is
the oldest existing wild life sanctuary in Mysore State. It received its
name from the 66-acre Ranganathittu Island in the Cauvery River near
the village of Palahalli, which is 12 miles north of the city of Mysore
and two miles upstream from the railway station at Srirangapatna.
Besides a number of lesser islands in the vicinity of Ranganathittu, also
included in the sanctuary are the islands of Gandehosahalli and Devaraja.
The two islands of Gandehosahalli are located about 8 miles downstream
from Srirangapatna and include a total area of 86°23 acres. The 15-
acre Devaraja Island is 6 miles upstream from Ranganathittu and about
three-fourths of a mile downstream from the Krishnarajasagar Dam.
Devaraja is a denuded island, which is submerged frequently by waters
released ffom the Krishnarajasagar Dam. The major islands, includ-
ing Ranganathittu, serve primarily as resting sites for birds, whereas the
vast majority of the sanctuary’s water birds nest on the lesser islands
along the southern side of Ranganathittu. Therefore, although the
Sanctuary includes a total area of over 167°39 acres, nesting water birds
may be observed only on a few small islands adjacent to Ranganathittu.

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (2)
VISITOR FACILITIES

A metalled road, which is about three-fourths of a mile long, leads
from the Paschimavahini-Krishnarajasagar Highway to the south bank
of the Cauvery River. The turn-off is well-marked with an impressive
sign, which both advertises and depicts the sanctuary’s bird life. A
‘ pergola’ or observation platform is located at the end of the road on a
point overlooking the river and a footpath extends upstream along the
south bank. From this well-camouflaged path, visitors may readily
observe the nesting water birds and their young on the small islands
about 75 feet off-shore. There is also an observation tower on the
south side of Ranganathittu Island, but the birds can be observed better
from the path on the opposite bank of the river.

A Forest Department Forester and a Watcher are stationed at Pala-
halli to guide or assist visitors to the sanctuary. A double boat (Plate I)
and a coracle (a round, basket-like boat) are also provided. How-
ever, visitors are not permitted to approach the nesting birds closely.
When disturbed, the parent birds fly away and the young birds are often
attacked by crows and some fall out of their nests and either drown in
the river or eventually starve.

There are no rest house facilities at the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary,
but there are a number of good hotels in the city of Mysore. A first
class hotel also is located below the Krishnarajasagar Dam, which is
the site of the beautiful Brindavan Gardens. Coloured lights are played
upon the numerous fountains in the garden on Wednesday, Saturday
and Sunday evenings. As a result, the gardens have become a notable
tourist attraction.

The nearest airport to Ranganathittu is at Bangalore, 86 miles north-
east of the city of Mysore. The two cities are connected by both fre-
quent train and bus services. The journey takes about four hours by
meter-gauge train, but first class express buses take less than three hours.
The Government Tourist Department also conducts bus tours of Mysore
and its environment. Although Ranganathittu presently is not in-
cluded in their itinerary, it is hoped that in the future it will be. Most
of the tours pass near the sanctuary and at least a brief visit could be
arranged very easily. |

Major attractions within the vicinity of Ranganathittu include the
Brindavan Gardens, which have been mentioned previously, the one
and one-fourth mile long Krishnarajasagar Dam, which is constructed

entirely of cut stone, and the 50-square-mile Krishnarajasagar Lake.

Srirangapatna is an island in the Cauvery River about two and one-
half miles below Ranganathittu. It served as the capital of the Mysore
Rajas from 1610 until 1799 when Tippu Sultan died in the final battle
with the British. Within the fort on Srirangapatna is a Hindu temple

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 301

(Sri Ranganath), which is over 500 years old, and a Muslim mosque
(Juma Masjid). By climbing the minarets of the mosque one is able to
view an impressive panorama of the fort and the surrounding country-
side. Other attractions include Tippu Sultan’s summer palace which is
located outside the fort, and the mausoleum (Gumbaz) where he is
buried, which is situated near the lower end of the island where the two
forks of the Cauvery River rejoin.

Fauna

Water bird nesting activity begins in the Ranganathittu Bird Sanc-
tuary by late May and is followed closely by egg laying. Hatching,
which coincides with the main monsoon season, generally begins by
mid-June. There are two monsoons in this area ; the south-west mon-
soon, which begins in June and lasts until September, and the north-east
monsoon, which lasts from October until December. The young birds
are full-fledged by the end of November and most of the birds then leave
the sanctuary. Although a few birds are present throughout the year,
the best time to observe the sanctuary’s birds is between June and October.

Most common among the nesting water birds are: openbill storks,
white ibis, little and cattle egrets, darters or snake-birds, paddy birds or
pond herons and spoonbills. Night herons, river terns, lapwings,
curlews, sandpipers, and other water birds, as. well as several species of
migratory waterfowl also are present. Numerous species of lesser birds,
particularly the passerines, may be observed in the trees and bushes along
the banks of the Cauvery. Nearby Srirangapatna is considered a Blue
Rock Pigeon Preserve. There are numerous pigeon nests in the old ruins
of the fort and particularly on the minarets of the mosque. This species
is considered by many as the forerunner of our domestic pigeon.

A large colony of giant fruit bats or ‘ flying foxes’ (Pteropus gigan-
teus) also roosts in the large trees of a small island opposite the
sanctuary’s pergola. Although their numbers vary considerably during
the year, I counted over 500 bats during our visit on November 23rd.
These huge bats have an average wingspread of approximately three feet.
They present an impressive spectacle, particularly to foreign visitors,
when in the evening they drop from the branches and silently wing their
way into the surrounding countryside to forage for food during the night.

DISCUSSION

The primary reason the water birds utilize the small islands in the
Cauvery River for nesting sites undoubtedly is the protection they

afford from man and predatory animals. Another factor which attracts

them to this particular area is the abundance of food in the surrounding

302. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

agricultural lands. The sanctuary’s birds feed extensively upon insects
and aquatic organisms, many of which are harmful to crops. Their
droppings or guano also help to maintain the fertility of the surrounding
fields. Thus, the presence of these birds results in incalculable benefits
to the economy of this area. Apart from aesthetic values, an additional
benefit and potential source of revenue which has not yet begun to be
realized, is the development of Ranganathittu as a major tourist attrac-
tion.

Ranganathittu Island has a fairly luxuriant tree growth along its
' margins. However, most of the island is severely overgrazed by domestic
livestock from near-by villages. As a result, it is for the most part a
barren area with only sparse scrubby vegetation. Herders, who accom-
pany the livestock on the larger islands of the sanctuary, also disturb
whatever birds that attempt to colonize them and have contributed to
the almost complete absence of wild life in these areas.

Areas set aside and constituted as wild life sanctuaries should be
maintained in as natural a condition as possible. It is to be hoped that
the Government of Mysore will shortly take steps to ensure that this is
done at the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary. Besides benefiting the people
of the State as a whole, the surrounding villagers eventually would receive
much greater benefits from the sanctuary than they presently receive
from the grazing of some of their livestock within its confines. With-
out the disturbance by villagers and their livestock I believe that many
of the water birds would eventually utilize some of the larger islands for
nesting sites. Primarily this would be desirable for two reasons:
(1) Greater numbers of water birds could reside in the sanctuary, which
would benefit the surrounding agricultural lands and make the sanctuary
an even greater attraction. (2) The nesting colony would not be as
subject to the havocs of flood waters caused by heavy rains or the opening
of the gates at the Krishnarajasagar Dam. Further, other birds such as
peafowl, jungle fowl and partridges, which the Forest Department has
attempted to introduce upon these islands with little success, would
probably take hold and thrive if they were left undisturbed and sufficient
natural cover and food were available. |

A major problem confronting the nesting water birds of Ranganathittu
is flooding. When there are exceptionally heavy monsoon rains the gates
on the Krishnarajasagar Dam are opened, often with devastating effects
upon the nesting colonies. This practice should be discouraged and an
effort made to release excess waters from the dam as slowly as possible.
Devaraja Island, about three-fourths of a mile below the dam, is almost
completely barren of vegetation because of this practice. Also, on
several occasions the entire season’s production of young water birds
has been destroyed by the sudden rush of waters released from the dam.
It is realized that the protection of the dam is of primary importance, but

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 303

Ranganathittu’s birds also should receive consideration and often with
a little foresight their destruction could be lessened, if not averted
completely. |
The manner in which the Forest Department has established and
maintained Ranganathittu is highly commendable. This is particularly
true when it is realized that this is done on a very limited budget and that
the Department presently realizes no revenue what so ever from this
sanctuary. I was especially impressed by the path along the south
bank of the river, which is well maintained and constructed in such a way
that visitors may readily observe the nesting colony of birds without
disturbing them. However, for the most part, the surrounding fields
encroach upon the sanctuary to the extent that there is room for little
more than a path along the bank of the river. Additional land in this
area should be constituted as a part of the sanctuary. If nothing else,
at least a few additional feet along the path should be acquired to help
give it a park-like appearance. Space also is needed in the vicinity of
the pergola to provide parking, particularly for buses. A small picnic
area likewise would be desirable. Further, it is suggested that the Forest
Department charge a very nominal fee to those visiting the sanctuary.
Besides helping to provide funds for the maintenance of the sanctuary,
this would perhaps impress upon visitors the value of wild life sanctuaries
and the fact that many people would be willing to pay much to have the
opportunity to see a spectacle such as the birds of Ranganathittu.

IV. THE NAGERHOLE WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

INTRODUCTION

The 111-square-mile Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary, which was
originally in the State of Coorg, was established on July 19, 1955 by noti-
fication from the Chief Commissioner of Coorg. Included in the sanc-
tuary are parts of three reserved forests: Arkeri, Hatgat and Nalkeri.
The Thithimathi-Anechowkur road forms the northern boundary,
demarcated forest lines the eastern and western boundaries and the
Kerala State line the southern boundary (Map 2).

The Hunsur Divisional Forest Office and the Divisional Forest Officer
in charge of the Nagerhole Sanctuary are located at Hunsur, 28 miles
west of the city of Mysore. Hunsur also serves as a timber depot for
forest operations in this area. Regretfully, the sanctuary is devoted
primarily to the production of forest produce. Approximately 20,000
acres of the sanctuary presently are devoted to teak (Tectona grandis)
plantations and about 2,000 acres of teak plantation are included in the
sanctuary’s “sanctum sanctorum. Also, 90 acres have been planted

\

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

with Eucalyptus and the parasitic Sandalwood (Santalum album) has
been mixed with teak on 136 acres. Soil conservation schemes, which
primarily involve the planting of trees on barren areas, were initiated in
1963 on an additional 1,080 acres in the sanctuary.

There are 12 villages in the Nagerhole Sanctuary. Nine of these are
inhabited by tribal people resettled here by the Social Welfare Depart-
ment and one of these villages is located in the sanctuary’s 5-square-mile
sanctum sanctorum. The total population of these villages exceed 4,000
people and their cultivated lands inside the sanctuary approximate 500
acres.

Livestock grazing supposedly is excluded from the sanctuary’s
sanctum sanctorum. However, with this exception, the entire sanctuary ©
is open to the free and unrestricted grazing of domestic livestock. It is
estimated conservatively that between 1,500 and 2,000 head of cattle
and buffalo graze in the sanctuary on a year round basis. Other animals
are seasonally grazed in the sanctuary or graze while passing through
the area.

The western side of the sanctuary is bordered by extensive coffee
plantations. Additional pressures are exerted upon the sanctuary,
particularly from this side, for livestock grazing, firewood and other
forest produce by those living along its borders. Although there are
some beautiful areas of natural forest in the interior, travelling through
the sanctuary from Murkal to Kutta or along the northern boundary,
one gains the impression that the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary is little
more than an extensive teak plantation intermingled with forest villages.

VISITOR FACILITIES

Forest rest houses are located conveniently in the Nagerhole Wild
Life Sanctuary at Murkal, Nagerhole and Thithimathi. The Murkal
Forest Rest House is located along the eastern border and provides 4
suites (2 double and 2 single) with all facilities, i.e., bedding, cook, etc.
Murkal is 18 miles south-west of Hunsur via a black-topped road and is
served by daily bus service. Also located at Murkal are a Forest
Department sawmill, seasoning kiln, carpenter training school and a
carpentry section where furniture is manufactured.

The Nagerhole Forest Rest House is 12 miles south-west of Murkal and
provides 2 double suites with all facilities, Six of the 12 miles of road
between Murkal and Nagerhole are black-topped and the other 6 are
metalled. Nagerhole, which means ‘ cobra stream’ in Kanarese, may be
reached by bus from Mercara via Gonegopal and Kutta, a total distance
of 58 miles. There are some beautiful sylvan areas to the south and
east of the Nagerhole Forest Rest House. These may be visited on riding

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 305

elephants, which are provided for visitors at Nagerhole by the Forest
Department.

A small rest house with one suite, but no services, is available at
Kalhalla, mid-way between Murkal and Nagerhole. The Thithimathi
Forest Rest House with 2 double suites and all facilities is located along
the northern boundary of the sanctuary. It is 22 miles west of Hunsur
and 30 miles from Nagerhole via Kutta and Gonegopal.

There is an almost continuous forest belt along the eastern slopes
of the Western Ghats in Mysore. However, the average width of this
belt is only about 5 miles. In addition to the aforementioned forest
rest houses in the Nagerhole Sanctuary, small forest lodges are located
at approximately 8-mile intervals along the entire length of this forest
belt. These are linked with fair-weather roads and may be used with
prior permission from the Divisional Forest Officer in the area concerned.
However, these lodges are for the most part unfurnished and only a
few have modern facilities.

A site of particular interest for visitors to the Nagerhole Sanctuary is
the Hebballa Elephant Camp located in the heart of the sanctuary along
the north bank of the Lakshmanathirtha River. Although a 16-mile
road runs north from Nagerhole to the Lakshmanathirtha, the camp is
on the opposite side and the river can be forded by jeep only during the
dry season. Therefore, the camp is generally reached by a metalled road
from Thithimathi, a distance of 8 miles. The best time to visit Hebballa
is before 08.00 in the morning when the elephants are taken into the
forests to work or to graze or after 05.00 in the afternoon when they are

brought back to the camp for the night.

Elephant kheddas (the driving and capturing of wild elephants
in stockades) were formerly conducted at roughly 5-year intervals at
Kakanakote. The kheddas are located along the north bank of the
Kabini River, about 15 miles south of the Nagerhole Forest Rest House.
After the khedda some of the captured elephants were then brought to
Hebballa for training. However, due to the construction of a dam on the
Kabini the backwaters of which will shortly inundate the khedda area,
_ the final khedda operations were scheduled for the early part of 1967.
Elephants for the training camp will now be caught by pit method in
other areas between November and April on alternate years. There
were 55 domestic elephants in the Nagerhole Sanctuary during my visit.
Most were being used for forest operations, although a few were receiving
their final stages of training at Hebballa. Thirty-five elephants were
Stationed at Hebballa, 11 at Nagerhole and the remaining 9 elsewhere
in the sanctuary. There were no elephants in the early stages of training,
Therefore, the large ‘ kraals ’ or pens at Hebballa were empty. However,
it was very interesting to observe the elephants working in the forests
bathing in the river and so forth,

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

I was also informed that the mahseer (Tor tor) is ‘ common’ in parti-
cular stretches of the Cauvery, Kabini and Lakshmanathirtha rivers, as
well as the Tunga, Bhadra, and Sharavati. This game fish is noted for
its fighting ability and for the remarkable size which it often attains. A
121 pound mahseer is the record for this species in Mysore. Van
Ingen and Van Ingen taxidermists in the city of Mysore also have an
impressive collection of mahseer teeth, as well as other wild life speci-
mens which are well worth making arrangements to see.

HABITAT

Flora

The Western Ghats are a narrow chain of hills running north and
south along the western side of Mysore State, extending from Madras
and Kerala in the south to Maharashtra in the north. They attain a
maximum height of 8,000 feet in the Nilgiri Hills, but rarely exceed 5,000
feet in the western part of Mysore. Most of the forest areas and wild
life sanctuaries of Mysore are located along their eastern slopes.
Although the forests of this region vary somewhat with altitude and other
factors, the natural moist deciduous forests remaining in the Nagerhole

Wild Life Sanctuary are more or less typical for much of the Western

Ghat region of the State(Table1l). Rainfall for most of this region varies
between 60 and 70 inches per annum and occurs primarily between June
and September, during the south-west monsoon.

Economic advisors claim that a modern nation must perpetually
maintain an average of at least 1:0 acre of forest per person in order to
maintain a basically sound national economy. ‘The total area of Mysore
State is 74,122 square miles, of which 18°4°% or 13,575 square miles are
classified as forest lands. However, many areas classified as forests are
in actuality little more than barren wastes. Presently there is less than
0°54 acre of so-called forest lands per capita in India as a whole and
only 0°46 acre per capita in the State of Mysore ! Nevertheless during
recent years more and more forest lands, which are for the most part
submarginal for agricultural use, have been cleared for crops. As

these lands are eventually depleted they become deserts or barren wastes

which are of little or no economic value. Jn addition, accelerated erosion
upon these lands often results in the devastation of rich agricultural
lands below and reforestation of these once prime forest areas becomes a
slow and costly process. Therefore, the present trend should be
reversed. India drastically needs an extensive and well-planned
programme of reforestation and the emphasis should be placed on in-
tensive rather than extensive agricultural land use.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 307

TABLE 1. SPECIES COMPOSITION OF THE NATURAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS IN
THE NAGERHOLE WILD LIFE SANCTUARY IN MysORE STATE

Local or Common Name Scientific Name Percent of Stand or Remarks

TREES

Mathi Terminalia tomentosa 40%

Teak Tectora grandis 30

Rosewood Pterocarpus marsupium 5

Honne Lagerstroemia lanceolata 5

Nandi Terminalia tomentosa 5

Uluve Terminalia paniculata 3

Thadasalu Grewia tiliaefolia DI

Arasinatega Adina cordifolia 1

Noga Cedrela toona 1

Nelagodda Garuga pinnata 0°5

SHRUBS :

Seeme Seege Lantana camara common
Desmodium pulchellum common in moist areas

Kowri Helicteres isora present

Mandalamari Cipadessa fruticosa present

CLIMBERS :

Strangler Fig Ficus sp. fairly common

Muthaga hambu Butea superba present

Kadavave hambu Spatholobus roxburghii present

Seege Kaye Acacia concinna present

Note :

1. Allof the bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) in the sanctuary flowered and died in
1965. Therefore, it presently does not enter into the sanctuary’s floral composition.

2. Species listed as comprising the natura! shrubs have been replaced to a great
extent since 1960 by Eupatorium glandulosum.

3. Grasses and herbs were not identified.

Two methods of forest operation are used at present in the forests of
the Nagerhole Sanctuary : (1) Selective cutting, which involves primarily
the harvesting of mature trees in natural forests. (2) Clear felling, where
entire forest blocks are cleared and then usually burned prior to planta-
tion planting. The planting of teak is becoming increasingly common,
although the planting of fast growing species such as Eucalyptus also is
being advocated. The fast growing or soft wood species are in demand
primarily by the paper pulp and rayon mills. Dead bamboo, which is
being collected from the sanctuary, presently is being supplied to Kerala.

Big bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) generally constitutes a conspi-
cuous part of the sanctuary’s floral composition. However, practically
all of the bamboo in this area flowered, set seed and then died in 1965.
It is claimed that this occurs every 40 to 50 years, after which is takes a
few years for the seeds to germinate and establish the species once more.
As a result of the 1965 bamboo die-off, there is at present a scarcity of
fodder for elephants and to some extent for gaur in the sanctuary.

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Theoretically pure stands of the same age and species of trees are
desirable for efficient forest operations. However, in practice, planta-
tions of pure teak present a number of major problems. Perhaps most
important of these are: (1) the deterioration of soil and the lowering of
site quality, and (2) the production of a lower quality of timber. Teak
seedlings are intolerant of weeds and other plant growth. Thus, they
are cultivated for at least the first three years after planting. After the
canopy becomes established, there is little undergrowth and little accumu-
lation of humus. Therefore, erosion often is very much in evidence.
Also, due to increased competition from weeds and increased vulnerability
to insects and other parasites generally the growth of pure stands of
teak is retarded and the quality of the timber decreases.

An introduced plant (Lantana camara) formerly was an undesirable
component of many teak plantation areas. However, since 1956 in
many parts of Mysore it has been replaced to a great extent by the intro-
duction of the even less desirable Eupatorium glandulosum. ‘This shrub-
like weed has woody stems, grows to a height of over 8 feet and appears
to be unpalatable to almost all forms of endemic wild life. Its winged
seeds, dispersed by wind, germinate and spread like wild-fire in disturbed
open areas, such as along roadsides, plantations, and so forth. It was
first noticed in the Nagerhole Sanctuary in 1956, but did not become a
major problem until about 1960. Because of the presence of Eupatorium,
the growth of teak has been retarded greatly in many plantation areas and
in some cases a good number of the teak seedlings have died. The
Forest Department presently is waging a costly and what appears to be
futile battle in attempting to control this weed.

The Forest Department presently weeds its teak plantations by hand
three times during the first year, twice in the second, and once during the
third year and then hopes that the stand is established well enough to
hold its own thereafter. Tending, thinning and the cutting of climbers,
however, is needed at various intervals before the tree crop may be
harvested at an age of between 80 and 100 years. The point is this, such
a crop may be devastated at any time during its 80 to 100 year rotation
period and practically the entire investment may be lost. A natural
or mixed crop of trees generally lessens this vulnerability, although to
some extent it may complicate the forest operations.

The Forest Department should note that Eupatorium is almost com-
pletely absent in the natural forests of the sanctuary and a parasitic
growth (Loranthus sp.) of teak is much more in evidence in plantation
areas than in natural forests. Because of two moths, Hyblaea puera
a defoliator and Hapalia machaeralis a leaf skeletonizer, the trees in
many of the teak plantations of Nagerhole were almost completely defo-
liated at the time of my visitin November. Little growth can be expected
from trees in such a state even under ideal climatical conditions.

ee

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 309

Epidemic outbreaks of such pests also are more prevalent and more
serious in pure rather than mixed stands.

Fauna

The mammalian fauna of Nagerhole is very similar to that of the
Venu Gopal Wild Life Park (see Table 3). In fact, elephant and perhaps
gaur appear to have seasonal movements or migrations between the two
areas. Just what effect the construction of the dam on the Kabini River,
the impounded waters of which will cross their migratory route, remains
to be seen. |

Mammals observed during my visit to the Nagerhole Wild Life
Sanctuary include the following : chital (33), gaur (14), Malabar squirrel
(6), numerous common ljangur and a small bright coloured squirrel,
which may have been a flying squirrel. All but one of the male chital
observed had shed their antlers recently or had antlers in velvet. Chital
often keep company. with the common langur, which drop leaves and
fruit from the trees upon which the chital feed. Seven of the gaur were
adult males. One was a magnificent beast with an estimated horn spread
of about 38 inches, even though the tips of both horns were broken.
A solitary bull, which we met on the trail while returning to camp one
evening, challenged our elephant and rather than calling the old fellow’s
‘ bluff’ we finally made a detour and let him rule the trail. The bird
life of Nagerhole also is similar to that of Venu Gopal (see Table 4). One

_ exception is that peafowls appear to be very rare in Nagerhole, while

relatively common in Venu Gopal.

DISCUSSION

A ‘ sanctum sanctorum’ may be defined as an area maintained in as
natural a state as possible—free from the encroachment of man.
Originally a 5-square-mile “sanctum sanctorum’ was established in the
Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary. This area surrounds the Nagerhole
Forest Rest House, east of the Murkal-Nagerhole road. However, this
so-called ‘ sanctum sanctorum ’ has been repeatedly desecrated. About
2,000 acres or over 3/5’s of the area is devoted to teak plantations and a
village has been located here. The entire area is disturbed almost con-
tinually by forest operations. Presently it is proposed that the ‘sanctum
sanctorum ’ be enlarged to include a 35-square-mile area south and east
of the road between Murkal and Nagerhole, and although there are some
teak plantations along the road, after the mature trees have been removed
the area be kept inviolate for 30-35 years.

I realize that the revenue from the sanctuary’s forest produce is
considerable, Nevertheless I would like to suggest that a core area of

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

at least 5 square miles be perpetually maintained in its natural state and
the plantations be excluded from the surrounding forests of this core
area for at least 35 square miles, although the mature trees or the forest
produce of this surrounding area may be systematically exploited.

Because of the forest villages and the numerous labourers who enter
from the coffee plantations to the west, poaching is a major problem in
the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary. Jeeps and lorries, especially those
that ply the roads at night, contribute to the problem of wild life con-
servation. The stealing of forest produce is a fairly common practice.
It appears that the most logical steps to curtail such violations would
be the following: (1) Resettle elsewhere the tribal villagers residing in
the sanctuary. Or, if this is not possible, at least consolidate the villages
so that illegal activities within the sanctuary may be minimized. The
Social Welfare Department is advocating that crop protection guns be
issued to the tribal colonies which it has established in the sanctuary.
If this is permitted, Nagerhole would no longer justify the name of ‘ Wild
Life Sanctuary.’ (2) Both establish and publicize rules and regulations
prohibiting unauthorized personnel to enter the forests of the sanctuary.
Only bona fide visitors or those engaged by the Forest Department should
be allowed off the sanctuary’s main roads. (3) Vehicles should be prohi-
bited from travelling on the sanctuary’s roads at night. Periodic checks
should be made of all vehicles leaving the sanctuary.

Domestic livestock grazing in the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary,
except in areas adjacent to villages, does not appear as yet to be excessive.
Nevertheless, now is the time for definitive measures to be taken to
ensure that this sanctuary does not become a victim of the almost uni-
versal practice in India of overgrazing. All too many of this nation’s
wild life sanctuaries and areas once abundantly rich in wild life have been
almost completely devastated by this abuse, often within the space of
a few short years. By no means whatever should livestock grazing be
permitted in an area designated as a ‘sanctum sanctorum.’ In fact, a

sanctuary devoted to the preservation of wild life ideally would have no ©

domestic livestock whatsoever within its confines. However, if it is
not possible to maintain an area inviolate to such use, grazing and live-
stock numbers at least should be controlled so as to ensure that suitable
forage is produced on a sustained yield basis. There is no excuse for
land abuse through overgrazing by domestic livestock. Proper land
management will benefit both the wild life and the livestock, as well as
the people concerned and the nation as.a whole. |

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 311
V. THE VENU GOPAL WILD LIFE PARK
BANDIPUR SANCTUARY)

IN TR O@DUC TION

The 22-square-mile Bandipur Sanctuary, which forms a part of the
310-square-mile Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, is undoubtedly the best
known of the wild life areas in Mysore State. This notable park was
established in 1941 and the Bandipur Sanctuary was constituted as its
‘sanctum sanctorum’—an inviolate sanctuary within a sanctuary.
The northern and eastern boundaries of the Park are formed by demar-
cated forest lines. The Park extends to the Kabini River on the west
and the southern boundary is formed by a number of streams and the
Kerala and Madras State lines (Map 3). The adjoining portion of Kerala,
which is in the Wynaad District, also has been proposed as a wild life
: sanctuary. With the necessary action being taken by the State of Kerala,
this tri-State region could become one of the most notable, as well as most
extensive, wild life conservation areas in India.

The village of Bandipur is the main tourist centre in the Venu Gopal
Wild Life Park.. It is situated on the main road midway between the
city of Mysore and Ootacamund, approximately 50 miles from either
place. The nearest airport is at Bangalore, 86 miles north-east of the
city of Mysore. The journey from Bangalore to Mysore may be made
by bus or train and frequent buses are available to Bandipur from either
Mysore or Ootacamund. A truck, which seats 12 passengers, and two
riding elephants are provided at Bandipur by the Forest Department to
take visitors into the sanctuary. Visitors with their own vehicles must
be accompanied by a member of the staff before they are permitted on
the Park’s roads.

Over 80 miles of Forest Department roads connect the waterholes,
salt licks and game paths within the 22-square-mile Bandipur Sanctuary.
The remainder of the Park is served by an additional 80 miles of fair-
weather roads. A network of fair-weather roads also connects the
Venu Gopal Park with the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary north of the
Kabini River. During the dry season one may travel on forest roads all
the way from Bandipur to Nagerhole, a distance of approximately 70
miles, and forest lodges are situated conveniently at 8 to 10-miles intervals
along the entire route.

The wild life seasonally migrates from Venu Gopal to the lower or

greener areas in Kerala and the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary in
Madras. Most of the larger mammals, such as elephant and gaur,
generally leave the Park during November and December. Depending
upon the onset of the south-west monsoon rains, they generally begin
their return journey in late May or early June.

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

The best time to see wild life in Venu Gopal or the Bandipur Sanctuary
is from late June through October, which is the rainy season. Never-
theless, the Sanctuary is open and accessible throughout the year and
generally some wild life may be seen all the year round. If a visitor is
disappointed in the number of wild animals seen in Bandipur area, he
may always visit the adjoining Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary. The
poorest time to see wild life in Venu Gopal is the best time to see wild
life in Mudumalai and vice versa.

Bandipur is the only village within the confines of the Venu Gopal
Wild Life Park. This village was formerly little more than a forest camp
in which were located quarters for the Park staff and forest rest
houses for visitors. The Social Welfare Department, however, recently
established a tribal village and has constructed school buildings at

Bandipur. There is little work available inside the Park for the more.

than 200 tribal people presently living at Bandipur. Also, there are
schools four miles north and five miles east of Bandipur, which are both
outside the Park. It is regrettable that the Socia! Welfare Department
has intruded upon the Park, especially when facilities such as schools in
nearby areas could have been utilized and when the people resettled here
must be maintained on welfare.

The Mysore State Wild Life Board has moved that a township be not
established at Bandipur and that the tribal people be resettled elsewhere
outside the Park. Action on the Board’s proposal is pending and it is
to be hoped ‘that measures will soon be taken to correct the present
situation. The buildings thus vacated could be utilized to accommodate

\

the ever-increasing numbers of visitors to Bandipur. For example, in

1963 the Bandipur Sanctuary had a total of 2,521 visitors, but in 1965
there were 5,406. An even greater increase in the number of visitors
could be realized if suitable facilities were made available so that bus

tours could be regularly scheduled to the Park and large groups could be ~

accommodated.
Domestic livestock grazing is not permitted in the Bandipur Sanctuary.

Inroads are being made, however, in the northern part of the Park by

ever-increasing numbers of livestock. Herders are encroaching
deeper and deeper into the Park. As a result, the northern part of the
Park is already severely overgrazed and almost completely devoid of wild
life. Now is the time to take definitive measures to ensure that Venu
Gopal does not meet the same fate as all too many other wild life sanc-

tuaries in India. Limits and boundaries must be set and defined, as well —

as strictly maintained. Also, number of livestock must be controlled
in those areas where grazing is permitted. Otherwise, the Venu Gopal
Wild Life Park faces a very bleak and barren future and very shortly it

may become almost impossible to maintain even the Bandipur Sanctuary —

inviolate to the cancerous blight of overgrazing.

|

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 313

Domestic livestock grazing in the vicinity of Bandipur village also is
a problem. This would be reduced considerably if the tribal people
inhabiting the village were resettled elsewhere. Nevertheless, measures
should be taken to control grazing in this area and to maintain livestock
numbers at a minimum. Hundreds of head of decrepit, mangy and
famished cattle are driven regularly through Venu Gopal to Kerala,
where they are slaughtered. These animals supposedly, are restricted
to the main road and are not permitted to remain inside the Park over-
night. However, the passage of these animals causes a disturbance
inside the Park, and possessing daily grazing licences, it is not uncommon
to observe them grazing inside the forest, and all along the roadsides.
One group was observed to spend the night on the southern boundary
of the Park, near the State border at Kakkanahalla. Permitting of such
cattle to graze should be discontinued.

In addition to habitat destruction, the poisoning of wild life also has
become associated during recent years with domestic livestock grazing
in many parts of India. Villagers have found that certain pesticides are
very effective for killing wild animals. Generally these pesticides are
distributed to farmers by the Agriculture Department for the control of
insects. However, they are often used for purposes other than that
which they were intended. When a domestic animal dies or is killed by
a large carnivore such as a tiger, the carcass is often sprinkled with toxic
materials. ‘Folidol’, for example, is both tasteless and odourless, as
well as extremely toxic. Therefore any animal feeding upon a bait
containing this chemical usually dies a very agonizing death within a few
hours.

Two tigers (a male and a female) were killed by a poisoned bait along
the northern boundary of the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in October,
1965. The skin of the tigress is presently on display in one of the forest
rest houses at Bandipur. The hide of the male had spoiled before the
carcass was found. A leopard was similarly killed on Chamundi Hill
outside the city of Mysore in 1963, and a few tigers were poisoned in the
Chennagiri area in the Shimoga District of Mysore in 1962. In all
these cases the culprits were not traced, nor did the owners come
forward to claim the poisoned carcasses. No prosecution, therefore,
could be attempted. Besides these confirmed reports, there are un-
doubtedly many more cases where pesticides have been used to poison
wild life in Mysore and other states. Measures must be taken soon to
_halt such practices or an important part of India’s once rich wild life
heritage may become extinct in perhaps less than a decade.

Sixteen tiger blocks, varying in size from 50 to 100 acres each, are
maintained north of the Venu Gopal Park. Prior to 1962 an average of
5 or more tigers were shot each year on these blocks. However, with
the widespread use of toxic pesticides, only one tiger has been shot in this

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

entire area since 1962. Mysore once was world renowned for its vast
numbers of tigers and its elaborate tiger shoots. But in 1965 even the
Maharaja of Mysore, who is also the Governor, had to go outside the
State in order to bag a tiger.

The mating season for tigers in the Venu Gopal Park is during
November and December. The Park staff claimed that in former years
tigers frequently could be heard roaring during these months. However,
no roaring of tigers has been heard in the Park since 1964. Not even
pug marks had been observed in the Park during the months prior to
my visit in November, 1966.

Immediate steps should be taken to ensure that toxic materials are
used only for the purpose for which they were originally intended.
Farmers should be given specific instructions as to the use of all pesti-
cides made available to them, as well as severe penalties imposed upon
those who misuse them. Also, whenever possible, materials which are
less toxic to wild life should be used in preference to highly toxic ones.
In fact, less toxic pesticides are often superior in all ways to the more
toxic ones presently being used in India. For example, Malathion is
considered superior in many ways to the more toxic Enderin and Parathion.
Enderin in considered so highly toxic that in many modern countries
its distribution and use are prohibited. Finally, pesticides should be
treated with additives that give them both a distinct odour and an
undesirable taste. This would help to protect both man and beast, as
pesticides also have been used in an ever-increasing number of homicides
in India.

VISITOR FACILITIES

Visitor activities in Venu Gopal generally centre at the village
of Bandipur and the Bandipur Sanctuary, although there are forest lodges
situated throughout the Park. The four Forest Rest Houses at Bandipur
(2 with 3 suites and 2 with 2 suites) provide full board and lodging and
can accommodate a total of 20 people. The Forest Department plans
to provide additional facilities in the near future so that groups of up to
50 people may be accommodated at Bandipur. Reservations for accom-
modation may be made through either the Divisional Forest Officer,
Mysore Division, Mysore, or the Wild Life Officer in Mysore.

Besides the rest houses at Bandipur, there are nine forest lodges in or
near the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park. Although some of these lodges
are fully furnished, boarding and other facilities are not provided.
Others provide only shelter and some of the basic amenities for visitors
wishing to remain inside the Park. Forest lodges are situated at the
following locations: Gopalswami Betta along the northern boundary,
Chammanhalla on the western edge of the Bandipur Sanctuary, Mulehole

tf ae.
Sa

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 315

on the bank of the Nugu River on the State border near the southern
boundary of the Park, Kalkere and Choudahalli near the south-
western limits in the interior, Gundre in the south-western corner of the
Park near the Kabini River, Chiekbergi in the centre of the Park,
Hediyala along the central part of the Park’s northern outskirts on the
Sunnadabegur-Hunsur road, and Begur on the banks of the Kabini
River near the north-eastern corner of the Park.

The Venuvihar Forest Lodge is located at Gopalswami Betta, a hill
station 13 miles north-west of Bandipur. The lodge has two fully fur-
nished suites, but other facilities are not provided. The Venu Gopal
Temple, from which the Park received its name, is adjacent to the lodge.
Venu Gopal literally means flute—(Venu), Krishna (Gopal). Krishna
is one of the major Hindu deities or gods. A priest is stationed at the
temple and people frequently come here to worship. The lodge and

temple are situated on top of a 4,769-foot hill, which offers visitors an

impressive panorama of the Park, the 8,000-foot Nilgiri Hills to the

- south and the lowlands to the north. There are a number of paths leading

from, the lodge, a pleasant juniper grove, and during certain seasons the
surrounding hills are covered with the blossoms of wild flowers.

The Chammanhalla Forest Lodge is 11 miles west of Bandipur.
Although it is in need of renovation, it provides shelter and some of the
basic amenities for visitors. The Mulehole Forest Lodge is 18 miles

west of Bandipur and the Forest Department has proposed that it be

renovated and established as a tourist centre similar to Bandipur.
Mulehole is on the main road between Gundlupet and Calicut and is
reached easily from either Mysore or Ootacamund.

The Kalkere Forest Lodge is 10 miles west of Mulehole, the
Choudahalli Forest Lodge another nine miles, and the Gundre Forest
Lodge an additional eight miles or a total of 27 miles west of Mulehole.
The Hediyala Forest Lodge is 16 miles north of Mulehole and is located
outside the Park’s boundaries. The Begur Forest Lodge is eight
miles north of Choudahalli or nine miles north of Gundre and also is

outside the Park.

There are a number of machans or observation towers overlooking
water holes or salt licks in the Bandipur Sanctuary. Some of these are
constructed so that visitors may spend the night in them in relative com-
fort. Inside the sanctuary, about a mile west of Bandipur next to the
Tavarekatte Tank, is a well laid-out tiger block with a comfortable hide.
A bare sandy road surrounds the block and whether or not a tiger is
inside the block can be determined by examining the road for pug marks.
Some excellent results were obtained in photographing tigers from the
hide in this block in years past. However, with the introduction. of
toxic pesticides outside the sanctuary and the accidental burning of the

AB,

316. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

block by those removing the bamboo, which died in 1964, there has been
little evidence of tiger in this area during the past two years.

HABITAT

The terrain consists primarily of rolling hills covered with open or
park-like dry deciduous forests. The altitude varies between 3,100 feet
(945 metres) above sea-level along the Moyar River on the southern
boundary to 4,769 feet (1,454 metres) at the Gopalswami Betta Hill
Station along the northern boundary. Bandipur village is 3,366 feet
(1,026 metres) above sea-level. Temperatures vary from a monthly
minimum mean of 60° F. (15°6° C.) in January to a monthly maximum
mean of 95° F. (35°0° C.) during April and May. April and May are
also the driest and the poorest months to observe wild life. Late June
through October (the rainy season) is the best time to see wild life in
Bandipur. Total rainfall averages about 35 inches per annum, most of
which occurs during July, August and September.

Flora

The trees of Bandipur Sanctuary are spaced in a relatively uniform
manner and form an open, pole-type, mixed dry deciduous forest with a
maximum height of between 50 and 60 feet. Visibility varies between 100
and 200 yards and the understory is mostly grasses with a few scattered
shrubs. The grass attains a height of three to six feet and controlled
burning by the Forest Department is done each year between the third
week of December and the second week of January. This prevents the
dry grass from becoming a major fire hazard during the drier months of
the year and also helps to return the nutrients from the unpalatable dry
grass to the soil.

_ Eupatorium glandulosum, the noxious weed that has taken over much
of the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary to the north, has not yet invaded
the Bandipur area. However, its counterpart, Lantana camara, is fairly
common. A breakdown of the dominant tree species in the forest of
Venu Gopal is given in Table 2.

Both species of bamboo in the Park (Bambusa arundinacea and Dendro-
calamus strictus) flowered during July and August 1964 and then died.
Big bamboo usually flowers every 40 to 50 years, while small bamboo
flowers every 10 to 20 years. It was claimed that normally about 60%
of the bamboo in the Park is big bamboo and the remaining 40% small
bamboo, but there were only scattered sprouts present during my visit.
After the die-off, the bamboo presented a fire hazard. Therefore the
Forest Department decided to sell the dead bamboo to the rayon mills
in Kerala. However, besides causing considerable disturbance, the

So fj Ps

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 317

workers removing the bamboo accidently set fire to the area. Conse-
quently, rather than realizing a profit the Forest Department suffered a
considerable loss. As a result, parts of the sanctuary which were for-
merly under bamboo, such as the Tavarekatte Tiger Block west of

TABLE 2

SPECIES COMPOSITION OF THE MIXED DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS OF BANDIPUR .
SANCTUARY IN THE VENU GOPAL WILD LIFE PARK IN Mysore STATE

: Local or ees Percent of Stand
English Name Ranarése Name Scientific Name (Estimated)
TREES :
Axlewood Dindaga, Dindal, Azxogeissus latifolia 60%
Bejjalu

Teak Tega, Sagavani Tectona grandis 5

wan Bende Kydia calycina 5

————_———_______— Jalari Shorea talura 5

Wild Gooseberry Nelli Phyllanthus emblica 3-4

— Challe (fruit) Cordia myxa 2

Doddi Mymenodictyon 2
excelsum

Bobbinwood Yethyaga, Yethaga Adina cordifolia 2

— Muthuga Butea monosperma 2,

Alale Terminalia chebula 2,

Hunnal (Hunal) Terminalia 2
paniculata

Mathi Terminalia tomentosa 2

—_____—. Kakke Cassia fistula Z,

Rosewood Beete Dalbergia latifolia 1

———— Nelagodda, Godda Garuga pinnata 1

(fruit tree)

Jamun tree Nerale Eugenia jambolana 1
ter —— Jagalaganti Diospyros montana 1+
| (edible fruit)

—— Tadusalu, Tadsal Grewia tiliaefolia 1
: (bark eaten by
elephants)
Kuli, Sivani (fruit) Gmelina arborea 1
Kadusige (fodder) Acacia intsia 1

-—$$$ Basavan apuda Bauhinia racemosa 1

Silk Cotton Buruga Salmalia malabaricum 1

—<—<—<—— $$ Tare Terminalia belerica 1

UNDERSTORY :

Big Bamboo Bombu Bambusa arundinacea 1

Small Bamboo Kiribidaru Dendrocalamus strictus 1

we Seema-seege Lantana camara common

Note :

1. Both the big and small bamboo flowered and died during the fall of 1964.
Therefore, the numerous shoots present were considered as a part of the understory.

2. Grasses, herbs, and shrubs were not identified.

Bandipur, have been replaced by weeds and dense thickets of Lantana
camara.

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Fauna

The fauna of the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park is notable both for its
diversity and abundance. Although the mammalian fauna is similar to
that of much of the Western Ghat region, in India one rarely sees greater
concentrations of wild animals than in Bandipur and the adjoining
Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuaty. Herds of 20 or more gaur, the largest
and most impressive of the world’s wild bovines, are common. The
forest dwelling sambar may be encountered in groups of up to a dozen,
Whereas generally they are considered a somewhat solitary animal.
Groups of over a hundred chital may be observed even in the vicinity of
the forest rest houses at Bandipur (Plate I). Wild elephant, parti-
cularly solitary males, are observed by most visitors (Plate II). It appears
that Venu Gopal serves as a breeding ground for most of the large
mammals of this region. This is due perhaps to the Park’s relative
immunity to the disturbances of man. Some of the mammals inhabiting
Venu Gopal and the forests in western Mysore are given in Table 3.

TABLE 3

NAMES OF SOME OF THE MAMMALS INHABITING THE VENU GOPAL WILD LIFE
PARK (BANDIPUR SANCTUARY) AND THE FORESTS IN THE WESTERN PART OF
Mysore STATE

Local or Relative
English Kanarese Scientific Abundance
Tiger Hebbuli Panthera tigris rare
Leopard or Panther Kiruba Panthera pardus rare
Jungle Cat Kadubekku Felis chaus,. frequent
Striped Hyena Kathekiruba Hyaena hyaena rare
Wild Dog or Dhole Seelunayi Cuon alpinus occasional
Jackal Gullenari | Canis aureus common
Indian Fox Kankanari Vulpes bengalensis frequent
Little Indian Civet Punagina bekku Viverricula indica occasional
Mongoose Mungusi Herpestes spp. common
Sloth Bear Karadi Melursus ursinus rare
Wild Boar Kadhandi Sus scrofa common
Sambar Kadave Cervus unicolor common
Chital or Spotted Deer Saraga Axis axis common
Barking Deer or Khankuri or Muntiacus muntjak —_ infrequent
Indian Muntjac Kadukuri
Mouse Deer or Burkanabekku or Tragulus meminna frequent
Indian Chevrotain Burka
Chousingha or Four- Chyale Tetracerus rare
horned Antelope quadricornis
Gaur or Kati Bos gaurus common
Indian ‘ Bison ’ or Kadukona aa
Indian Elephant Ane Elephas maximus common
Common Hare Mola Lepus nigricollis frequent ©
Indian Porcupine Mulluhandi Hystrix indica common
Small Travancore Haranabekku Petinomys frequent
Flying Squirrel - fusccapillus |
Giant or Kendalilu (Karrat) Ratufa indica common
Malabar Squirrel |
Common Langur Musiya Presbytis entellus common
Bonnet Macaque Kapi _ Macaca radiata _ common along the
ss Oak co te Ire eR tie | SRT DREEUR o Coe A ecstasy pes: ‘road from Mysore,

but not inside- the
Park.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) PLATE I
Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Two female spotted deer or chital in the vicinity of the Bandipur
Forest Rest House in the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State.

The Cauvery River, site of the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary.
The double boat is provided for visitors by the Forest Department.
(Photos : Author)

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) PLATE II

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

A solitary tusker in the forests of the Bandipur Sanctuary of the
Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore State.

(Photo : Author)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 319

- The possibility of seeing the much maligned dhole or Indian wild dog
is better perhaps in Venu Gopal than anywhere in India. This beauti-
ful, bright red animal runs in packs and is infamous for wantonly attack-
ing almost any animal which it may encounter, including even tiger
according to some claims. Because of its notoriety the dhole has been
persecuted unmercifully throughout India and as a result has become
exceedingly rare. Although I have visited a good number of India’s
wild life areas, I had the unforgettable experience of seeing the dhole
_ for the first time during my visit to Venu Gopal.

: We were travelling along the roads in the Bandipur Sanctuary the

morning of November 29 when we suddenly heard the repeated belling
and squeals of sambar. Two adult females and a fawn of about two
months were standing in a couple of feet of water in the middle of an
artificial waterhole or tank. A pack of about 15 dhole had surrounded
the tank and their heads kept bobbing up through the high grass as they
attempted to observe their prey, Although the wild dogs appeared to
be very excited, they did not utter a sound. Upon seeing us the sambar
bolted, but they had no more than reached the bank before one of the
dogs was upon the fawn and pulled it down into the grass. The fawn was
emitting high pitched squeals and the two does repeatedly belled nearby.
Still we heard no sound from the dholes. We ran towards the fawn,
which was kicking and struggling in the grass. When the wild dogs
saw us, they immediately took flight and the last we saw of them were
their black-tipped tails as they bounded through the grass. The fawn
had only a few superficial wounds, but was too weak to stand. There-
fore, we took it back to Bandipur with us. Withina short time it appeared
to have fully recuperated and was released back into the forest the
following day.

The bird life of the. Venu Gopal Park also is abundant and diversified.
Water birds such as ducks, egrets and herons are found in some of the
tanks. but the vast majority of the birds in the Park are perching
or passerine. forms. Some of the more common or obvious birds which
I observed during my visit are listed in Table 4.

DISCUSSION

~The Venu Gopal- Wild Life Park and the Bandipur Sanctuary consti-
tute one of India’s outstanding wild life attractions. The Forest Depart-
ment and the Park staff are to be commended for their management and
development of this notable area. Granted there are problems to over-
come and much to be done before the Park will begin to realize its full
potential. _The Forest Department and those concerned are aware of —
these, but oftentimes:they lack the means and/or the support to accom-

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

plish the desired goals involved in the conservation of this great nation’s

wild life resources.

TABLE 4

SOME OF THE MORE COMMON BIRDS OBSERVED IN NOVEMBER, 1966 IN THE
VENU GOPAL WILD LIFE PARK IN Mysor_E STATE

English Name

Cattle Egret

Little Egret

Lesser Whistling Teal
Spotbill Duck
Common Pariah Kite
Brahminy Kite

Grey Partridge

Jungle Bush Quail
Red Spurfowl

Grey Junglefowl
Peafowl

Redwattled Lapwing
Green Pigeon

Blue Rock Pigeon
Ring Dove

Spotted Dove
Parakeets
Crow-Pheasant
Spotted Owlet
Whitebreasted Kingfisher
Bluecheeked Bee-eater
Green Bee-eater

Blue Jay or Roller
Common Gray Hornbill
Goldenbacked Woodpecker
Golden Oriole
Racket-tailed Drongo
Common Myna
Jungle Crow
Redwhiskered Bulbul
Whitecheeked Bulbul

Scientific Name

Bubulcus ibis

Egretta garzetta
Dendrocygna javanica
Anas poecilorhyncha
Milvus migrans
Haliastur indus
Francolinus pondicerianus
Perdicula asiatica
Galloperdix spadicea
Gallus sonneratii
Pavo cristatus
Vanellus indicus
Treron phoenicoptera
Columba livia
Streptopelia decaocto
Streptopelia chinensis
Psittacula ssp.
Centropus sinensis
Athene brama
Halcyon smyrnensis
Merops superciliosus
Merops orientalis
Coracias benghalensis
Tockus birostris
Dinopium benghalense
Oriolus oriolus
Dicrurus paradiseus
Acridotheres tristis
Corvus macrorhynchos
Pycnonotus jocosus
Pycnonotus leucogenys

The mixed dry deciduous forests of the Bandipur area are of little
commercial value for timber. Although they are of some value for
firewood, demands for such products can be met from forest areas closer
to market or by the planting of fast growing species on submarginal
lands. Therefore, it has been proposed that the Park’s ‘ sanctum
sanctorum ’—the Bandipur Sanctuary—be enlarged from 22 square
miles to 60 square miles. This would include the entire portion of the
Park east of the Gundulupet-Calicut road. It has been further proposed
that the Mulehole Forest Lodge, which then would be on the western
end of the sanctuary, be renovated and established as a tourist centre
similar to Bandipur.

The best time for observing wild life in Bandipur is during the rainy
season, However, it is during this season that it is most difficult to travel

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 321

the fair-weather roads in the Sanctuary. Thus it has been proposed
that the major roads in the Sanctuary, as well as the main forest road from
Bandipur to the Nagerhole Wild Life Sanctuary, be metalled. I would
not suggest tar roads or that major thoroughfares be developed, but
only that two metalled tracks be constructed. Grass in the centre, as
well as along the sides of such roads, would present a natural setting
while helping to minimize maintenance. Concrete aprons also should
be provided at stream beds wherever possible.

The construction and maintenance of a good network of all-weather
roads also would result in increased use of the Park’s forest lodges.
Plans should therefore be formulated for the renovation and maintenance
of these. Additional accommodations likewise are needed at Bandipur.
I would suggest that the present forest rest houses be maintained as
first class facilities, but that a dormitory be provided for the accommo-
dation of large groups. The attractions and amenities of Bandipur
should be extensively advertised through posters, pamphlets, and so
forth. Arrangements also should be made through the Tourist Depart-
ment to provide regularly scheduled bus tours to Bandipur. Care,

_ however, should be taken to avoid commercialism within the Park.

The Mysore and Madras Forest Departments have jointly approved
the construction of a dam on Kakkanahalla, which forms a part of the
boundary between the Bandipur and Mudumalai sanctuaries. The im-
pounded waters would form about a 1-mile-square lake. This would
provide a source of water for wild life and perhaps would encourage

animals to remain in this area the yearround. Although fair numbers of

chital and sambar remain in Bandipur throughout the year, most of the
other animals move out of the Sanctuary when the streams and artificial
water holes become dry.

Major problems presently confronting the Venu Gopal Park and its
wild life are : The establishment of a tribal colony at Bandipur, increased

_ pressures upon the Park from domestic livestock grazing, and the use of
pesticides for poisoning wild life. These have been discussed at some
length in the Introduction. Poaching does not appear to be a major
problem in the Park. This perhaps is attributable to the wise practice
of not allowing vehicles on the Park’s roads unless they are accompanied
by a member of the staff. The checkpoint on the Mysore-Madras line
along the main road passing through Bandipur also probably helps to
deter illicit activities.

VI. THE CHAMARAJANAGAR WILD LIFE PRESERVE

Chamarajanagar was established in 1931 as Mysore’s first wild life
Sanctuary. However, with the establishment of the Venu Gopal Wild
Life Park in 1941, the status of Chamarajanagar was reverted to that of

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

a wild life preserve. It has since been realised that Chamarajanagar
forms a very important link in the chain of wild life sanctuaries: extending

along the southern and western boundaries of Mysore State. Thus, the.

Forest Department has. proposed that a wild life sanctuary westin be
established in this area.

Mr. P. M. Monnappa accompanied me from Mysore to Chamarhjae
nagar, a distance of 38 miles, onthe morning of November 27. En route
we passed through Somnathpur and saw the impressive Hoysala
Temple. We were met in Chamarajanagar by the Divisional Forest
Officer, Mr. Alva, who accompanied us on a tour of the proposed wild
life sanctuary.

I was much impressed with what the Chamarajanagar area has to
offer. East of the town of Chamarajanagar the Biligirirangan Hills
suddenly jut out from the plains below. Winding up into the hills on
a well-constructed road, one passes from a scrub forest into a dry deci-

duous forest, to a moist deciduous forest and from there into a semi-

evergreen forest. In addition, pure stands of evergreen forest were
observed along the streams and on the slopes near the crests of some
of the higher hills.

We stopped briefly at Kyathadeveraguda, which is situated in a
saddle of the Biligirirangan Hills 18 miles east of Chamarajanagar.
There are two large rest houses at Kyathadeveraguda : a Forest Rest
House with three suites, reservations for which can be obtained by
writing to the D.F.O. in Chamarajanagar, and a Public Works Depart-
ment Rest House with four suites. The view from both rest houses is
magnificent. The green plains, bejewelled with numerous shimmering
tanks, extend north and west to the horizon. One can even see the
Kabini River and Chamundi Hill in the distance. To the south and
east are rows of verdant, mist covered hills. (a5 OF)

The Biligiri Ranganaswamy Temple is 12 miles east of Kyathadeve-
raguda. This approximately 900-year-old temple is located on a rocky
pinnacle, which has a sheer face with a drop of several hundred feet. A
modern sericultural research station is located in the forests below.
Also en route from Kyathadeveraguda to the Biligiri Temple one passes
the ancient Gangadeswara Temple, which is situated along a forest
stream and is inhabited by a troop of bonnet macaques.

The Government is attempting to establish the Biligiri Ranganaswamy
Temple as a tourist centre. Electric power lines were brought through’

the forest in 1966 and several rest houses have been built adjacent to the

temple. The forest roads on both sides of the temple are being metalled

and a new road is being constructed from Yalendur to the north-west.
The establishment of a true wild life sanctuary in this area, adjoining

Chamarajanagar Wild Life Preserve, would greatly add to the attrac-

tion of the Government sponsored tourist centre at the Biligiri Rangana-

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 323

swamy: Temple. In addition to the rest houses.already mentioned, there
are forest lodges located in the proposed sanctuary area at Beduguli
and Budipadaga. The area is served by a good network of roads, which
are being maintained and improved. Also, what is most important is
that the area has the potential of becoming one of India’s outstanding
wild life sanctuaries.

The Biligirirangan Hills form a natural passageway for elephant
herds moving to and from the hill areas to the east and the Bandipur and
Mudumalai wild life sanctuaries to the west. . J. P. Sanderson recognized
this fact and it was here in the mid-1800’s that he developed the khedda
method for capturing wild elephants. The dense forests, lush grass,
and numerous plots of bamboo also make this area a rendezvous site
for elephant, as well as a choice habitat for gaur, sambar, chital, and
other wild life species. Even during our short visit we saw gaur, chital,
and sambar while driving along the main roads.

The Forest Department’s proposal to establish Chamarajanagar and
Biligiri Ranganaswamy Temple Forests as a wild life sanctuary should be
enacted as soon as possible. Not only should this approximately 40-square-
mile area be constituted as such, but it should also be maintained as an
inviolate wild life sanctuary—a true sanctum sanctorum in which people
may enjoy nature in as much a pristine state as possible. Most of the
forests in this area are of relatively little commercial value, especially
when compared to the revenue potential from tourism. Therefore, there
is little justification for continued forest operations or other forest ex-
ploitation. It is further suggested that the Government and the Forest
Department jointly sponsor the development and publicity of both the
Government Tourist Centre at the Biligiri 2 SSIES Temple and
the proposed wild life sanctuary.

VII. OTHER WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MYSORE STATE

THE DANDELI WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The almost 73-square-mile Dandeli Wild Life Sanctuary was
established in 1945 in what was then a part of the State of Bombay, but
which is now the North Kanara District of Mysore. The sanctuary,
however, has been extensively exploited for forest produce and further
disturbed by manganese mining operations. The nearest railway sta-
tions are located at Dharwar, about 40 miles from the sanctuary, and at
Belgaum, which is about 50 miles away. Buses which pass through the
sanctuary, may be taken from these points. There are four forest
rest houses in the sanctuary, each with two double suites.

324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)
THE JAGER VALLEY AND BABA BUDDIN WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The 88-square-mile Jager Valley and Baba Buddin Wild Life Sanc-
tuary in the south-western part of the Chikmagalur District was consti-
tuted in 1941. The sanctuary includes the backwaters of the Bhadravati
Dam, for which the surrounding horseshoe-shaped Baba Buddin hills
form the catchment area. The nearest railway station is at Kadur, 51
miles from the sanctuary. Bus services are available from Kadur to
Chikmagalur, a distance of 24 miles, but arrangements must be made for
a private vehicle to travel the remaining 27 miles to the sanctuary. There
are two forest rest houses inside the Sanctuary, but they are in need

of repair.
3 It has been recommended by the Forest Department that Jager Valley
and Baba Buddin be included in a newly proposed sanctuary—the
Bhadra Wild Life Sanctuary. The proposed sanctuary would encom-
pass a total of 289 square miles in the Chikmagalur and Shimoga Districts
and would centre at the Bhadra and Tunga dams.

Islands in the impounded waters of these dams offer potential nesting
sites for the waterfowl which inhabit this region. The Muthodi area in
Chikmagalur District, which is included in the sanctuary, is noted for
its herds of gaur. Other animals of note are wild elephants, chital,
sambar and tiger.

Visitor facilities already present in the area include forest lodges at
Umblebyle Burz, Sukalhatti, Kesare and Muthodi. These are said to
be in need of remodelling and the addition of sanitary facilities. Cater-
ing services also are lacking at present. After the sanctuary has been
established, the Forest Department further proposes that two launches
be made available for visitors to visit the islands and from which to view
wild life along the shores of the reservoirs formed by the two dams.
This method of observing wild animals has proved very successful .in the
Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary in Kerala. Two jeeps and a lorry also
are to be provided for the use of visitors.

The forests of the proposed Bhadra Sanctuary would consist of both
tropical moist deciduous and tropical dry deciduous forests with frequent
plots of bamboo. Although forest produce would continue to be ex-
ploited, plans entail the establishment of an approximately 25-square-
mile sanctum sanctorum. |

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Mr. N. S. Kaikini (Chief Conservator of Forests)
and the Forest Department of Mysore for their gracious hospitality and
kind assistance during my tour of some of the State’s wild life areas. I
particularly want to thank Mr, P. M. Monnappa, Wild Life Officer, who

WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN

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accompanied and assisted me throughout my 8-day tour, November
22 to 30, 1966. Mr. Monnappa has been associated with the State Wild
Life Unit since 1954 and is a member of the game staff for the royal
palace. His profound knowledge of wild life and the problems con-
fronting Mysore’s wild life resources, as well as his patience in answering
“my many questions, were invaluable in the compilation of this report.
Thanks also are given to the other Forest Department personnel who
assisted with this survey and who were so hospitable to me. Regret-
fully they are too numerous to mention individually here.

REFERENCES

ANonyMous (1965): Wild life sanc- Bird Sanctuary, Mysore District.
tuaries in India. Government of India. | Forest Department, Mysore State. 4 pp.
Department of Tourism, New Delhi. ——-—— (1964): The Bandipur Sanc-
84 pp. tuary in Venu Gopal Wild Life Park.

————. (1964): The Ranganathittu Forest Department, Mysore State. 5 pp.

(to be continued)

Nepal Birds: Supplement to Biswas’ List.

BY

R. L. FLEMING

A comprehensive list of birds from Nepal by B. Biswas of the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, appeared in the Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society from August, 1960 to December, 1963.
Biswas. recorded 772 species and sub-species found in Nepal from 1821
to 1959. From the latter year onward, I have continued the study of
birds in this country. ‘ Notes on Nepal Birds’ by Fleming and Traylor,
published by the Field Museum in Chicago, appeared in 1961. The.
next volume, ‘ Further Notes on Nepal Birds,’ by the same authors, came
out in 1964. Our third publication is due this year, 1968.

Since 1959 we have added 56 species and sub-species new to the
Nepal list. Specimens of these birds, with one or two exceptions, are
in the Field Museum in Chicago. We have gone over the excellent list
of Biswas and are only able to make three or four corrections or additions.
The following data may be helpful to those who have copies of
the Journal but do not have our publications from the Field Museum.

Someone asked me, after my initial visits to Nepal, beginning in
1949, ‘ How many kinds of birds are there in Nepal?’ ‘ About 700,’ I
replied. This seemed high as Hodgson’s list, according to Ripley’, was
only 563. However, these additions bring the total almost to 830
birds collected, plus authentic sight records of a score or more others.

A great deal of information has been gathered in recent years on
birds of this part of the world. We are glad to be able to contribute a
little to science in our study of the birds of Nepal.

Our list is as follows :

Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant). Comb Duck

Some twenty-five birds flew out of a large pond near Dhanghari
in the south-western terai. I had seen one there fourteen years before.
(December, March)

Buteo vulpinus vulpinus (Gloger). Desert Buzzard

We collected this species in Kanchanpur District, fifteen miles west of
Dhanghari. (January)

1§. D. Riptey: ‘Peerless Nepal—A Naturalist’s Paradise,’ National Geogra-
phic Magazine, Vol. XCVII (1), January, 1950: 1,

NEPAL BIRDS; SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST 327

Aquila ‘pomarina hastata (Lesson). Lesser Spotted Eagle
Upon re-examining the skin labelled A. clanga, Traylor showed that
it was really the smaller of two similar eagles. The larger bird was
recorded by Hodgson but this species is new to the Nepal list. We
took it both in the eastern and western terai. (Winter)

Francolinus francolinus melanonotus Hume. Assam Black Partridge

A closer inspection by Traylor of skins from central Nepal showed
that they were closer to the Assam race than to the western one. Our
more recent specimen came from the Rapti Dun. (February)

Lophura lJeucomelana hamiltonii (J. E. Gray). Whitecrested Kalij
Pheasant. (No. 128 on Biswas’ list)
Our initial record of this bird was a sight record only. Fourteen
years later (1965) we got specimens in far western Nepal where it is quite
common, ranging as low as 1000 feet to above 6000 feet. (April)

Rallus aquaticus indicus Blyth. Water Rail

Ripley did not include Nepal in the area of this rail but he did list
nearby East Pakistan. The only time we came across it was on the
lower reaches of the Kosi in south-eastern terai. (November)

Rallina eurizonoides nigrolineata (Gray). Banded Crake

This race, now listed by Ripley in his syNopsis as R. e. amauroptera
(Jerdon), only turned up once and that was in a small, wet area just west
of Hitaura in the Rapti Dun in June.

Vanellus cinereus (Blyth). Greyheaded Lapwing

A fall and winter visitor to Kathmandu Valley, this fairly uncommon
Species at times were with redwattled lapwings. One we last collected
was solitary, on a sand bank along the Rapti River.

Calidris subminutus (Middendorff). Longtoed Stint
> Listed for areas east of Nepal in the SYNOPSIS, two or three were with
many Temminck’s stints on their northern migration along the Bagmati
River, Kathmandu Valley in May.

Larus argentatus ssp. Herring Gull

Ripley has named:the coastal areas of India and China as the range
of herring gulls but to find a pair in Kathmandu Valley was rather un-
usual. Reported in Pavo, March, 1965. (November)

Columba palumbus casiotis (Bonaparte). Wood Pigeon

Only once have we come across the wood pigeon and that time a large
flock was eating food in a heavily wooded area on the southern rim ot
Kathmandu Valley at 7400 feet. (February)

328. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Streptopelia orientalis orientalis (Latham). Northern Rufous Turtle
Dove |

A bird of Tibet, Sikkim and Bhutan. A pair occupied a little grove

at Kapan in Kathmandu Valley along with several S. 0. meena. (October)

Streptopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Hermann). Red Turtle —

Dove
Biswas pointed out that this race had not been collected from far
western Nepal, so we made it a point to secure them from the south-
western terai. As Biswas and others surmised, these represent the
western race extending into Baluchistan. (March)

Tyto capensis longimembris (Jerdon). Grass Owl

Although within the wide range of this owl, it had never been reported
from Nepal before. Our specimen was only a few weeks old, brought
in by Tharus to make medicine. We were in the Rapti Dun in November
and the men said they had come across the river from the Nawalpur
District.

Otus scops sunia (Hodgson). Scops Owl

For ten years we had been hearing a whistle at night—dash dot dash
—throughout the Nepal terai and foothills. It was not until we collected
a little red owl at the foot of the hills in Jhapa District did we identify
the species. It was well after dark before it would tune up, but this

particular one began half an hour before nightfalland R. L. Fleming, Jr.

got it. (February)

Otus bakkamoena gangeticus Ticehurst. North Indian Collared
Scops Owl |
The only time we have found this race was when we put up a mist
net across a dry ravine and beat the bushes along the banks. The place
was in the far eastern ferai in winter.

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham. Indian Nightjar

It is not often that when his plane is delayed, one can get a new bird
record for the country. The call of this nightjar was so different and so
persistent that the task was aneasy one. What anideal birthday present !
(March 22nd)

Megalaima virens marshallorum Swinhoe. Great Himalayan Barbet

Our west-central birds were magnifica, but those in far western Nepal
are of this race. (October)

Megalaima australis cyanotis (Blyth). Blue-eared Barbet

Here was an example of another of those bird calls we had heard
several years before but had remained a puzzle: Ripley included Sikkim

NEPAL BIRDS: SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST 329

in its range so it was not surprising to find it in the far eastern terai.
It was in forested areas at the base of the hills, usually practically in-
visible at the top of tall trees. (February)

Indicator xanthonotus xanthonotus Blyth. Honeyguide

It was Dr. Herbert Friedmann who alerted us to expect this species
in Nepal. We located it on cliffs as indicated in Chinese literature several
hundred years ago. The place was above Bigu near the Tibetan frontier
in East No. 2. A second area was along the Kali Gandak River in
Baglung District above Dana. In far north-western Nepal one would
expect to find the western race of honeyguide. (November ; December)

Picus squamatus squamatus Vigors. Scalybellied Green Wood-
pecker
Evidently data gathered by Polunin, Lowndes and Proud of this
fairly common species, were all from sight records. We collected it on
the Gandak-Kosi watershed ridge at 10,000 feet in May.

Picus canus sanguiniceps Baker. Blacknaped Green Woodpecker

Specimens we first found in west-central Nepal were designated as
sanguiniceps=gyldenstolpei. Later those taken in far western Nepal were
the western race. (October)

Dendrocopos himalayensis himalayensis (Jardine and _ Selby).
Himalayan Pied Woodpecker
We came across this species in lower Doti District in 1951 but did not —
collect it until we returned to Doti District eight years later. It was not
at all common as it is farther west around Mussoorie, U.P., India.
(October)

Dendrocopos canicapillus semicoronatus (Malherbe). Eastern Nepal
Pygmy Woodpecker
Darjeeling and Sikkim, the western limit of this race of woodpecker,
Should now be extended to include far eastern Nepal. In the forested
areas of Jhapa District it is a common bird. (January)

Chrysocolaptes festivus festivus (Boddaert). Blackbacked Wood-
pecker
Ripley records this species as far north as Dehra Dun, U.P. and east
to Bihar and West Bengal. Our specimens were taken in the far western
terai about half way between Dehra Dun and Bihar. It is another record
in Nepal. (March)

Alauda arvensis dulcivox Brooks. Skylark

_ . This large, western skylark in the syNopsis is listed as no nearer than
Kashmir or western U.P. R. L. Fleming, Jr., took one out of a flock

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

of some twenty-five south of the Gosainkund Lekh, Central Nepal, in
December. We have also found three other races of A. gulgula, wintering
in Nepal. They never sing here, only utter a repeated * chirp.’

Alauda gulgula gulgula Franklin. Indian Skylark
- Our early specimens collected before 1957 were not identified as to
race. Subsequently, these and further specimens include this nominate
race as well as /hamarum and inopinata. (November, February, March)

Hirundo daurica japonica Temminck & Schlegel. Japanese Striated
Swallow
The Swallows, like skylarks, are great wanderers. Ripley places
West Bengal in its winter range. Our specimen was from the Rapti Dun,
Central Nepal, in January.

Delichon urbica urbica (Linnaeus). House Martin

Here is another species rather far from its usual range. The SYNOPSIS
cites its range as western India in winter. Our bird was taken in the
foothills of far western Nepal, in company with hundreds of other
martins, most of which we believed to have been D. n. nipalensis. (April)

Lanius cristatus cristatus Linnaeus. Brown Shrik

Biswas omitted this species from his list. It has been collected
throughout the feraiin winter. An occasional bird in Kathmandu Valley
in the cold season. |

Corvus macrorhynchos levaillanti Lesson. Jungle Crow

As Biswas indicated in his list, No. 772, because of lack of material
he could not identify terai races of C. macrorhynchos. From specimens
we gathered in the far eastern terai, Traylor has assigned them to the
above race. It was a common bird, gathering around our camp and
neighbouring houses. (January) :

Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. Jungle Crow

Traylor has assigned specimens from the south-western terai, to this
race on the basis, again, of bill measurements. Also, the base of the
feathers of terai jungle crows is grey, not white like C. m. intermedius
of the foothills and higher elevations. (March)

Dendrocitta formosae occidentalis Ticehurst. Himalayan Tree Pie
Our far western Nepal birds proved to be the western race of tree
pie with the larger wing. Baitidi is not a great distance east of Almora,
the eastern limit cited by ‘Ripley, therefore not an unexpected addition
to the Nepal list. (October) a

NEPAL BIRDS: SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST 335i

Bombycilla garrulus ssp.? (Linnaeus). The Waxwing

When R. L. Fleming, Jr., returned from the Kosi-Gandak water-
shed ridge with two waxwings (December, 1967), this was a most unusual
find. The SYNOPSIS lists it as a rare straggler in Baluchistan and West
Pakistan based on Stuart Baker’s account of specimens obtained in
Bannu and Kohat in 1906 and 1907. These two females (out of a flock
of four) have no chestnut on the crest ; the back is an earthy brown ;
the breast is earthy grey, paler grey on the abdomen and greyish white
on the inner flanks. Wing 114-116. There are no known races. To
complete the identification, comparative material is necessary.

Irena puella sikkimensis Whistler & Kinnear. Eastern Fairy Bluebird

Having seen the fairy bluebird in Assam and its being recorded in
the syNopsis from Sikkim, we were on the lookout for this species.
Twice when we thought we had found it in Nepal, it turned out to be the
sunny sheen on the Hair-crested Drongo, Dicrurus h. hottentottus
(Linnaeus). However, we located the bluebird in Jhapa District in the
lower foothills a little west of the Mechi River. (February)

Spelaeornis longicaudatus (Horsfield & Moore) Longtailed Wren-
Babbler
The specimen we collected in far eastern Nepal looked like a small
scaly-breasted wren-babbler with a combination on the breast of both
light and dark colour phases. Not on our list for Nepal, we were pleased
to add this rather inconspicuous species to our number. (March)

Garrulax rufogularis occidentalis (Hartert). Kashmir Rufouschinned
Laughing Thrush 3
We saw only a single pair of this western race of laughing thrush.
It was only a few miles from the Kumaon border. (October)

Pteruthius xanthochloris occidentalis Harington. Green Shrike-
Babbler
Ripley gives the extreme eastern range of this race in Naini Tal. We

collected this western race in Doti District. It was the only one we saw.
(October)

Minla strigula simlaensis (Meinertzhagen). Stripethroated Siva

There are numerous records of the siva taken from central-west
eastward. When we compared our birds taken in far western Nepal,
they proved to be the western race. (April)

Heterophasia capistrata. capistrata (Vigors). Blackcapped Sibia
We found both eastern and western races of sibia in Nepal.
H. c. nigriceps (Hodgson) extends from western to central eastern Nepal,
4

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65

with H. c. bayleyi in eastern Nepal. The western race was formerly
called H. c. pallida Hartert. (April) :

Muscicapa superciliaris superciliaris Jerdon. Whitebrowed Blue
Flycatcher 3
A common flycatcher, we noted that all we examined had
the well-defined supercilium in contrast to the eastern race in which it
is slight or lacking. (March, April)

Cettia fortipes pallidus (Brooks). Western Strongfooted Bush
Warbler
Only a single bird showed itself during our travel in far western
Nepal. Its rather loud call disclosed its presence in a thicket along a
stream. (April) 2

Bradypterus tacsanowskius tacsanowskius (Swinhoe). Chinese Bush
Warbler

A rather rare bird, it was not reported closer than Bhutan. It is
one of the occupants of extensive reed beds in northern Jhapa District
where it is difficult to see. We found only one. (February)

Acrocephalus agricola brevipennis (Severtzov). Paddyfield Warbler

Biswas omitted this species from his list although also collected by
both Hodgson and Koelz. Ours was from Jhapa District in February.

Acrocephalus concinens (Swinhoe). Bluntwinged Paddyfield Warbler

Another species collected a long way from its usual range. One
race is in the Kashmir area with another in Assam and a third from
China. Revisiting the reed beds of northern Jhapa District with mist
nets we were able to collect this bird for the first time in Nepal. (February)

No. 597 on the list is now Seicercus xanthoschistos jerdoni (Brooks)
rather than S. x. xanthoschistos.

Phylloscopus tytleri Brooks. Tytler’s Leaf Warbler

Good fortune was with us when a warbler we took from a group in
an oak tree in Dandeldhura District, West Nepal, was one whose eastern
range is Uttar Pradesh. It is certainly uncommon in Nepal. (April)

Phylloscopus fuscatus weigoldi Stresemann. Dusky Leaf Warbler

Dr. Weigold, a grand old man in his 80’s, may be glad to know that
the race of dusky warbler named after him has been found in Nepal.
The synopsis indicates that it extends to southern Tibet and Bhutan.
We netted it in the reeds of northern Jhapa District in February.

NEPAL BIRDS: SUPPLEMENT TO BISWAS’ LIST 333

Phylloscopus cantator cantator (Tickell). Blackbrowed Leaf Warbler

Our specimen, secured by R. L. Fleming, Jr., was one of a fairly large
group of small birds in the foothill forests. It had previously been
recorded beyond the eastern border of Nepal. PP. c. cantator is the nine-
teenth leaf warbler we have taken in this country. (February)

Turdus ruficollis ruficollis Pallas. Redthroated Thrush

Listed from Bhutan and Assam, this eastern race occasionally visits
Nepal. Mrs. Proud had seen them. One was hopping in a shady lane
in Pokhara Town, West Nepal, in spring. There were several in the
party from which we took two in East No. 2, at 11,000 feet in November.

Parus melanolophus Vigors. Crested Black Tit

Listed by the syNopsis for Kumaon this species is another one would
expect to find in far western Nepal.. It was not common as it is in the
north-western Himalayas. (October)

Aegithalos concinnus iredalei (Baker). Western Redheaded Tit

The race for most of Nepal listed by Biswas, No. 657, except those of
the far west, should now be A. c. rubricapillus Ticehurst. Our birds with
the larger wing are those of the western race which we collected in Baitidi
District. (October)

Anthus spinoletta (Linnaeus). Water Pipit

Races of this species have been recorded from Uttar Pradesh and
Sikkim. Our bird was in dry fields in the western end of Pokhara Valley
in December.

Arachnothera longirostris longirostris (Latham). Little Spiderhunter

The SyNopsis places this species as near to Nepal as Assam and East
Pakistan. It is fairly common along the base of the hills and the Mechi
River in far south-eastern Nepal, in groves and forested areas in the
vicinity of Loranthus and wild banana trees. (February)

Ploceus philippinus burmanicus Ticehurst. Eastern Baya

Recorded from eastern Bihar, this race is quite common in the eastern
terai. We usually found them in grassy areas around villages.
(January, February)

Lonchura malacca atricapilla (Vieillot). Blackheaded Munia

Biswas lists the western race from central Nepal. We add the eastern
race, taken in Jnapa Town. These were in a large flock of both black-
headed and spotted munias. (February)

334. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Carpodacus rubicilla severtzovi Sharpe.

Great Rosefinch

As reported in Pavo, March, 1965, we acquired a specimen of this
species through Mr. G. B. Gurung, a member of the Diesselhorst team
which collected in 1962. Ripley records the bird as near as Gyantse.

We now know it also reaches Khumbu, south of Mt. Everest.

Emberiza fucata fucata Pallas.

(August)

Greyheaded Bunting

Ripley did not include this race in his syNopsis though it has been

reported by Vaurie from Bengal.

Here is another bird we netted in

reed beds near the Mechi River in Jhapa District. (January)

REFERENCES

Biswas, B. (August, 1960-December,
1963): The Birds of Nepal. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 278-308, 516-546 ;
58: 100-134, 441-474, 653-677; 59:
200-227, 405-429. 807-821; 60: 173-200,
388-399, 638-654.

FLEMING, R. L. (1963): Two new
records for Nepal. Pavo, The Indian
Journal of Ornithology, 1: 126-127.

—— (1964): Further Notes on
Nepal Birds. Fieldiana Zool. 35:
489-558.

FLEMING, R. L. & TRaAyLor, M. A.
(1961) : Notes on Nepal Birds. ibid 35,

(8) : 447-487.

—_—— & — (1964) : Further
Notes on Nepal Birds. ibid 35,
(9) : 443-487.

RAND, A. L. & FLEMING, R. L. (1957) :
Birds from Nepal. ibid 41, (1): 1-218.
Rrtey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

—_ ane 2

The Sciaenidae of the coastal
waters of Visakhapatnam

BY

S. DuTT AND V. THANKAM
Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair

(With a plate)

Thirteen species of the family Sciaenidae, popularly known as drums, —
grunters, croakers or jew fish, are caught practically throughout the year

- in the coastal waters of Visakhapatnam, where they constitute a minor

but valuable fishery by indigenous craft and gear. Most of the catches,

- mainly by boat seine, are of small to medium-sized specimens.

One of the earliest Indian records of sciaenids is from Visakhapatnam,
by Russell (1803), who described 6 species. Blyth (1860) recorded 9
species and Day (1878) described 27 species from India. Lloyd (1907)
described 5 species of Sciaena and 1 of Otolithus. Chaudhuri (1923)
recorded Sciaena coibor and Umbrina indica from Chilka Lake. Pillay
(1929) reported 3 genera and 7 species from Travancore. Fowler (1933)
recognised 8 genera under Sciaenidae and described 53 species from India.
Jacob (1948) reported 7 species of Sciaenidae from west coast of the old
Madras State. Munro (1955) described 17 species from Ceylon.
Seshappa (1956) recorded Johnius hololepidotus for the first time from
Indian waters.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material for the present work was collected in the fishing villages
of. Visakhapatnam, from catches in coastal waters by boat seine and
gill net. The linear measurements are based on specimens preserved in
5% formalin. The body proportions and length of air bladder described
for the various species in the text, are given as percentage of standard
length. The size range of the specimens examined refers to the standard
length.

OBSERVATIONS

The sciaenids are characterised by a fairly elongate body, covered
with cycloid and/or ctenoid scales, with a spinous dorsal consisting of
ten spines and a soft dorsal having a feeble spine and a varying number of

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol.” 65. (2)

rays ; the two dorsals are not completely separated. Anal fin of two
spines (first spine short) and 7 rays much shorter than soft dorsal.
Caudal truncate, emarginate or pointed: but never forked. Jaws equal
or sub-equal. Air bladder present, physoclistous.

Thirteen species of sciaenids belonging to five genera are described
from the coastal waters of Visakhapatnam, in the western part of the Bay
of Bengal.

KEY TO GENERA
la. ‘Solid. sbarbel. on. chin... ko cea Ge eee ee eee Dendrophysa

1b. No barbel on chin
2a. Caniniform teeth present ; caudal pointed

3a. Lower jaw prominent, no pores on chin................ Otolithes
3b. Lower jaw shorter than upper, chin with pores........ Otolithoides
2b. No caniniform teeth ; chin with pores
4a. Soft dorsal and anal covered with small scales............ Johnius
4b. Soft dorsal and anal naked, only bases
coveted “withs scalesis;. aun. aoe mee ne PR I an Nibea

Genus JOHNIUS Bloch
Bloch, 1739, Naturges. Ausland. Fische,7: 132. Type J. carutta Bl.

Bleeker (1863) split the genus into Johnius and Pseudosciaena, the
latter distinguished by an inner row of enlarged teeth on the lower jaw,
absent in the former. According to Weber & De Beaufort (1936),
Pseudosciaena has also terminal mouth and oblique cleft whereas Johnius
has inferior mouth and horizontal cleft. However, Fowler (1933) and
Munro (1955) have treated Pseudosciaena Bleeker as a synonym of
Johnius Bloch.

General characters

Lower jaw equal to or slightly shorter than upper. Chin usually
with conspicuous pores, no barbel under symphysis. Gill rakers short.
No caniniform teeth. Spinous dorsal with ten spines and soft dorsal
with one spine and 23-31 rays and anal fin with two spines and 7 rays.
Pectoral rays 14-20. Of the 13 species of sciaenids from the coastal
waters of Visakhapatnam 5 belong to genus Johnius.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Johnius
ta: Lateral line broad and conspicHOuse 0%. << usc atte eee ota oe carutta

1b. Lateral line narrow

2a. Six dark brown vertical bands. Carrot-shaped air bladder
with 16-18 caecae bd Gael LT aa ek Ck i OT CME A SD BORN reece erresr ee re .AReCUS

SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM S57

- 2b. No bands.

3a. Air bladder hammer-shaped with caecae. No dark spot
on pectoral axilla.
4a, Depth 31°57-33°34. Air bladder with 13-14 caecae..........

3b. Air bladder carrot-shaped. No caecae; instead 2
horn-like projections anterolaterally ; A dark spot on
Pectoral axilla w. Fi) JRE Lanes oe tale HLS 8 axillaris

1. Johnius earutta Bloch

Johnius carutta Bloch, 1793. Naturgesch Ausland. Fische. 7: 133, pl. 356
(Type locality : Tranquebar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I 26-29, A. II 7, P. 14-17, V.I 5, Vert. 25.
Depth 28-89 to 29°72 ; head 32:00 to 33°54; snout 9-80 to 10:00 ;
eye 7°81 to 9°80. Upper jaw overlaps lower. 5 pores on chin. A row
of pores-across snout. Lateral line broad and conspicuous and curves
gradually to below end of anal fin behind which it runs straight. G.R.
3-5+7-10. Scales on head, cheeks and suborbitals cycloid and on body
ctenoid.

Colour : Purplish brown ene light brown below. First dorsal dark,
other fins with grey edges.

Air bladder (Plate, 1): The air bladder of J. carutta is hammer-shaped,
having 14-15 caecal outgrowths with very small branches except the last
two caecae which are undivided. The number of caecae is not equal on
both sides ; in the 122 air bladders examined there was a difference of +1
on one side. Last caecum extends behind pointed posterior end of air
bladder. Length of air bladder 37:48 to 44°87.

The size of the 158 specimens examined ranged between 54:7 mm.
and 175:0 mm. |

2. Johnius aneus Bloch

Johnius aneus Bloch, 1793, Naturgesch Ausland. Fische. pt. 7: 135, pl. 257
(Type locality : Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I1 23-25, A.II 7, P. 15-17, V.I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 33:08 to 34°76 ; head 35°56 to 37°36 ; snout 7:96 to 8°35 ; eye
8°42 to 8:98. Upper jaw overlaps lower. Chin with 5 pores. Oper-
‘culum with 2 spines. Anal originates below 12th to 14th dorsal ray.

G.R. 4-7+-9-14. Scales on head, preopercle and cheek cycloid, on body
‘¢tenoid. Pectorals about as long as head without snout,

338. =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Colour : There are 6 dark brown vertical lines on the sides of the body,
of which 2nd and 3rd extend below lateral line.

Air bladder (Plate, 2): Day (1878) described the air bladder of J. aneus
as an oval structure having about 30 lateral processes, but the present
study, based on the examination of 80 specimens, shows that the number
of caecae is only 16-18. The anterior caecae are shorter than in the other
species of Johnius but posteriorly the caecae are elongated and the last
2 to 4 caecae are much longer than the rest. The pointed posterior end
of air bladder extends beyond last caecum. Length of air bladder 37.18
to 45:45.

The 93 specimens examined ranged between 25:7 mm. and 187:0 mm.

3. Johnius dussumierii (Cuv. & Val.)

Corvina dussumieri Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830. Hist. Nat. Poiss. 5: 119 (Type
locality : Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I 26-30, A. TI 7, P. 15-18, V.I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 31°57 to 33°34; head 31:20 to 33:11; snout 7:14 to 7:32;
eye 8°19 to 8°87. Lower jaw shorter ; 5 pores on chin ; opercle with two
flat weak spines, preopercle with two or three small spines. Scales
cycloid on head and operculum, ctenoid on body. Lateral line slightly
arched to below middle of soft dorsal. Origin of anal below middle of
soft dorsal. Caudal rounded. First ventral ray filamentous and pro-
longed. G.R. 4-7+ 10-14.

Colour: Dark brown above, lighter on sides ; ventral side whitish.
Spinous dorsal black ; soft dorsal and caudal grey.

Air bladder (Plate, 3): Glistening white. Anterior side bulges laterally
into rounded prominence. Caecae 13 to 14, last caecum undivided, does
not extend behind pointed posterior end of air bladder which extends a
short distance behind vent. Length of air bladder 37°15 to 37°18.

A total of 107 specimens between 44:1 mm. and 141:0 mm. were
examined. Occurs practically throughout the year.

4. Johnius belengerii (Cuv. & Val.)

Corvina belengerii Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830. Hist. Nat. Poiss. 5: 120.
(Type locality : Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I1 28-29, A. Il 7, P. 17, V.1I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 32°32 to 33°80 ; head 31°62 to 34°56 ; snout 7°86 to 7°95 ; eye
8:20 to 8°86. Free border of snout deeply quadrilobate. Chin with 5
pores, G.R. 3-7+9, short, Scales ctenoid except on snout and below

SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 339

eye where they are cycloid. Origin of anal below 12th dorsal ray.
Length of pectoral equals head length excluding snout. First ventral
ray with filamentous prolongation. A blotch on operculum.

Colour: Brown above, white below. Spinous dorsal, anal and ventrals
with dark edge. Pectorals pale yellow.

Air bladder (Plate, 4): Shape of air bladder more or less similar to that
of J. carutta and J. dussumierii but number of caecae 14 to 15. Length
of air bladder 38°62 to 39°36.

Rare. Only 2 specimens were obtained in June, measuring 56 mm.
and 102 mm.

5. Johnius axillaris (Cuv. & Val.)

Corvina axillaris Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830, Hist. Nat. Poiss.5: 113 (Type
locality : Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X+1 25-29, A. IL 7, P. 15-18, V. 1 5, Vert. 24.

Depth 34°69 to 35°92, head 32:97 to 38-00; snout 7:91 to 7:92 ; eye
7°91 to 8°42. Lower jaw slightly shorter than upper. A median pore
below mandibular symphysis and two slit-like pores on each side of it.
Scales on head and opercle cycloid and on body ctenoid. G.R. 9-12
19-23.

Colour : Brownish-grey above, white on ventral side. A black axillary
spot which extends considerably above base of pectoral. Upper two-
thirds of spinous dorsal, black and first half of soft dorsal, dark.

Air bladder (Plate, 5): The air bladder of J. axillaris has the most glis-
tening colour. The anterior rectangular part tapers gradually to
posterior end which is pointed. Caecae absent, instead, anterolaterally
arise two unbranched horn-like processes directed forward. The entire
surface of the air bladder is covered by a thin layer of white fatty sub-
stance, whereas in the air bladder of other sciaenids, where caecae are
present, only the caecae are covered with this fatty substance. Length
of air bladder 33°34 to 51°63.

A total of 445 specimens between 20°5 mm. and 135°0 mm. were
examined. Juveniles between 20 mm. to 30 mm. occur in large numbers
from March to May.

Note: This species possesses all the characters of genus Johnius Bloch,
1793 defined by Trewavas (1964: 110) except that it lacks the paired
series Of arborescent appendages on the air bladder (vide Discussion),

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Genus NrBeA Jordan & Thompson

Jordan & Thompson, 1911, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 39: 244, 246. Type Pseudo-
tolithus mitsukurii Jordan & Snyder.

Snout prominent, with four pores at tip arranged in a transverse row
of three above a median pore. Chin with five conspicuous pores. No
barbel. Preopercle edge serrated or crenulate. Scales on body ctenoid.
Can be distinguished from Johnius in that only the bases of soft dorsal
and anal are covered by scales.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Nibea

la. Five broad black oblique bands on body with two longitudinal rows
of black spots* on. dorsal ‘side. Nee oec6 Sau cat Pe Bice cue eeenerae maculata

1b. No bands or spots.
2a. Depth 33°02-37'23. Dark spot behind each dorsal spine and
ray forming black line along dorsal fin. Air bladder carrot-

shaped with 17-20 caecae...... ie gustbuay patctece Atolaie: hearts nie ea euene ee soldado
2b. Depth 31°43-31'78. No dark spot behind dorsal spine. Air

bladder hammer-shaped with 16-17 caecae................ s... Sina

1. Nibea maculata (Bloch & Schneider)
Johnius maculatus Bloch & Schneider 1801. Syst. Ichth. : 75.

Diagnosis: D.X-+I1 22-24, A. II 7, P. 16-18, V.I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 30°46 to 32:08 ; head 31°34 to 32°66 ; snout 8°06 to 8°52 ; eye
8°60 to 8:71. Lower jaw shorter than upper. Transverse row of 4
pores across snout, 1 below mandibular symphysis and 2 more on either
side. G.R. 4-5+-7-9. i |

Colour: An important diagnostic character is the presence of 5 inter-
rupted broad black bands running vertically : the first arising on the nape
passes backward and downward and terminates abruptly after crossing
lateral line ; the second, commencing opposite fifth to seventh dorsal
spines, passes obliquely downward and terminates above middle of
ventral fin ; the third arising below second and third dorsal rays or bet-
ween the two dorsal fins, runs parallel to second band ; the fourth band
commences below centre of second dorsal and descends to the lateral line
and the fifth runs parallel to it below last few dorsal rays. In addition,
2 rows of black spots run along the dorsal surface. Fins are grey with
small irregular black spots.

Air bladder (Plate, 6): The air bladder of NV. maculatahas a more glis-
tening silvery colour than that of other species. The 16 or 17 caecae are
close together, very short and much branched, The last caecum is also

SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 341

branched. The air bladder suddenly tapers at the posterior end which is
without caecae. Length of air bladder 36°48 to 37:25.

This is rather uncommon in the coastal waters of Visakhapatnam.
Only five specimens between 58 mm. and 122 mm. were obtained.

2. Nibea soldado (Lacépéde)

Holocentrus soldado Lacépéde, 1802, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 4: 344, 389. (Type
locality : Cayenna, East Indies).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I 23-26, A. II 7, P. 15-17, V.1I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 33-03 to 37:23 ; head 34-97 to 36°56 ; snout 9°60 to 10°05 ; eye
6°33 to 7:26. Jaws more or less equal. Preopercle distantly denticulate,
opercle with two weak spines. Scales on head cycloid and on body
ctenoid. Lateral line strongly arched to below middle of soft dorsal and
straight above hind edge of anal. Origin of anal below 9th or 10th dorsal
ray. G.R. 4-7-+ 10-14. |

Colour: Brownish-grey above, whitish below. Fins pale yellow.
Spinous dorsal with dark margin, dark spot on membrane behind each

dorsal spine and ray forming a black line along dorsal fin.

Air bladder (Plate, 7): Caecae 17 to 20. Branches of caecae slender
and long ; type of branching different from that of others ; last caecum
undivided. In some specimens the number of caecae on both sides is
equal, in others a difference of 1 is noted. Length of air bladder 34°18
to 43°93.

A total of 145 specimens between 32°5 mm. and 190°0 mm. were
collected between October and June in small numbers.

3. Nibea sina (Cuv. & Val.)

Corvina sina Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 5: 122. (Type
locality : Pondicherry, Malabar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I 26-29, A. II 7, P. 15-19, V.1 5, Vert. 25.
Depth 31°43 to 31°78; head length 31:78 to 32°86; snout 8°18 to
8°67 ; eye 6°63 to 7:12. Jaws more or less equal. 4 big and 2 small

pores on chin. Anal origin before middle of soft dorsal. Origin of
spinous dorsal above that of pectoral. 3rd and 4th dorsal spines longest.

Opercle with 2 flat spines and preopercle with 2 or 3 small spines. Scales

on head and opercle cycloid and on body ctenoid. G.R.5-7--11-15.

Colour: Brown above, silvery with gold reflections below. Spinous
dorsal black, other fins grey. Ventrals white,

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Air bladder (Plate, 8): Air bladder resembles that of J. carutta,
J. dussumierii and J. belengerii but caecae 16 to 17. Anteriorly, air
bladder is attached to depressions on 2nd, 3rd and 4th vertebrae. Length
of air bladder 42°22 to 43°40. |

Number of specimens examined 60, between 35 mm. and 190 mm.

Genus DENDROPHYSA Trewavas, 1964

Type : Umbrina russelli Cuvier, 1830

This genus resembles Johnius, but can be distinguished by the presence
of a solid barbel below chin. Lower jaw shorter than upper jaw. The
genus was created by Trewavas (1964) to include three species of Indo-
West Pacific sciaenids described by earlier workers under Umbrina. or
Sciaena.. Two of them occur at Visakhapatnam. ;

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Dendrophysa

la. Barbel robust, equals half diameter of eye, scales on head and body cycloid,
dorsal fin rays 23 to 26. Air bladder with 14-15 caecae. Posterior end of
air ‘bladder’ dons and ‘pointed. 6F 2.0.9 4 een ee eee dussumierii

1b. Barbel small, scales on head cycloid and on body ctenoid. Dorsal fin rays 27
to 31. Air bladder with 11 caecae. Last caecum extends behind blunt
posterior end.of air bladder. ic ech. y.0). tek ee ee er macroptera

1. Dendrophysa dussumierii (Valenciennes)

Umbrina dussumierii Valenciennes, 1833, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 9:481. (Type
locality : Coromandel).

Diagnosis: D.X+I 23-26, A. TI 7, P. 16-17, V.1I 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 29:22 to 31:32 ; head 29°62 to 30°36 ; snout 8°32 to 8°68 ; eye
7°62 to 8:02. Upper jaw overlaps the lower; chin with 5 pores. A robust
barbel equal to half eye diameter. Scales on head and body cycloid.
2nd, 3rd and 4th dorsal spines with filamentous prolongation, 2nd and
3rd the largest, almost as high as body, the 4th slightly shorter. G.R.
3-48-10.

Colour : Dark brown, with metallic reflections below. Spinous dorsal
dark, other fins black except ventral which is yellow.

Air bladder (Plate, 9): Hammer-shaped with 14 to 15 caecae. The
posterior part is long and pointed. Last one or two caecae on either
side undivided. Length of air bladder 37°82 to 38°02.

A total of 22 specimens between 47°5 mm, and 163°0 mm, were
examined, |

_SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 343
2. Dendrophysa macroptera (Bleeker)

Umbrina macropterus Bleeker, 1863, Nat. Tijds. Nederland. Indie, 4 : 254. (Type
locality : Priaman, Sumatra).

Diagnosis: D.X-+1 27-31, A. I 7, P. 14-18, V. 1 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 28°42 to 30:06; head 27°36 to 30°49 ; snout 8°89 to 10°30;
eye 6°97 to 7°41. A symphysical barbel shorter than pupil with a barbel
pore and with 2 conspicuous pores on either side of the median one.
Scales on head, opercle and cheeks cycloid and on body ctenoid. G.R.
3-5-++-8-10.

Colour: Brown above, light brown below. A dark mark on opercle.
Fins yellowish, dotted with brown.

Air bladder (Plate, 10): Hammer-shaped with 11 caecae on either side.
Third caecum is shorter and more branched than others ; it arises behind
the anterior bulged part of bladder unlike in Johnius carutta, J. dussu-
mierii, J. belengerii, Nibea sina and Dendrophysa dussumierii in which it
arises on the posterior part of the bulged part. Last caecum is branched
and extends behind body of air bladder. Length of air bladder 36°84 to
45°82.
48 specimens between 60 mm. and 190 mm. were examined.

Genus OTOLITHOIDES Fowler

Fowler, 1933, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 12: 364. Type Orolithus biauritus Cantor.

Lower jaw slightly shorter than upper ; 6 pores on chin, 2 of them
smaller than others. Teeth in narrow villiform bands in both jaws;
in upper jaw, the outer row is constituted of 4 strong caniniform teeth,
which are seen even when the mouth is closed. Only a single speci-
men of one species of Otolithoides : O. brunneus (Day) was observed in the
catches.

1. Otolithoides brunneus (Day)

Otolithus brunneus Day, 1873, Journ. Linnean Soc. London, [1 :524. (Type
locality : Bombay).

Diagnosis: D.X+I1 26,A.Il 7, P.18,V.I 5S.

Depth 27:75 ; head 28°46 ; snout 7°32; eye 7:25. Body shape resembles
that of Otolithes argenteus but lower jaw is shorter than upper. All the
generic characters are present. Height of soft dorsal gradually increases
to last ray. Caudal pointed. Anal origin below 8th dorsal ray. G.R.

3+9.

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Colour: Brownish above, with gold reflections below.

Air bladder (Plate, 11): Caecal outgrowths 25-26. Like width of air
bladder, length of caecae also decreases gradually toward posterior end.
Anteriorly air bladder is oval and caecae are longer than width of air
bladder. Posteriorend is bluntly pointed. Length of air bladder was
54 mm. in the specimen of 174 mm. standard length.

Genus OTOLITHES Oken
Oken, 1817, Isis, p. 1782. Type Johnius ruber Bloch.

The genus is characterised by the presence of conical teeth in both
jaws. Lower jaw prominent. Second dorsal fin long. Body more
elongated than in Johnius and Dendrophysa. Caudal truncate or pointed.

Of the three species of Ofolithes recorded from Indian waters, 2
species occur along Visakhapatnam coast, O. ruber and O. argenteus.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Ofolithes

la. G.R. 8+16, Anal origin below 16th dorsal ray, air bladder with

25-26 much ‘branched: caecaeles. 2... occu oe eee tne ee ee ruber
1b. G.R. 4-7+9-12, Anal origin below 12th dorsal ray, air bladder
with’ 30-35: Cde@CaGe.oticcc nea einge un nieiei eevee nee argenteus

1. Otolithes ruber (Schneider)

Johnius ruber Schneider, 1801, Syst. Ichth.:75, pl. 17. (Type locality :
Tranquebar).

Diagnosis: D.X-+-I 28, A. II 7, P. 17, V.15.

Depth 29°68 ; head 28°96 ; snout 8°42; eye 6:26. The caniniform
teeth, so characteristic of the genus were missing perhaps because of
struggle in the boat seine in which it was caught. Lateral line curves
to above middle of anal. Anal origin below 16th dorsal ray. G.R.
8+16.

Colour: Light brown. Spinous dorsal with black edge, soft dorsal
and anal with grey edges. Other fins yellow.

Air bladder (Plate, 12, 12A and 12B). Day (1878) described the air
bladder of O. ruber as having 34 lateral processes ; the single specimen
examined had only 25 caecae on one side and 26 on the other. Each
caecum, is divided into 3 branches of which the main branch extends
perpendicularly to the lateral margin of the air bladder. From this
main branch are given off one dorsal and one ventral branch. Standard
length was 148 mm. and length of air bladder 71 mm.
Rare. The single specimen collected in May measured 148 mm.

| SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 345

2. Otolithes argenteus Cuy. & Val.

Otolithes argenteus Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830, Hist. Nat. Poiss., 5: 62.
(Type locality : Batavia, Malabar, Malacca).

Diagnosis: D.X-+I1 27-31, A. II 7, P. 14-16, V. 1 5, Vert. 25.

Depth 23°14 to 28°34 ; head 30°79 to 31°98 ; snout 6°76 to 8°37 ; eye
5:23 to 7°43. Lower jaw prominent. Operculum with 2 spines. No
pores either on snout or on chin. Teeth in upper jaw in villiform band ;
anteriorly one or two strong, curved long caniniform teeth, the outer the
largest. In mandible on each side, a strong curved symphysical
caniniform tooth placed between the 2 upper ones. Second anal spine
weak. Dark blotch on opercle. G.R. 4-7+9-12. , |

Colour: Brown with silvery reflections, darker along back. Edge of
dorsal dusky ; other fins yellowish.

Air bladder (Plate, 13, 13A, 13B and 13C): Anterior part of air bladder
is oval ; caecae 30 to 35. The number of caecae on the two sides may
be equal or there may be a difference of + 1 on one side. The caecae
are arranged close together with little space between. Each caecum is
much branched and one cluster of branches of each caecum is folded on
to the dorsal side of the air bladder. The branching of the caecae in-
creases with growth. Length of air bladder 35-22 to 49-02.
84 specimens between 44-1 mm. and 255-0 mm. were examined.

TABLE [|

MERISTIC DATA OF SCIAENIDS

Species | Dorsal Pectoral | Gill rakers | Vertebrae
Johnius carutta .. M+] 26-29 14-17 3-5-+7-10 25
J. aneus Mss X-+I 23-25 15-17 4-7+ 9-14 25
J. dussumierii bet CV 26-80 15-18 4-7-+10-14 25
J. belengerii X-+I 28-29 17 3-7++9 short 25
J. axillaris X+J] 25-29 15-18 9-12-+ 19-23 24
Nibea maculata X-+I 22-24 16-18 4-5+-7-9 25
N. soldado X-+I 23-26 15-17 4-7-+- 10-14 25
N. sina X-+I 26-29 15-19 5-7-+11-15 25
Dendrophysa du ssumierii X-+I 23-26 16-17 3-4+ 8-10 25
D. macroptera se :X+127-31 14-18 3-5+8-10 25
Otolithoides brunneus .. W%+I1 26 18 5+9 —
Otolithes ruber ah we XE EQS 17 8+16 —
O. argenteus ay X-+I 27-31 14-16 4-7+-9-12 25

Note.—The number of spines and rays in anal and ventra! fins is constant in all the
species and specimens examined : II 7, and I 5 respectively.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

DISCUSSION

Structure of Air Bladder and its relevancy to phylogeny and classification :

Trewavas (1962, 1964) has stated that the primary divisions of the
family Sciaenidae may be based on the ground plan of the air bladder
where this is complex, ‘ complex’ to mean such species in which the air
bladder has arborescent appendages.

Our studies on thirteen Indo-West Pacific sciaenids which occur at
Visakhapatnam on the east coast of India (western part of Bay of Bengal)
indicate the need for circumspection in accepting entirely Trewavas’
grouping of sciaenid species on the basis of the structure of the air bladder
and its relevance to phylogeny and classification :

1. Six species of three different genera—three species of Johnius :
dussumierii (Cuvier), belengerii (Cuvier) and carutta Bloch, one of
Nibea : sina (Cuvier), and two of Dendrophysa : macroptera (Blkr.) and
dussumierii (Val.) possess hammer-shaped air bladders with arborescent
appendages (Tribe Otolithini). If Trewavas’ principle were to be strictly
applied, then on the basis of similarity of air bladder, N. sina (and the
two species of Dendrophysa) would have to be considered closer to the
above three species of Johnius than to the other two species of Nibea
(vide 2 below) ; the above three species of Johnius would be closer to
N. sina and the above two species of Dendrophysa than to J. aneus Bloch.

2. Six other species of four genera : one of Johnius: aneus Bloch,
two species of Nibea : maculata (Schn.) and soldado (Lac.), one of Oto-
lithoides : brunneus (Day) and two species of Otolithes : ruber (Schn.)
and argenteus Cuvier have carrot-shaped air bladders with arborescent
appendages. Again, if Trewavas principle were to be applied, these two
species of Nibea (as also Otolithoides brunneus and the two species of
Otolithes) would have to be considered closer to J. aneus than to N.
sina. J. aneus would be closer to the above species than to the other
three species of Johnius (vide supra).

3. Johnius axillaris (Cuvier), 1830 possesses all the characters of
genus Johnius as defined by Trewavas (1964: 110) except that the air
bladder lacks arborescent appendages. Since she states that her
definition of Johnius ‘ excludes species with gas bladders of a different
pattern’ i.e. species with air bladder lacking arborescent appendages,
we would have to remove J. axillaris from the genus and from tribe
Otolithini and place it in tribe Sciaenini or perhaps with genus Larimus
because the simple air bladder of J. axillaris bears two (horn-like) out-
growths anterolaterally as in Larimus (vide Trewavas, 1962: 168, fig. 1A).
But probably Trewavas no longer recognises her tribe Otolithini (which
she created to include Johnius, Otolithes, Argyrosomus, Dendrophysa

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SCIAENIDAE OF VISAKHAPATNAM 347
and other genera having air bladders with arborescent appendages)
because Trewavas and Yazdani (1965) state that * the large and, diverse
subfamily Otolithinae’ (p. 249) is the ‘ group ranked as a Tribe,by
Trewavas in 1962’ (p. 249, footnote).

SUMMARY

Thirteen species of Sciaenids under five genera are recorded from
coastal waters of Visakhapatnam. For the first time an attempt to
distinguish the various species of Sciaenidae of Visakhapatnam coast on
the basis of differences in the general structure of the air bladder has been
made. Separate keys are given for various genera and species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Prof. P. N. Ganapati, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.L.,
F.Z.S.1., F.A.Sc. for excellent facilities and encouragement.

REFERENCES

BapaT, S. V. & Bat, D. V. (1950):
The food of some young fishes from
Bombay. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 35:
78-92.

*BLEEKER, P. (1863): Nederland
Tijdschr. Dierk.

*BLyTH (1860): Journ.
Bengal.

CHAUDHURI, B. L. (1923): Fauna of
Chilka Lake. Mem. Indian Mus. 5 (2):
724-726.

Cuu, K. Y. (1956): A review of
Sciaenoid Fishes of Taiwan. Report
Inst. Fish. Biol. Min. Econ. Affairs Nat.
Taiwan Univ. 1 (1): 13-44, 5 pls.

enw, Yo Ex Lo,-Y. Li & Wu E. L,
(1963): A study of the classification. of
sciaenoid fishes of China, with descrip-
tion of new genera and species pp. 1-il,
1-100, pls. i-XL (English summary pp.
83-94) Shanghai Fisheries Institute.

Day, F. (1878) : The Fishes of India,
London, I: 181-197, 2: 43-47 (Reprint
Ed., 1958).

Fowier, H. W. (1933): Contribu-
tions to the biology of the Philippine
Archipelago and adjacent regions. U.S.
Nat. Mus. Bull. 100 : 351-412.

Jacos, P. K. (1948): Sciaenids of the
west coast of Madras. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 48 (1): 118-124.

Jones, F. R. H. & MarsuHat, N. B.
(1951): The structure and functions of
the teleostean swim bladder. Biol. Rev.
28 : 16-83.

Lioyp, R. E. (1907) : Contributions

Asiatic. Soc.

* Not referred to in the original.

y

to the fauna of the Arabian sea. Rec.
Indian Mus. 4 (1): 1-12.

Munro, I. S. R. (1955): The marine
and fresh water fishes of Ceylon.
Canberra, Dept. Ext. Affairs.

PittAy, R. S. N. (1929) : Fishes from
Travancore waters. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 33 : 347-379.

RUSSELL, P. (1803) : Descriptions and
Figures of Two Hundred Fishes.
London.

SESHAPPA, G. (1956): Occurrence of
Johnius hololepidotus (Lacépéde) in
Indian waters. Curr. Sci. 15: 121-122.

SRIVASTAVA, P. N. (1955): Morpho-
logy and histology of the air bladder of
certain Sciaenoid fishes with the descrip-
tion of a new type of ear air bladder
connection. Proc. nat. inst. Sci. India.
21: 74-78.

TREWAVAS, E. (1962): A basis for
classifying the sciaenid fishes of tropical
west Africa. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 5:
167-176.

(1964): The sciaenid fishes
with a single mental barbel. Copeia,
12 107-117.

——— & YAzDANI, G. M. (1965):
Chrysochir, a new genus for the sciaenid
fish Otolithus aureus Richardson, with
consideration of its specific synonyms.
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 8: 249-255.

WesBerR, M. & De BEAuFoRT, L. F.
(1936) : The fishes of the Indo-Australian
archipelago, Leiden, 7: 481-547.

Notes on the Thysanoptera collected |
during western and southern India
Survey, 1962, with a Review of the
Thysanoptera complex of the Hosts

BY

K. V. LAKSHMINARAYANA
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(Communicated by Dr. B. Biswas)

ParRT I

I. INTRODUCTION

The author, while surveying some hilly and forest tracts in Kerala,
Madras, Maharashtra, and Mysore States as Liaison Officer to
Dr. E. S. Ross of National Geographic Society & California Academy
of Sciences’ Entomological Expedition to Tropical Asia during February-
April 1962, collected many species of insects in their natural state. The
collections include a good number of Thysanoptera from several host
plants, some of them new records to India and others collected on pla
hitherto not recorded as hosts.

The majority of Thysanoptera are phytophagous and a few predatory.
Most of them may be found on the surface feeding on the soft tissues of
flowers, shoots, and leaves; others live in galls on the plant body produced
by the reaction of the plant to the presence of the insect. According to
Mani (1964) ‘ the thysanopterous galls are predominantly leaf galls but
some remarkable bud galls and unique stem and flower galls are also
known’. Though the insects are found inside the galls, in fact these

‘insects remain external to the surface of the leaf and are gradually en-
closed in a cavity by a folding movement of the leaf margin, which pro-
duces the fold galls or roll galis. Sometimes button-shaped pouch galls
are also produced. The gallicolous forms may be either primary gall-
formers or ‘ inquilines ’ residing in the galls of other species of thrips or
other insects. Another interesting feature of some of them is that,
though they can stimulate the production of galls, they still behave as.
inquilines and stay in the galls of other species. Many species are steno-
phagous and are confined to a few related species of hosts with host pre-

‘THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA _ —349

ferences ; a few others have a wide latitude of hosts, i.e. they are poly-
phagous. The feeding may be confined to specific parts like leaves,
petals, etc., or it may be non-specific and extend to different parts of the
same plant or different parts on different hosts. Markkula’s (1953)
classification of hosts in the case of aphids is applicable to Thysanoptera.
According to him the hosts may be true hosts (brutwirte), pseudohosts
(scheinwirte), or non-hosts (nichtwirte). True hosts are those plants or
parts of plants on which the species develop and reproduce attaining
normal age. They may be primary, or secondary ; and permanent, or
temporary (on which, during a period of host-suitability, e.g., during
an outbreak or a seasonal peak on the permanent host, a sequence of
two to three generations develop), or accidental hosts (on which rarely
and sparsely one generation may develop). Pseudohosts are plants on
which a few nymphs may be borne which, however, do not attain maturity.
Non-hosts are plants on which no reproduction or development takes
place, but on which the longevity of the insect may be extended by a few
more days.

_ The habits and behaviour of phytophagous species is as important
as their identification. The observations presented below may be useful
for both pure taxonomists and applied workers. The literature on
Thysanoptera is scattered and probably inaccessible for an applied
entomologist and the changes that have been made in the nomenclature
often confuse him. Hence, in addition to remarks and important
synonymies under each species, a review has been given on the Thysano-
ptera complex of each host species recorded during the survey.

This paper has been arranged in two parts. Part I comprises the
Introduction; Review of Literature; Localities of collections; List
of species collected; List of their hosts and Notes on the species
collected. Part Il comprises the Thysanoptera complex of the host
plants recorded during the present survey.

II. Review oF LITERATURE

The earliest work on Indian Thysanoptera dates back to Newman
(1856) who described the two species Idolothrips halidayi and Phlaeo-
thrips anacardi, followed by one species by Kieffer (1908). We owe our
knowledge on Indian Thysanoptera chiefly to Bagnall, Hood, Karny,
Moulton, and Priesner, who described many new species from material
sent to them for identification by Indian institutes or workers.
Ramakrishna Ayyar (hereafter referred as Ramakrishna), the pioneer
Indian worker, brought many species of Indian thrips to light, particularly
of southern and western India. Later contributions were made by
Margabandhu, Shumsher Singh, and Seshadri, either independently or
along with other workers. Ananthakrishnan added much to our

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

knowledge since Ramakrishna, and published many papers including
several on new genera and species. Stray papers have been published
by Patel & Patel, Bhatti, Lakshminarayana et al., Stannard &
Ushakumari, etc. References on the earlier work on Indian
Thysanoptera have been well summarised by Ramakrishna &
Margabandhu (1940) and Margabandhu & Ananthakrishnan (1953).
An exhaustive review on the subject is not within the scope of the present
paper, hence, only those papers that have been cited here are given under
references. References of taxonomic importance are listed under each
species ; others are given at the end.

Jif. LOCALITIES OF COLLECTIONS

The Thysanoptera collections have been made in the following loca-
lities. The altitude is given in metres above mean sea-level.

Kerala : Munnar [1565 m.|

Madras : Coimbatore ; Kodaikanal [2125 m.];. Madras:
Mt. Stuart (Top-slip) [760 m.]; Ootacamund
(Ooty) [2678 m.]

Maharashtra: WHadpsara ; Mahabaleshwar [1461 m.] ; Poona.
Mysore : Jog (Gersoppa) Falls [258 m.]

IV. List OF SPECIES RECORDED

Species recorded during the survey are arranged alphabetically.
Those recorded for the first time in India are marked with a dagger [f+].
Those new to the National Zoological Collections of the Zoological
Survey of India are marked with an asterisk [*].

1. Aeolothrips collaris Priesner

2. Anaphothrivs flavicinctus (Karny)
3. Dendrothripoides ipomeae Bagnall
*4. Haplothrips ganglbaueri Schmutz
5. H. schultzei Priesner

6. Haplothrips sp.

7. Mallothrips indicus Ramakrishna
*18. Pnigmothrips medanensis Priesner

9. Retithrips syriacus (Mayet) .

10. Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood
*11. Taeniothrips nigricornis Schmutz
*12. Thrips kodaikanalensis Ananthakrishnan & Jagdish

13. Thrips Usothrips) orientalis Bagnall

“Ate

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA — 351

V. Host SPECIES

The collections were made on the following host plants :

1. Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L.
2. Araceae Pothos scandens L.
3. Combretaceae Terminalia sp. near marbellarica Roxb.
4. Compositae Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.
(Marathi : gazara)
5. Convolvulaceae Ipomoea campanulata L.
6. Gramineae Triticum vulgare Vill.
Th -do- Zea mays L.
8. Hypericaceae Hypericum mysorense Wight & Arn.
9. Leguminosae Sesbania grandiflora Pers.
10. Melastomaceae Tibouchina semidecandra Cogn.
11. Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
12. Moraceae Ficus religiosa L.
13% -do- Ficus sp. ? (Marathi : chatranz)
14. Oleaceae Jasminum mesnyi Hance [J. primulinum
Hemsl. |
15. Rosaceae Rosa spp.
16. Solanaceae Datura suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl.
GE -do- Solanum wighiii Nees
18. Thymelaeaceae Lasiosiphon eriocephaius Decne.
19, Verbenaceae Petraea volubilis L.

VI. NOTES ON SPECIES

Notes on the thrips recorded are given under each species. The
families are arranged following Priesner’s (1949) classification in alphabe-
tical sequence. The subfamilies, genera, and species are also arranged
under each family in alphabetical sequence. Under each species the
first reference and only the more important synonymies are listed. The
subfamilies included here are from different sources. All the specimens
except where otherwise stated have been preserved in alcohol. The
Zoological Survey of India has been abbreviated as Z.S.1. The
collector’s name has been abbreviated as K. V. L. Narayana for brevity.

Family AEOLOTHRIPIDAE Uzel
Genus Aeolothrips Haliday 1836
Aeolothrips collaris Priesner

1919 Aeolothrips fasciatus var. collaris Priesner, S.B. Akad. Wiss. Wien., 128,
p. 119 (March).

1919 A. fulvicollis Bagnall, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (9) 4, pp. 253-254 (October).

1942 A. fasciatus L., Shumsher Singh, Indian J. Ent., 4, pp. 112-114.

1948 A. collaris Priesner, Bull, Soc. Fouad Ent., 32, pp. 323, 324, 335 & 338.

1964 A. collaris Priesner, Bhatti, Bull. Ent.,5, pp. 17-18.

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Material: On Wheat (Triticum vulgare Vill.) (Reg. No. 3452/H8-2 exs) ; on
Artemisia scoparia Waldst & Kit. (2) (Marathi : gazara), (Reg. Nos. 3453/H8-
2 exs. & 4251/H8-1 ex.). Hadpsara, 9.11.1962, K.V.L. Narayana coll. |

Notes: The Z.S.I. has material from Manali to Kote, ‘ on broad leaves
(?) in streams’, Dr. A. P. Kapur coll.

Bagnall (loc. cit.) described this species as A. fulvicollis from material
collected on Verbascum flowers at Kanpur (India, A.D. Imms coll.).
Priesner (loc. cit.) described collaris as a variety of A. fasciatus Linn., and
recognised fulvicollis as a form of collaris (loc. cit.) ; thus the latter has
precedence over the former. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded it on Mango
flowers at Pusa (Bihar, D.P.S. coll.) ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu
(1931) on Saccharum officinarum ; Shumsher (loc. cit.) recorded it from
Delhi under A. fasciatus Linn., on Brassica campestris var. dichotami
and var. sarson (Cruciferae), Lathyrus odoratus, L. sativus flowers ; and
Medicago sativa leaves ; Patel et al. (1953) recorded it on leaves and. leaf
sheaths of S. officinarum and flowers of Allium cepa (onion) in January
from Poona, very near to Hadpsara from where the present collections
were made. Recently Bhatti (loc. cit.) discussed the taxonomic status of
A. collaris and A. fulvicollis with two new records on Centaurea cyanea
and Citrus spp. from Hoshiarpur (Punjab).

Both wheat and gazara,a compositae fodder crop, are two new hosts
recorded during this survey. On the former the thrips were confined to
the central shoots; on the latter it was found on young leaves and on
flowers. Incidentally, I may mention that on both hosts it was found in
association with another species, Anaphothrips flavicinctus (Karny).

Family THRIPIDAE Uzel
Subfamily Heliothripinae? Karny
| Genus Retithrips Marchal 1910
Retithrips syriacus (Mayet)

1890 Heliothrips syriacus Mayet, Insects de la Vigne, p. 451.
1910 R. syriacus (Mayet) Marchal, Bull. Soc. Ent. d’Egypte, p.7.
Material: On leaves of Ficus religiosa L. (Reg. Nos. 3456/H8-3 exs., 4266/H8-

3 exs.; and 4310/H8-several exs.; 4199-4200/H8-1 ex. each (on slides),
Coimbatore, 14.11I.1962, K.V.L. Narayana coll.

Notes: In the National Zoological Collections one slide (Reg. No.
1458 /H8) containing material from Bapatla (A.P. ) on cotton, June 1932,
A. R. Seshadri coll., is available.

. Shumsher Singh (1942) raised this subfamily to family rank.

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA 353

Seshadri & Ananthakrishnan (1954) first reported this species from
India on cotton leaves from Cuddalore (E. R. G. Menon coll.), Bapatla
(K. R. Mohan Rao coll.) and grape vine from Chingelpet (E. R. G. Menon
coll.); on leaves of Cassia auriculiformis and Acalypha indica from
Madras (T.N.A. coll.). Ananthakrishnan (1954 b) states that it is a
polyphagous, cosmopolitan species, with special preference to castor
and cotton leaves, and recorded two additional hosts, Pomegranate and

Bauhinia. This, author (1956) also worked out the host preferences as

well as its incidence on castor.

During the present survey another host, Ficus religiosa has been
recorded. The heavy incidence and the presence of all stages indicate
that this is a true and definitive host.

Genus Rhipiphorothrips Morgan 1913

Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood
1919 R. cruentatus Hood, Insec. Inscit. menst., 7, p. 94.

Material: On Rosa spp., Hadpsara, 9.11.1962 (Reg. Nos. 3454/H8-10 exs. ;
4250/H8-24 exs.); on Terminalia sp. near marbellarica Roxb., Jog Falls (258
m.s.!.), 18.11.1962 (Reg. Nos. 4192-4193/H8-1 ex. each (on slides) and 4265/H8-
2 exs.), K.V.L. Narayana coll.

Notes: Hood (loc. cit.) described this species from material collected

. on grape vine from Coimbatore and careya leaves from Ceylon. Karny

(1926) recognised this species from Ramakrishna’s collections from
calotropis flowers, grape vine, and rose leaves from Coimbatore, Lannea
coromandelica (Odina wodier) from Palur (Madras), and Syzygium

cuminii (Eugenia jambolana) from Maddur (Mysore State). Ramakrishna
(1928) on tender leaves of grape vine from Coimbatore, Vijayawada

[Bezwada : Andhra Pradesh], and S. cuminii from Bangalore and Lyallpur
(Pakistan) ; Rahman et a/. (1937) gave a list of host plants and worked

out its biology ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu (1939b) in addition to the
above, reported it on Punica granatum, Terminalia arjuna, Mangifera

indica, Prosopis spicigera from Lyallpur ; grape vine from Madura and

Travancore also (1931). Patel et al. (1953) in addition to 7. arjuna
recorded it on T. catappa at Anand ; Psidium guyava and Punica granatum
‘from Poona ; rose and grape at Nasik and Poona respectively. Lakshmi-

Narayana et on (1961) while recording it on grape vine (Vitis vinifera)
and country almond (7. catappa) from Bapatla; Rosa spp. at Araku
valley (Andhra Pradesh), also recorded two new hosts, Cashew and

Eucalyptus spp., at Bapatla.

During the present survey another species of Terminalia was recorded

‘as a host. This, like other Terminalia spp., is a true host. Heavy
“Incidence of this species on rose at Hadpsara was noted at the time of my

354. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

visit. Hitherto, this species was reported to attack only the leaves ;
during the present survey severe attacks on flowers were also observed.

Subfamily Panchaetothripinae Bagnall
Genus Dendrothripoides Bagnall, 1923

Dendrothripoides ipomeae Bagnall
1923 D. ipomeae Bagnall, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (9) 12, p. 625.

Material: On Ipomoea campanulata L., Madras, 8.1V.1962 (Reg. Nos. 3457/
H8-3 exs. and 4311/H8-7 exs.), K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: Inthe Nationa! Zoological Collections one slide is available with _
details as Ipomoea leaf, Trivandrum, Aug. 1955, T.N.A. coll. (Reg. No.
1784/H8). Bagnall (loc. cit.) described this species on Ipomoea staphy-
lina from Maddur (Ramakrishna coll.). Ramakrishna (1928) also
mentioned its occurrence at Maddur (Mysore).

No other host plant has been recorded so far and I. campanulata
is anewrecord. As this is a common hedge plant in south India, it is
possible that this species can be met with in other regions as well.

Subfamily Thripinae Karny
Genus Anaphothrips Uzel, 1895

Anaphothrips (Neophysopus) flavicinctus (Karny)

1912 Euthrips flavicinctus Karny, Marcellia, 1, p. 115.
1919 E. citricinctus Bagnall, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9) 4, p. 270.

1931 A. flavicinctus (Karny), Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, J. Bombay. nat.
Hist. Soc. 34 (4), p. 1036.

Material: On Zea mays (Reg. Nos. 3448/H8-7 exs. & 4246/H8-13 exs.) ; wheat
(Reg. Nos. 3449/H8-3 exs. ; 3450/H8-2 exs. and 4309/H8-3 exs.); and Arte-
misia scoparia Waldst & Kit. [Marathi: gazara] (Reg. Nos. 3451/H8-8 exs.;
4252/H7-3 exs.), Hadpsara, 9.11.1962, K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: This species is represented in the National Collections from
Shahjhanpur, on sugarcane, 20.1J1.1956, O. P. Singh coll., (Reg. Nos.
1583-1587/H8), and from Madras on guinea grass, Nov. 1955, T. N.
Ananthakrishnan coll., (Reg. No. 1781/H8) (on slides).

Originally described by Karny (loc. cit.) from Java. Bagnall (loc.
cit.) described the same as Euthrips citricintus from one female collected
on Arrowroot leaves from Taliparamba (Ramakrishna coll.). Rama-
krishna (1928) also recorded it on Sorghum vulgare shoots from
Coimbatore; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu (1931) on Pennisetum
typhoideum from Koilpatti (Madras) ; Shumsher Singh (1942) on paddy

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA 355

leaf sheaths, Pennisetum spicatum, Saccharum officinarum, Triticum
aestivum leaves, Zea mays (Gramineae), Lawsonia inermis, and tobacco
flowers from north India. Patel et a/. (1953) reported from many places
in erstwhile Bombay Presidency, namely on P. spicatum from Viramgam
and Detroz in September 1950, on leaves and leaf sheaths of Sorghum
vulgare from Poona, Nasik, Anand, Baroda, Detroz, and Borivili in
post-monsoon and early winter months; on TJ. aestivum at Poona,
Bombay, and N. Gujarat ; on Zea mays and other grasses from Poona
and N. Gujarat. In addition, they recorded it on Avena sativa and
Echinochloa stagnina at Poona; on leaves of Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine
coracona from Poona and Anand ; on tobacco, tomato, leaf sheaths
of Canna indica (Cannaceae), and flowers of Lagasca mollis (Lobeliae),
all from Poona. Ananthakrishnan (1960) recorded it on grasses at
Coonoor (5500 ft.) and Shembaganur, Kodaikanal (5000 ft.). Accord-
ing to the latter author this is one of the commonest species of grass-
inhabiting thrips exhibiting alary polymorphism with macropterous,
brachypterous, and apterous forms. Ananthakrishnan (1961) while
recording the degree of incidence of this species on Andropogon pertusus
and Panicum maximum states that it has special preference for guinea
grass (P. maximum) over other grasses.

One more host, gazara has been recorded now in addition to the
already known hosts, i.e. wheat and maize. While on maize and wheat
it was found mostly on the tender leaves particularly the central shoots,
on gazara it was collected both on tender leaves and on flowers. Further,
it was found associated in both cases with Aeolothrips collaris Pr.

Genus Taeniothrips Amyot & Serville, 1843
Taeniothrips nigricornis (Schmutz)

1913 Frankliniella nigricornis Schmutz, S.B. Acad. Wiss. Wien., 122, p. 1020.
1922 Taeniothrips longistylus Karny, J. Siam Soc., 16, p. 99.

1925 T. longistvlus Karny, Bull. Ent. Res., 16, p. 125.

1926 T. longistylus Karny, Mem. Dep. Agric. India, Ent., 9 (6) pp. 196.

Material: On Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem), Poona, 7.1I.1962 (Reg.
Nos. 3443/H8-3 exs. & 4253/H8-4 exs.) ; on Sesbania grandiflora Pers., (Reg.
Nos. 3444/H8-8 exs. & 4249/H8-8 exs.) ; on Hypericum mysorense Wight &
Arn., Kodaikanal (2125 m.s.1.), 28-29.11I.1962 (Reg. Nos. 4261/H8-1 ex.;
4262/H8-7 exs. and Reg. No. 4201/H8-1 ex. 2). (on slide), K.V.L. Narayana
coll.

Notes: The present collection is a new addition to the National Zoo-
logical Collections.

Ramakrishna & Margabandhu (1939a) recorded this species on
Mimosa pudica flowers from Wynaad Hills (2000 ft.). They consider

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

the possibility of the specimens of 7. Jongistylus described by Karny
also belonging to this species only. 7. Jongistylus was noted on flowers
of red gram (Cajanus indicus), Sann hemp (Crotalaria juncea), shoots of
neem (Melia azadirachta= Azadirachta indica), lucerne flowers from
Coimbatore, and cowpea (Vigna catiang) from Taliparamba (Malabar).
Ramakrishna (1928) also recorded it on groundnut flowers from
Bangalore ; Moulton (1928) on an unidentified plant from Buldana
(Berar, H. S. Rao coll.), and Ramakrishna (1934b) on sandal shoots are
other records. Bhasin et al. (1958) also listed Azadirachta indica as a
host of 7. longistylus.

Two new hosts have been noted during the present survey,
Sesbania grandiflora Pers. (Leguminoseae) and Hypericum mysorense
Wight & Arn. (Hypericaceae), in addition to neem. On neem it was ~
collected from the underside of the leaves ; on Sesbania and Hypericum
from flowers. The beautiful Hypericum flowers were badly infested at
the time of my visit. All the flowers had wilted due to desapping. Both
plants can also be classed as true hosts.

Genus Thrips Linnaeus, 1761

Thrips kedaikanalensis Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish
1966 T. kodaikanalensis Ananth. & Jagadish, Ent. Tidskrift 87. 1-27 : 85-99.

Material: On Datura suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl. (Solanaceae), Munnar,
(1565 m.s.1.), 20. 111.1962, (Reg. Nos. 4194-4196/H8-3 exs.) (on slides) & (Reg.
No. 4263/H8-12 exs.); on TVibouchina semidecandra Cogn., Kodaikanal,
28.111.1962 (Reg. No. 4264/H8-5 exs), K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: Originally recorded on an unidentified host plant.

According to Dr. Ananthakrishnan (personal communication) this
is one of the most common species of thrips in south India. Tibouchina
semidecandra Cogn. and datura may be classified as true hosts in view
of the abundance of the specimens as well as symptoms of attack on these
hosts.

Thrips (Isothrips) orientalis (Bagnall)
1915 isoneuroiiyins orientalis Bagnall, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8) 15, p. 593, pl.
32, fig: 1.

1926 Isoneurothrips orientalis Bagnall, Karny, Mem. Dep. Agric. India, Ent.,
9 (6), p. 197, pls. 17-18, figs. 1 & 8.

1940 Isothrips Priesner, Bull. Soc. Fouad Id’ Egypte, p. 54.
Material: On Jasminum mesnyi Hance [=J. primulinum Hense] Ootacamund

[Ooty]; (2678 m.s.1.), 11.111.1962, (Reg. No. 3458/H8-12 exs,; 4247/H8-3
exs.), K, V. L. Narayana coll, we

THYSANOPTERA. FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA: 357

Notes: The National Zoological Collections had a slide (Reg. No.
124/H8) of this species under Isoneurothrips orientalis Bagnall on Jasmine
flowers, Coimbatore, 1923, T.V.R. coll.

Bagnall (loc. cit.) described this species from material collected on a
white flower from Mt. Matanga, Sarawak (G. E. Bryant coll.). Unfor-
tunately, the specimen studied by Bagnall was imperfect. Hence, Karny
(loc. cit.) redescribed it after studying several specimens from flowers of
Morinda tinctoria and Jasmine in Ramakrishna’s collections from
Coimbatore. Ramakrishna (1928) also mentioned it on Jasmine.
Ramakrishna & Margabandhu (1939a) recorded it from Bombay and
Poona. Priesner (loc. cit.) created a new subgenus Jsothrips under genus
Thrips L., with I. orientalis Bagnall as the type of the subgenus. Patel
et al. (1953) also recorded it on Jasmine from Poona and it was also listed
by Mathur er al. (1960a) on Jasminum spp.

It is believed that J. mesnyi is a new host species, as it is a rare

plant and perhaps the earlier records are all on the usual ornamental
- varieties only.

Family PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE Uzel

Subfamily Cryptothripinae Karny

Genus Mallothrips Ramakrishna, 1928

Mallothrips indicus Ramakrishna

1928 M. indica Ramakrishna, Mem. Dep. Agric. India Ent., 10 (7), pp. 308-310,
fig. 31.

Material: On Ficus sp., Mahableshwar (1461 m.) 14.11.1962 (Reg. Nos.
3455 /H8-1 ex. ; 4248/H8-4 exs.), K.V.L. Narayana coll.

Notes: The Z.S.I. collections include two slides, one co-type slide
(Reg. No. 424/H8) with 2 exs. Eugenia sp. from S. India, T.V.R. coll.,
and another on Eugenia sp., Kanpur, Ramakrishna coll.

Ramakrishna (1928) described the new genus and species from
material collected by him in leaf galls of Syzygium cuminii (Eugenia
jambolana) from Coimbatore and identified them from specimens col-
lected by D. S. Chaudhury also from Kanpur on the fruits of the same
plant (?) (Ramakrishna 1934a). Ananthakrishnan et a/. (1965) while
recording this species on EF. jambolana from Tirupati (A.P.) &
Pondicherry, state that it has been hitherto believed to make galls on
Eugenia leaves but the actual gall producer is a psyllid. The adults
gain entry when the galls are dried and cracked.

The present record is from pouch galls also made by a psyllid on “thie
dorsal lamina of Ficus leaves.

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Subfamily Haplothripinae Karny

Genus Haplothrips Amyot & Serville, 1843

Haplothrips ganglbaueri Schmutz

1913 A. ganglbaueri Schmutz, S.B. Akad. Wiss. Wien., p. 1034.

1916 A. ganglbaueri Schmutz, Karny, Mem. Dep. Agric. India, Ent., 9 (6), pp.
217, fig. 18, pl. 21, Gig. 1).

1933 Haplothrips sp. Priesner, Rec. Indian Mus., 25 (4), p. 355.

Material: On Petraea volubilis L., Poona, 6.11.1962, (Reg. Nos. 3445/H8-3
exs. ; 4308/H8-1 ex.) ; on Solanum wightii Nees, Poona, 8.11.1962 (Reg. Nos.
3446 /H8-5 exs. ; 4312/H8-4 exs.), K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: This species is new to the National Collections. Karny (1926)
Studied this species collected by Ramakrishna on a wild plant at
Coimbatore. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded it on Jasmine flowers
from Kollegal. He observed the occurrence of apterous and
brachypterous forms also. Priesner (loc. cit.) dealt in detail with the
species of Haplothrips from Indo-Malayan region and mentioned that
this species occurs chiefly in Japan, Sumatra, and Krakatov Island.

The two hosts, Petraea volubilis L. (Verbenaceae) and Solanum
wightii Nees (Solanaceae), are two new hosts recorded now. On both
only the flowers were attacked. The infestation on Petraea was very
heavy. The thrips as well as aphids present at the time of the author’s
visit almost desapped the blue flowers and they turned brown and
scorched.

Haplothrips schultzei Priesner

1910 AH. aculeatus Schultze, Zool. anthropol. Erg. Porschungor Westl. O. centr.
Sud-afrika., 4, pp. 147-174.

1921-22 Haplothrips sp. Priesner, Treubia, 2, p. 17, fig. 7.

Material: On Mango, Poona, 8.11.1962 (Reg. No. 3442/H8-1 ex.), K. V. L.
Narayana coll.

Notes: This species is represented in the National Collections as H.
aculeatus F. collected on Cyperus sp. from Hokuto, Formosa, 5.XII.26,
Takahashi coll. (Reg. No. 132/H8-on slide).

Only a single example was collected on sweeping mango inflorescence.
Obviously, this host should be considered as nichtwirte (non-host),

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA — 359

Haplothrips sp.

1843 Haplothrips Amyot & Serville, Hist. Ins. Hemipt., p. 640.

1918 Haplothrips (Synonymy notes) Hood, Mem. Qd. Mus., 6, p. 126.
1921-22 Haplothrips (studies) Priesner, Treubia, 2, pp: 1-20, 7 figs.
1921-22 Priesner’s Haplothrips studies, Karny, Treubia, 2, pp. 21-36.

1933 Haplothrips (Indo-Malayan studies) Priesner, Rec. Indian Mus., 35 (3),
pp. 347-369. \

Material: On Lasiosiphon eriocephalus Decne., Mahabaleshwar (1461 m.),
14.11.1962 (8 exs. and 2 exs. on slide not registered), K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: The National Zoological Collections have slides of H. aculeatus
F. (now H. schultzei Pr.) on Cyperus from Formosa, R. Takahashi coll.
(Reg. No. 132/H8) ; H. ceylonicus Schmutz, from Buldana (Berar) H. S.
Rao coll. (Reg. No. 85/H8) ; H. euphorbiae Pr., on Euphorbia hirta from
Kallar, T.N.A. coll. (Reg. No. 2581/H8); H. gowdeyi (Franklin)
on lantana blossoms from Honolulu, Hawaii, O. H. Swezey coll., and
Haplothrips sp. on Peach, J. P. Chatrath coll.

Priesner (loc. cit.) gave a brief account on this genus and in 1933 dealt
with, in detail, the Indo-Malayan species. Karny (1926) discussed many
species of Haplothrips from India. Ramakrishna (1928) stated that this
genus is represented in India by numerous species and includes the com-
monest among tubulifera found in flowers. He added that some of them
are so very closely related to each other that it is often difficult to separate
them.

It was not possible to identify the specimens under report as they are

badly damaged. However, it may be mentioned that they inhabited
flowers.

Genus Pnigmothrips Priesner, 1953

Pnigmothrips medanensis Priesner

1953 P. medanensis Priesner, Treubia 22, pp. 357-380.

Material : On Pothos scandens L., Mt Stuart [Top-slip] (760 m.s.1.), 17.111.1962

(Reg. Nos. 4197-4198/H8-2 99 exs. (on slides) (Reg. No. 4267/H8-12 exs.),
K. V. L. Narayana coll.

Notes: This species is a new addition to the National Zoological
Collections and also a new record from India.

Priesner (loc. cit.) described it as a new genus and species, from
Sumatra (SE. coast) Batang Serangan Virgin forest, December 1923,
in leaf galls (herbarium No. 23), L. Fulmek coll. According to this
author, this genus comes close to Eugynothrips differing by the slightly
enlarged fore femora of both sexes, the unarmed fore tarsi of the male,
and the shape of the head and the contracted neck (hence Pnigmothrips).

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

The present material was collected in leaf galls on Pothos scandens
L. (Araceae). The leaves are folded over the mid rib on the epiphyllous
side, crumpled, twisted, and mottled badly. The infestation was so
heavy, that bunches of leaves were drooping and hanging loosely due to
desapping and gallformation. Old infested leaves finally become yellow
and brittle.

PART II

VIL. THYSANOPTERA COMPLEX OF THE RECORDED HOST PLANTS

The Thysanoptera complex of the host plants recorded during the
present survey is discussed hostwise arranged alphabetically according
to families.

ANACARDIACEAE
Mangifera indica L.

Bagnall (1919) mentioned Aeolothrips fulvicollis Bagnall (now A.
collaris Pr.) on mango flowers. Karny (1926) identified Haplothrips
ceylonicus Schmutz from Ramakrishna’s collection at Coimbatore.
Ramakrishna (1928) recorded Ramaswamiahiella subnudula Karny as
well as H. ceylonicus Sch. at Coimbatore and Anakapalli (A.P.). He
also described Liothrips kiriti from mango leaves. Ramakrishna et al.
(1939a) described Oxyrrhinothrips beharensis Ramk. & Marg., now
Thrips (Oxyrrhinothrips) beharensis (Ramk. & Marg), and recorded
(1939b) Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood on mango leaves and Podothrips
javanus Priesner on mango inflorescence from Coimbatore. Patel et al.
(1953) recorded Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood at Anand. Mathur & Singh
(1960b) in addition to the above also listed Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis
(Bouche) and Selenothrips rubrocincta (Giard) on leaves.

Haplothrips schultzei Priesner now recorded at Poona was found on
mango inflorescence. In the light of Markkula’s classification of host
plants this plant may be classified as Nichtwirte or non-host.

ARACEAE

Pothos scandens L.

_ Only two species are hitherto known to be associated with this plant,
namely, TJetradothrips folliperda (Karny), (Eothrips folliperda Karny),
and Mesothrips melinocnemus Karny from Taliparamba, causing leaf
galls. Ramakrishna (1928) states that in the case of the former species

/

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA 361

the foliage often suffers very seriously. The leaf rolls up longitudinally
and its colour gradually changes to a sickly yellow ; in the later stages
the galled leaf becomes brittle. Ananthakrishnan et al. (1965) recorded
Gynaikothrips pallicrus Karny from Pothos scandens leaf galls along with
the gall maker Tetradothrips folliperda (Karny) and Mesothrips melino-
cnemus Karny from Moodbidri near Mangalore (Mysore State).

Pnigmothrips medanensis Priesner, now recorded for the first time
from India, also produces galls on the leaves. The leaf folds on the
epiphyllous or axial side over the mid-rib, and becomes twisted, yellowed,
and brittle. It may be mentioned that the yellowing is gradual. This
plant in view of the heavy infestation appears to be a true host.

COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia sp. near marbeliarica Roxb.

No record of any species on this host is available. However, there
are records on closely allied species. Karny (1926) described Rhyncho-
thrips pallipes from Travancore collected by Ramakrishna in Megatrioza
hirsuta C. (Psyllidae) gall on Terminalia sp.,and Gynaikothrips. interlo-
catus Karny from the same locality and from psyllid galls. Ramakrishna
(1928) in addition to the above, mentioned Androthrips flavipes Schmutz
inside psyllid galls on Terminalia spp. He also described Rhipiphorothrips
karna on a related species T. catappa, from Malabar. Ramakrishna &
Margabandhu (1939b) reported the occurrence of R. cruentatus Hood on
T. arjuna. Patel et al. (1953) and Lakshminarayana et al. (1961)
recorded the latter species on T. catappa at Anand and Bapatla respec-
tively. The latter species of thrips is now recorded on Terminalia sp.
near marbellarica Roxb., during the present survey.

COMPOSITAE

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. [Marathi: gazara]

No record of any species on this fodder crop is available. Two
species, Aeolothrips collaris Priesner and Anaphothrips (Neophysopus)
flavicinctus Karny, were found infesting both the tender leaves as well as
flowers at Hadpsara (Maharashtra).

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea campanulata L.

No species has been recorded on this host plant.

Bagnall (1923) described Dendrothripoides ipomeae from a pened
host J. staphylina from Maddur. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded the
above species as well as Taeniothrips (Physothrips) minor (Bagnall) on
I, staphylina. Ramakrishna et al. (1939b) recorded Frankliniella

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

sulphurea Schmutz on Convolvulus flowers at Lyallpur, which is ex-
tremly polyphagous (Ananthakrishnan 1960). Patel et al. (1953) also
recorded the latter species on Ipomoea sp. and Achaetothrips mundus
(Karny) on sweet potato (U. batatas) at Poona. Mathur et al. (1960a)
listed Frankliniella persetosa Karny and Thrips japonicus Bagnall on
Ipomoea sp. si

GRAMINEAE
Tricticum vulgare Vill. and Zea mays L.

Ramakrishnothrips jonnaphilla (Ramakrishna) has been recorded
on Zea mays at Guntur (A.P.) by Ramakrishna (1928). Anaphothrips
flavicinctus (Karny) has been recorded on Zea mays cobs as well as Tri-
ticum aestivum by Shumsher (1942). Patel et al. (1953) recorded it on
Zea mays from Poona and N. Gujarat as well as on T. aestivum both
from the latter locality as well as Bombay. They also recorded A.
(Dantabahuthrips) sacchari Shumsher on Zea mays.

During the present survey Aeolothrips collaris Pr. has been recorded
on wheat (T. vulgare Vill.) for the first time along with A. flavicinctus
(Karny) at Hadpsara near Poona. The infestation was mostly confined
to the central shoots on both plants. They can be safely included under
true hosts.

HYyPERICACEAE —
Hypericum mysorense Wight & Arn.

No record of any thrips species is known from this host plant. The
plant is an ornamental one growing 4-6 ft. with fine yellow flowers,
extending from Konkan to Palni Hills at 3000-5000 ft.

Taeniothrips nigricornis (Schmutz) recorded during the present survey
from Kodaikanal is the only known species on this host plant, which
can be rightly included under true host category.

LEGUMINOSAE
Sesbania grandiflora Pers.

Karny (1926) recorded Eurhynchothrips ordinarius (Hood) from flowers
of this plant. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded Heliothrips indicus Bagnall
in addition to E. ordinarius on a related species, S. aculeata, and described
Brachythrips dirghavadana on another closely allied species, S. aegyptiaca.
Ananthakrishnan (1954b) described Perissothrips aureus from Rama-
krishna’s collections on S. aegyptiaca. Mathur et al. (1961) also listed
B. dirghavadana Ramk. and E. ordinarius (Hood) on S. aegyptiaca and

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA — 363

S. grandiflora respectively, the former on the foliage and the latter on
flowers. !

Thus the present record of 7. nigricornis (Sch.) adds one more species
associated with S. grandiflora. Infestation was confined to the flowers
only. This is a true host for this species.

MELASTOMACEAE
Tibouchina semidecandra Cogn.

No thrips has so far been recorded on this plant and Thrips kodai-
kanalensis Ananth. & Jagadish recorded now is the first known species
from this host. Most of the flowers were dried up due to desapping,,
which is clearly seen on the petals.

MELIACEAE

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

-Karny (1926) and Ramakrishna (1928) recorded Heliothrips haemor-
rhoidalis (Bouche) on the shoots of neem (Melia azadirachta) at
Coimbatore. The latter also noted Dicaiothrips (now Elaphrothrips
Buffa.) on Melia indica (now A. indica) from Dehra Dun (Champion coll.).
Bhasin et al. (1958) listed the above species only. Taeniothrips nigri-
cornis Sch., recorded during the present survey, has been collected on the
underside of the leaves, though on other plants it was collected from
flowers. A new host record for this common pest.

MORACEAE

Ficus religiosa L. and Ficus sp.

So far only two species of thrips, Dichaetothrips beesoni Moulton
(Moulton 1928, and Mathur et al. 1959) and Dendrothripiella (Projecto-
thripoides) pandai Shumsher (Shumsher 1942) were recorded on this host.
But many records from related hosts are known. Karny (1926) described
Mesothrips apatelus from Ficus retusa and mentioned two more species,
Gynaikothrips uzeli Zimm. and G. elegans Zimm. He also des-
cribed varieties of Androthrips flavipes Schmutz on the same host.
Ramakrishna (1928) mentioned G. elegans Zimm. on different species of
Ficus ; G. uzeli Zimm. on F. retusa ; Androthrips flavipes Sch. in leaf
‘galls of F. retusa along with G. elegans, and described Brachythrips
dirghavadana from retusa leaf galls; G. malabaricus from rolled banyan
leaves..(F.. indica) ; and. Mesothrips bhimabahu on.-retusa leaf galls.
Ananthakrishnan: (1951, 1960) recorded Gigantothrips ochroscelis

6

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Priesner on F. heterophylla and Cercothrips tibialis (Bagnall) on F.
bengalensis. Mathur et al. (1959) listed the above species on different
Ficus plants as well as two more species, Leptothrips constrictus Karny
and Mesothrips jordani on F. benjamina. Ananthakrishnan et al.
(1965) recorded Androthrips flavipes Sch., in galls on Ficus sp. pro-
duced by Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus Moulton and in the leaf galls
of F. benjamina produced by G. uzeli Zimm. from Calicut, Agumbe
Ghat Road, and Courtallum with peak incidence during January-
March; Arrhenothrips dhumrapaksha Ramk. from Agumbe Forest
Ghat Road (Mysore) in the leaf fold galls on F. retusa in galls resembl-
ing that of G. uzeli Zimm. ; the latter species from Burliar (Nilgiris),
Courtallum, and Agumbe Forest Ghat Road; G. malabaricus from
rolled tubular galls on Ficus sp., from Yercaud (Salem) and Guindy
(Madras); G. moultoni Ramk. from Salem on Ficus sp.; Liothrips
hradecensis Uzel on F. benjamina galls along with G. uzeli and A.
flavipes from Courtallum and Mesothrips ae Zimm. in leaf galls on
Ficus sp. at Courtallum.

The present record of Retithrips syriacus (Mayet) (of all stages) is
a new record on F. religiosa and this plant could well be considered as a
true host.

During this survey Mallothrips indica Ramakrishna, hitherto known
from Syzygium spp. (Eugenia) was recorded in psyllid galls on Ficus spp.

OLEACEAE
Jasminum mesnyi Hance. [=J/. primulinum Hems!l.]

This plant is an evergreen twiggy shrub, a native of Yunnan,
extensively cultivated throughout the Tropical and Sub-tropical parts of
the world. The flowers are solitary and primrose yellow in colour.
It is not known in the wild state in India but only grown as an ornamental
plant for its large scentless flowers, which appear from March to May.
The collections were made in the Botanical Gardens, Ooty. Being a rare
plant no record of any species on this particular host is available. How-
ever, records from other common cultivated varieties are available as
follows :

Karny (1926) noted Haplothrips ceylonicus and Thrips (Isothrips)
orientalis Bagnall on jasmine flowers. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded
Frankliniella sulphurea Schmutz, H. ganglbauveri Schmutz, and T. (J)
orientalis Bagnall on jasmine. Ramakrishna et al. (1939a) recorded
the last species on jasmine, and also another species Dendrothripiella
Jasminum, from jasmine. Ananthakrishnan (1953, 1954a) recorded H.
veroniae Pr. and Eothrips aswamukha Ramk. on jasmine leaf galls
(M. S. Mani coll.). Mathur et al. (1960a) also listed T. (J) orientalis

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA — 365

Bagnall and T. florum Sch. on jasmine flowers. The former is now re-
corded for the first time on J. mesnyi flowers.

a

ROSACEAE
Rosa spp.

Bagnall (1918, 1926) described Haplothrips tenuipennis and Thrips
melaneurus on rose from Darjeeling. Karny (1926) mentioned
Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded
Taeniothrips (Physothrips) andrewsi Bagnall and T. brunneicornis
(Bagnall), 7. (Physothrips) lefroyi Bagnall, and Thrips florum Sch. Rama-
krishna et al. (1939a) recorded Frankliniella sulphurea Schmutz.
Shumsher Singh (1945) described Taeniothrips rhopalantennalis on rose
(M. S. Mani coll.). Ananthakrishnan (1953) identified Thrips florum Sch.
from specimens collected by K. K. Nayar, from Trivandrum ‘ causing
galls on leaves of rose ’ and states that this is the first record of the species
on this plant causing galls. He (1960) recorded this species on Rosa
spp. at Ooty ; T. tabaci Lind. and T. melaneurus Bagnall on Rosa bankia
at Kodaikanal. Mathur et al. (1960c) also listed the above species.
Lakshminarayana et al. (1961) recorded R. cruentatus Hood on Rosa
spp. at Araku Valley (A.P.).

During the present survey R. cruentatus Hood was found infesting
and feeding on rose flowers, in addition to the leaves.

SOLANACEAE
Datura suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl.

Popularly known as Angel’s Trumpet, this handsome shrub growing
to a height of 10-15 ft. and native of Mexico is grown in Indian gardens
for its 8-12 inch long sweet-scented, drooping flowers. It blooms during
the hot season. So far, no thrip species is recorded on this host.

Only two species are hitherto recorded on closely related species,
Karny (1926) and Moulton (1929) recorded Frankliniella sulphurea
Sch. on datura flowers. Ramakrishna (1928) recorded Tryphacto-
thrips rutherfordi (Bagnall) on datura flowers and Ramakrishna et_al.
(1939a) recorded F. sulphurea Sch. on D. fastuosa. Mathur et al. (1959)
listed 7. rutherfordi (Bagnall) on datura flowers.

Thrips kodaikanalensis Ananth. & Jagadish is now recorded for the
first time on D. suaveolens.

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2}
‘Solanum wightii Nees

No thrips is known to attack this plant and the present record of
Haplothrips ganglbaueri Sch., on both flowers and leaves, is the first
record.

THYMELAEACEAE
Lasiosiphon eriocephalus Decne.

This small tree or much-branched shrub (1°8-3°0 m.) is found in open
forests on the hills of the Deccan and Western Ghats from Konkan south-
wards to Kerala, Nilgiris, Palnis, and Tinnevelly Hills at altitudes of
1200-2100 m. ; with small yellow flowers densely arranged on a terminal
inflorescence. It yields a fibre useful in paper technology and serves as
a fish poison. It causes dermatitis to human beings and ft is of
considerable medical importance also.

No Thysanoptera has so far been recorded on this plant and the only —
known record is the present case of Haplothrips sp. As the specimens
are all damaged, they could not be identified further.

VERBENACEAE
Petraea volubilis L.

No Thysanoptera has been recorded on this plant. Heavy infestation
of Haplothrips ganglbaueri Sch. and aphids completely desapped the
flowers, which appeared scorched. This is the only known case of thrips
infestation on this plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

~ Tam very much indebted to Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological
Survey of India, for giving me an opportunity to survey western and
southern India, and Shri K. S. Pradhan, Superintending Zoologist, for
encouragement and help during the work. I am deeply grateful to
Dr. T. N. Ananthakrishnan, Director, PL. 480 Thrips Scheme, Loyola
College, Madras, for his help in the identification of the thrips material,
and to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for the identi-
fication of some of the host plants mentioned in this work.

THYSANOPTERA FROM WESTERN & SOUTHERN INDIA

367

|

REFERENCES ..

* ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N. (1951):
Indian J. Ent., 13 (2) : 193.
——— (1953): Notes on some
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[1952].

(1954,a) : The Bionomics of
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ramakrishnae Hood. Agra Univ.
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(1954, b): New and little
known Indian Thysanoptera. J. Zool.
Soc. India 6 (2) : 159-166, 2 figs.

——_——~ (1956) : On the incidence of
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33-35.

— (1960): Thysanopiera from
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578, 6 figs.

(1961): A review of some
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description of news species. ibid., 58
(2) : 420-423, 1 fig.
———— & JaGavisy. A. (1966):

Studies on some species of the genus
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——— & RAMAMURTHI, B. N.
(1965): Gall-inhabiting Tubuliferous
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BAGNALL, R. S. (1918) : Brief descrip-
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——— (1926): Brief descriptions of
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BHASIN, G., ROONWAL, M. L. &
SINGH, B. (1958): A list of Insect pests
of forest plants in India and adjacent
Countries pt. III. Indian For. Bull, Ent.
(N.S.) 171 (2) : 1-126 [1956].

Karny, H. (1921): Zur Systematik
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————— (1926): Studies on Indian
Thysanoptera. Mem. Dep. Agric. Indian
Ent. 9 (6): 187-239, 8 pls.

KieEFFER, J. J. (1908) : Descriptions de
galles et d’ insectes gallicoles d’ Asie.
Marecellia 7 : 149-167, 4 figs., 3 pls.

LAKSHMINARAYANA, K. V., KRISHNA-
MOORTHY, C. & DHARMARAJU, E. (1961):
Further Additions to the Host Index of
Thysanoptera from Andhra Pradesh.
Andhra Agric., J. 8 (6): 291-294.

MANI, M. S. (1948) : Cecidozoa and
Zoocécidea from India. J. Asiatic. Soc.
Bengal (Sci.) 14 (2).

——— (1964): The Ecology of
Plant galls. Dr. W. Junk publ., Hague.
1-434, 164 figs., 9 pls.

MARGABANDHU, V. & ANANTHA-
KRISHNAN, T. N. (1953) : Annotated list
of Indian Thysanoptera (Supplement).
Indian J. Ent. 15 (3) : 183-190.

*MARKKULA (1953): Biologischoko
logische Untersuchunpen tiber die Kohlbl-
attlaus, Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) (Hem.,
Aphididae). Ann. Soc. zool.-bot. Fenn.
Vanamo, 15 (5) : 1-113.

MatTHur, R. N. & SINGH, B. (1959) :
A list of insect pests of Forest plants in
India and the adjacent Countries. Indian
For. Bull. Ent. (N.S.) 171 (4): 1-165.
(1960, a) ibid. 171 (5): 1-91 [1959].
(1960, b) ibid. 171 (6): 1-148 [1959].
(1960, c): ibid. 171 (7): 1-130 [19304
(1961) : ibid. 171 (8): 1-88 [1960].

MouLtTon, D. (1928) : New Thysanop-
ee from India. Indian For. Rec. 13 (6) :
1-8.

(1929) : Thysanoptera from
India. Rec. Indian Mus., 31 (2) : 93-100,
2 figs.

NEUMAN, E. (1856): Characters of
two undescribed species of Thrips Linn.
Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 3 : 264-267.

PATEL, N. G. & PATEL, G. A. (1953):
Host plants, distribution and abundance
of Thrips (Thysanoptera) of Bombay
State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 (3):
597-607.

PRIESNER, H. (1949) : Genera Thysano-
pterorum with keys for the Identification
of the Genera of the order Thysanoptera.
eos Soc. Fouad, I er Entom., 33: 31-
157;

RAHMAN, H. A. & BHARDWay, N. K.
(1937) : The Grape vine Thrips (Rhipi-
Phorithrips cruentatus Hood) (Thripidae :
Terebrantia : Thysanoptera). Indian J.
Agric. Sci., 7 : 633-651, 3 pls.

RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR, T. V. (1928):
A contribution to our knowledge of the
Thysanoptera of India. Mem. Dep.
Agric. Indian Ent. 10 (7): 217-316, 33
figs., 2 pls.

———— (1934a): Notes on Indian
Thysanoptera with descriptions of new
species. Rec. Indian Mus. 36 (4): 491-

498, 2 pls.

*_ (1934, b): Entomological
investigations on the spike disease of
Sandal (21). Thysanoptera. Indian For.
Rec. 20 (4): 12 pp. |

~_——— & MARGABANDHU, V. (1931):
Notes on Indian Thysanoptera with brief
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nat, Hist. Soc. 34 (4) : 1029-1040.

* Original not seen.

i

368

RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR, T.V. & MARGA-
BANDHU V. (1939a): Notes on new and
known Indian Thysanoptera. Rec. Indian
Mus. 41 (1): 21-33.

——— & ———_—- (1939b) : Notes on
some Indian Thysanoptera with descrip-
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5-48.

—— (1940) : Catalogue of
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SESHADRI, A. R. & ANANTHAKRISHNAN,
T. N. (1954): Some new Indian Thy-
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———— (1945) : Studies on the Syste-
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The Yellow-wattled Lapwing,
Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert),
a tropical dry-season nester

III. Two further seasons’ breeding
BY

S. D. JAYAKAR! AND H. SPURWAY?

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa,
Bhubaneswar-3, Orissa, India

(With two plates and two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

In two previous papers (Jayakar & Spurway 1965 a and b—hence-
forth referred to simply as a and b respectively) we have presented data
on the breeding biology of Vanellus malabaricus (Bod.) collected in
Bhubaneswar, Orissa, during the two years 1963 and 1964. This paper
adds and discusses the data collected during the years 1965 and 1966.

We have followed Ripley (1961) in accepting Bock’s (1958) submer-
gence of genera relevant to this discussion in Brisson’s genus Vanellus.
However, the generic names used in the publications which we cite will
be given.

However, the species here considered differs considerably from
several previously described. For comparison with the well known
Palaearctic Vanellus vanellus (L.) we rely on a recent account by
Nethersole-Thomson (1961) which we will refer to henceforth as N-T,
and for the South African species V. armatus (Burchell), classified in
‘the genus Hoplopterus, on Hall (1959 and 1964).

DESERTION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF TERRITORIES

Nesting activities have rapidly disintegrated with the beginning of the
monsoon in mid-June. This is not an abrupt date in this part of India.
No month is entirely without rain, and sufficient rain falls in a satis-
factory year for rice planting to have begun before the rain due to the

Present-address : 1 Institute di Genetics, Universita di ‘dae Pavia, Italy,
* Habshiguda-16, Hyderabad-7, A.P

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

wind called the monsoon. With the increasing rain in June, birds who
have not reared a brood have continued to lay. These late clutches not
only have not hatched, but usually disappear within a few days, though
in 1966 a clutch of 4 persisted 19 days the last egg being laid between
17°35 on 25/vi and 08°52 on 26/vi, and the clutch disappearing
between 18:04 on 15/vii and 12°58 on 16/Vvii.

The parent birds with their full grown, flying, but mottled, chicks
disappear from their territories (Plate I, Fig. 1 shows a 21 day old chick,
not yet flying). Small flocks, some of which are too large to be family
parties have been seen into July in the gardens described in a and b.

From this time until the latter half of September, malabaricus is
absent or much rarer in the locality studied (see map in D).

During this time they could always be found on the waste land defi-
nitively outside the town, in flocks of not more than 12 individuals. This
is a major difference from vanellus of which flocks of 200 have been
counted (N-T) in the breeding area, but outside the breeding season.
The flocks of armatus may reach 40, and, from Hall’s map (1959, p. 118),
seem to be concentrated in a smaller and more urban area than the
breeding pairs. Hall writes of flocks ‘ dispersing’ to breed.

The distances moved by an individual malabaricus, though regular
in time, are perhaps too small for the species to qualify even as a local
migrant, whereas vanellus is a typical migrant wintering over the old
world roughly as far south as the Tropic of Cancer (Baker 1929). This
important difference between the two species seems an ecological adapta-
tion.

From mid-September such flocks of malabaricus have returned to
the study area in increasing numbers. The number of individuals in
a flock have steadily decreased as the breeding season approached. In
January, the earliest month in which eggs have been recorded, 3 birds
have been observed together without any display. The area exploited
for breeding seemed to become divided into territories solely by the
disappearance of this third bird, and immediately after the reduction of
a group to two, copulation, scrape making, agonistic behaviour and
laying began at once. No common ground was observed to exist
between which and their several territories the several pairs could move
freely, as described by Howard (1920) for vanellus.

These processes are surprisingly undemonstrative. The species nests
within 27 m. of the house, and has been watched sufficiently often at
sufficient hours and seasons to be certain that there is no aerial display
like that of vanellus (N-T) which has given that species and by extension
the whole subfamily one of its English names.

~ No agonistic behaviour to separate males nor courtship to hold
females within a territory has been observed. Very few scrapes have
been recognised with certainty which were never used for eggs. How-

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 371

ever, there was once in 1965 a gap of 38 days between our recognising a
scrape and our first finding an egg in it, although the pair concerned
(No. 13) hadin the intervening period made, laid, and lost eggs in,
another scrape. Courtship of unmated females by the making of several
scrapes which are displayed, or in which the males display, only one of
which is selected and used, as is performed by vanellus (N-T) and armatus
(Hall 1964) is not important, at least in this population of malabaricus.

That courtship has not been observed may be because pairs have
been relatively permanent (5b and below) though N-T implies that when
male and female vanellus return to a territory which they themselves
have held and used during a previous season, they arrive separately, and
the male courts the female, among others, like a stranger.

AREA AND PERSISTENCE OF TERRITORIES

In 1964 (b) 2 territories were entirely in the area under observation,
in 1965, 4 and in 1966, 2. We have previously described (b) how and
why the perimeter of a territory has altered during a season, as the
birds literally lost interest in parts of it because their activities were
concentrated elsewhere.

Territorial boundaries have, so far, always been surrendered by
default, and not after one or more displays of agonistic behaviour.

The average area surrounded by these 8 maximum perimeters is
4:10-+0°54 hectares, or just over 10 acres. Hall (1959) calculated the
minimum area of territory for the Cape Spurwing V. armatus as follows,
‘No nests have been found simultaneously occupied by pairs closer
together than c. 400 yards. Thus the minimum territory size may be
estimated at 40,000 square yards’. How he obtains the latter figure is
not explained. We would calculate as follows. Assuming theoretically
a grid of nests all equidistant from each other, with each territory being
a regular hexagon with the nest as the centre as shown in Fig. 1, the area

x? ./3

of each territory in this figure would be 7 where x is the distance

between two proximate nests. ?

Though we know that malabaricus nests tend to be at the edge of
territories, we have graphed (Fig. 2) the distances between contem-
poraneous nests, from our 1964 and 1965 maps (nests were not mapped in
1966). This gives a multimodal histogram. Most of the largest dis-
tances on the extreme right are those in which another nest could be
reasonably considered as being between the two considered. This is
biologically not meaningful. The smallest distance, on the extreme left,
is the only one recorded in 1963. It is included because it is an extreme
value. There was a natural boundary, a hedge, between the two nests
(map in a). The other two distances in the left-most group had only

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

kutcha roads (or bridle paths) between them. However, these paths
may have been used sufficiently to have imposed boundaries accepted
by the birds. Taking therefore the next mode, i.e.. the interval 120-125 m.,
its mid point is at 112°5. Taking 112°5 as x we obtain the minimum

Text Fig. 1 (see text).

territory size for malabaricus as 1°10 hectares, or 2:7 acres. Nesting
armatus adults may fly long distances to feed, whereas vanellus has
communal feeding grounds close to its nesting territories. The terri-

SY 19.63 (| 1964 | 1965 YJ ANOTHER NEST IN. BETWEEN

Wiz] 3 14"

2” 13°

pebbled
LA

Text Fig. 2. Distribution of distances (in m.) between contemporaneous nests :
in 1964, 1965 and 1966.

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 373:

tories of malabaricus, which: we believe they do not leave, once
established, are a little smaller than those of armatus and larger than those.
of vanellus. Even in the dry season insect life is extremely rich in ek
area, some parts being carpeted with termite galleries. .

Nesting pairs have been numbered serially continuing the series from.
year to year so that a number represents a pair-season and, when in doubt,
during a season. We have renumbered (6)—so the figures for these are
almost certainly too high. However, we have excellent evidence that
some of the birds were the same individuals who had occupied the same:
area in previous years, recognised mainly by wattle and resting wing:
characters such as are discussed in a. One male in particular was re-
cognisable as he had (1) a damaged right leg, which was held at an angle.
when he was standing, caused a limp when walking, and dangled in
flight ; (2) a cleft in his wattle ; and (3) a broad black band on his left
flank and none on his right. This male has now occupied the same
territory with, perhaps minor alterations of boundary in three seasons,
1964 when he was numbered 6, 1965 when he was numbered 12 and 1966
when he was numbered 21. The female of pairs 6 and 12 was probably
the same individual (on wing pattern). After his chick had hatched in
1965 this female, 12, disappeared and was not seen for the rest of the:
season. Male 12 reared at least one chick to flying, single-handed. This
is exceptional in malabaricus though N-T states it to be frequent in
vanellus. The female of pair 21 in 1966 was recognisably different.

The location of territories can be constant for several years even when
_ thesé were occupied by different pairs. A single pair numbered 3 in
1964 and 10 in 1965 used a territory extending over two gardens (see map
in b) which was almost the same as that held by a different pair 1 (see
map in a) in 1963, except that in 1964 and 1965 the territory extended
through the roughly east-west hedge which in 1963 had been the scene of
boundary display and even fighting between pairs | and 2. In 1966 a
third pair (17) held a territory which coincided with that held in 1964
and 1965 except that the area south of the hedge was further enlarged and
nests. were made in it for the first time.

Such constancy is probably because a territory is determined be the
presence of a certain number of amenities. Of these, the water source,
a garden tap has been discussed in a and b. Such a water source can
usually be found in a malabaricus territory. It is possible that the
various water supplies introduced in the area for byline have acaa an
attraction to a Speciest: : Se : :

nhs BREEDING ECONOMY | i

—_ nests have 1 now been. observed which: consisted of ait dna
clods of soil (Plate I, Fig. 2), not of the more usual, oavel or in (Plate
WH; -Fig; 3)..:

374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (2)

The earliest date on which an egg has been found was in 1965 on 20/i.
The average maximum and minimum temperatures that year for 15 days
with this date as midpoint were 28°3° C and 17°3° C. During the breed-
ing season the maximum and minimum air temperatures rise to about
40° C and 30° C. The soil temperatures on which the birds actually
incubated rise to over 60° C (5).

We have found no eggs contradicting the description made in a,
though slight differences in ground colour and the amount of spotting,
are, as would be expected, characteristic of females. Though all these
eggs have been laid on typical bright red lateritic soil we have not yet
found the erythristic ‘phase’ which Baker (1929) considers to be an
adaptation to this habitat, and which in mixed populations he considers
associated with a capacity to select the ground for a scrape so that the
eggs laid in it will be cryptic.

The distribution of the records of clutch size is shown in Table 1.
Four is the maximum and also the commonest class. We consider c/4
represents a complete clutch as is commonly observed in plovers.
However, if 6°3% of clutches are c/5 as N-T has observed in his popula-
tions of vanellus, their absence in a sample of 36 is not significant,
especially if, as N-T suggests, they are produced by one or more geno-
typic variants.

For the 7 completed clutches which we have timed completely the
laying took 5 days, i.e., the 4th egg was laid 4 days after the Ist. The
interval of 2 days between consecutive eggs has occurred between any
2 of the series. However, the 4th clutch produced by pair 12 (12’ ’ ’)
consisted of 2 eggs on 13/v and 14/v/65, 3 on 15/v and 16/v while the
4th egg was only laid on 17/v, i.e., 6 days was the minimum period over
which it could have been laid.

Table 1 also shows the fate of the eggs. After an incomplete clutch
has been lost, the scrape has, with one exception, been deserted.
Table 2 shows the timing of clutch replacement. The figures in the
body of the table show the number of days between the loss of the
first clutch and the laying or finding of the Ist (or for the 3 figures in
brackets the finding of 2 eggs) of the immediately replacing clutch.
A line over the figures indicates that the lost clutch was complete, a
line below that the replacement clutch was judged complete, for this
table, by the birds ceasing laying. The lowest value for this interval
when the first clutch was complete is 7 which is, however, a bracketed
figure, i.e., a female can recommence laying after 6 or conceivably 5
days. However, this figure was exceptional and 8 or 9 are more usual.
The exception was, perhaps significantly, the same clutch 12’ ’ ’—the
later ovipositions of which were unusually drawn out. When the
first clutch was incomplete’ the female delayed much less, probably
only long enough to select a new nest site, In such cases the new

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) PLATE I

Jayakar : Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Fig. 1. Chick from nest V.m. 21—age 21 or 22 days.
[labelled 3]

Fig. 2. Nest V.m. 17’—a typical nest lined with pebbles.
[labelled 4]

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) PLATE II

Jayakar : Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Ris

Fig. 3. Nest V.m. 23—an atypical nest lined with
clods of dried earth. [labelled 2]

Fig. 4. Nest of Vanellus indicus (V.i. 1) containing one egg.
[labelled 1]

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 375

scrape was barely recognisable when the first egg was laid in it. The
interval on the one occasion when the same scrape was immediately
reused was 3 days. After these short intervals the replacing clutch
never contained more than the number of eggs necessary to complete
the lost clutch, that is to say the two clutches together never contained
more than 4 eggs. Therefore these clutches seem produced by the
Same ovarian cycle as the lost clutch. These supplemental clutches
may therefore be added to those judged completed, even if they, in
their turn, have disappeared before this can be confirmed by the
subsequent behaviour of the parents. In the light of this added con-
sideration we have in Table 1 divided clutches containing less than 4
eggs into those judged incomplete and those judged complete.

TABLE |
incomplete clutches completed clutches
CP hele tis TS AV sd ee eared
No. clutches Me Stns 3 2 I 3 5 19° = 36
No. eggs lost toe | 4 6 1 4 8 28jiai. 52
No. taken by predators .. 2 = 7
No. found broken ae | 2 1 4.
No. deserted. Pat bi a 8
No. hatched rt 30) 0 0 0 2 5 35 42
No. flying ie 1 2 11 14
(113)

As Table 1 reveals the majority of eggs simply disappear. How-
ever, we have seen 7 eggs taken by predators or being eaten by them
close to the nest. These were a snake Zamenis sp. and the two common
crows Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler and C. splendens Vieillot. We
suspect there may be other predators, especially during the night.
We have also found vestiges of at least 5 broken eggs suggesting the
crumbs left by marauders. Eight eggs were found deserted in the nest,
or it was judged that this would have happened if they had not been
collected earlier. The deserted egg classed as belonging to an in-
complete clutch represents the one uncertain classification. This,
the only egg of family 18, and found on 6/ii might not be the first egg
of an incomplete clutch but an addled egg of a clutch of which others
had hatched just before it was discovered, but, if so, this egg must
have been laid about 5/i, i.e. 15 days earlier than an egg has yet been
found.

When comparing the hatchability of the different sized clutches,
it is necessary to omit the 15 incomplete clutches, for, these were in-
complete precisely because ey were lost before they were completed.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

“There is. then no significant difference between the supa success
of 2, 3 or 4 egg clutches. |

On three occasions a fresh clutch was laid after the previous one
had hatched. The intervals between the last hatch and first egg of
the subsequent clutch were 35, 40 and 62 days. During the two shorter
intervals the parents were leading the chicks of the first clutch, but
during the longest intervals these must have died about 40 days before
the new eggs were found. This long functionless delay was made
by the same pair who delayed 34 days after a completed clutch had
disappeared before starting a new one (Table 2). This was pair 17

TABLE 2

c/4 c/3 c/2 c/2

8 (7) 14.34) 9

c/4 ——— —— —_- —
Replacement 8
clutch c/3 —
9 (3) 2
c/1

explanation in text.

who, in 1966, occupied the territory which included our own garden. It
was therefore entirely available for supervision, so these two delays
cannot be explained away by assuming that clutches had been missed.

On one occasion (in 1964 by pair 3—see b), young were reared from
two clutches during the same season. This has been recorded for armatus
(Hall 1964) but is assumed never to occur in vanellus, thus simplifying
demographic calculations (Lack 1954),

On only three occasions have eggs been laid in a scrape not newly
made during the previous few days : in 1964 when those of pair 7 (per-
haps pair 4), c/4 was found on 13/5 in the scrape from which the eggs
of pair 4 had been found missing on 19/ii (6) ; in 1965 when pair 13 laid
on 4/iv in a scrape first recorded on 25/11 after having laid and lost one
clutch elsewhere in the intervening period ; and when pair 10 laid an egg
on 12/vi in the same scrape from which an incomplete c/3 had been lost
on n 9/vi.

Tn 1966, 7 eggs were marked with Indian ink, Only 2 hatched, being
iaia. on -26/iv and 28/iv, and hatching on 25/v and 26/v respectively.

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER ‘377

Adding these to the 17 other eggs which have hatched in clutches of
which we are sure of the laying date of all the eggs and assuming that
eggs in a clutch hatch in the order they were laid :

2 have hatched in 30 days

ws ; 6 99 29 29 29 29
6 29 29 a) 28 99
5 56 29 99 2d 29

All 4 eggs have hatched in 5 clutches ; the interval between the hatch-
ing of the first chick and the removal of the last egg shell was, for pair 1,
23 hours 10 min. (d) ; the interval between the day of first finding a chick
(often more than 1) and the nest emptying was, for four nests (2, 7, 11
and 13’) 1 day, and for one (5) 2 days. However, 3 days intervened
between the first and the last hatch of the 3 surviving eggs of clutch 6’.
These intervals are less than the 4 days between the Ist and 4th lay, con-
firming b that some synchronisation of hatching exists. We have also
confirmed that this synchronisation is not achieved by delaying in-
cubation, as it seems to be by species in colder habitats.

On three occasions we have found eggs outside their scrapes. On
two they were found returned next day but in each scrape the appropriate
number of eggs failed to hatch and were abandoned in the nest suggesting
they had been killed by exposure. The third egg was collected, and
after unsuccessful incubation an embryo was found in it at the develop-
mental stage to be expected on this hypothesis. All these further data
confirm our previous observation (a and b) that the environmental
temperatures demand that the parents shade the eggs and sometimes cool
them in other ways.

Table 1 also shows the hatching and flying success in the 3 breeding
seasons 1964-66. The proportion of all eggs which hatched was +42,
(or 37%) and the proportion of completed clutches 42 (or 42%). Only
14 (33 %) of these chicks are known to have flown. The overall breeding
success is thus either 12% or 14%.

Table 3 includes the same data arranged according to years.
Fourteen young were therefore produced in the three seasons 1964-66
pair-seasons, and the breeding success seems to be declining. This
is emphasised, and perhaps explained, by other data presented in this
table. In 1964 some members of the first and last clutches that were
found hatched. In 1965, 27 days elapsed between the discovery .of the
first egg and the laying of the first clutch that was successful. This clutch
was the 5th found. Similarly 3 clutches during 20 days were found
after the last that was even partially successful. These 2 intervals have
become even greater in the 1966 season, as have the proportion of in-
complete to completed clutches. Three of these incomplete clutches in
1966 and the extension of the laying season were due to pair 17 who

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2)...

378

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YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 379

-produced 5 clutches, and have previously been discussed because of in-
explicable delays in producing fresh clutches.
_ The two clutches watched in 1963 are included in this table. They
were doubtless selected for breeding success.

TABLE 4

i)
ee)
a
wh)

month ae 1 6

No. incomplete clutches 1 2 I [ _ 3
No. eggs a 6 23 29 25 19 11 (113)
Average size clutch NE 220s G353 SD We NOON et SLO. DD
% hatch bs 0 22. 62 36 42 0
% flying i — ie, 14 16 11 —

Table 4 shows the laying-hatching-flying data arranged by calendar
months. There are probable errors in this table due to the convention
adopted that if a clutch is neither seen laid nor hatched it is included in
the month it was discovered, whereas if a clutch hatched we are then
reasonably certain that it was laid 27-30 days before. From the table
it appears that eggs laid in March have the best chance of success. This
peak would be even more pronounced if the eight 1963 eggs, all laid in
-March, were included.

INCURSION OF V. indicus

The redwattled lapwing V. indicus is usually discussed and compared
_with malabaricus, and they have been again reunited in the genus Vanellus.
They provide an excellent demonstration of the rule that two closely
related species will possess different ecological requirements. Table 5
gives extracts from six authorities. It is interesting how they disagree
in detail, and also with some of our previous statements in the present
paper. However, there is complete agreement that indicus is a species of
damper, and more cultivated land, than malabaricus. This ecological
difference is quite obvious in and around Bhubaneswar. We agree with
Ali (1961) concerning indicus being found in forest glades but we disagree
with this implication that it is not found in larger groups than 2. Flocks
of the 2 species have been seen feeding together, but keeping separate.
However, here indicus is often found nesting in dry paddy fields, where
what are obviously breeding pairs are conspicuous throughout the dry
weather. All nests found by us, previous to 1966, were found in such

_ terrain. The nest described Py Naik et al. (1961) i in western India was

also in such a field.
However, in 1966, on 5/vi (the monsoon a started on 28/v) a
‘pair were seen on the typical rocky waste ground just behind the
4 |

380

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

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SHILDGDI DU

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 381

house (see map in 5). On 8/vi the scrape and one egg (Plate II, Fig. 4)
were found in the area WNW of the road at the top of that map. A pair
was seen near the scrape, but observations were made during the late
afternoon when incubation could not be expected. The second egg was
first seen on 11/vi and the 3rd on 13/vi. On 12/vi, and on 15/vi in the
morning no birds were seen attending the nest, but one was present in
the evening of the latter day. Therefore incubation did not seem to have
begun. On 16/vi afternoon the eggs were found destroyed, egg-shell
being scattered around up to 8 m. away. Small stones were piled in the
nest and a small pit 15 cm. deep and 15 cm. diameter had been dug on its
edge. Both birds came and screamed at the observers. They were seen
on 17/vi, but then left the area. }

Compared with the laying of malabaricus eggs this clutch took a long
time, and we do not know if it was completed, in the sense used in this
paper.

These dates are late inthe season, and typical of * pioneers ’, i.e., birds
which have failed to establish, or maintain themselves, in an area of their
more usual ecological niche, and make a belated attempt in a suboptimal .
marginal environment.

From the quotations listed in Table 5, it could be suggested that the
preference of indicus for ploughed land implies a greater tolerance
(especially as Baker and Whistler both note a preference to the ballast
of the railway lines) than malabaricus for human nearness. Perhaps
humans even provide some more positive attraction for indicus. The
human activity on this study area has been steadily increasing since 1963,
but only in respect of building and the making and use of kutcha roads.
This land has not been ploughed nor has any increased water supply
been made. We make this suggestion but knowing the species and the
terrains we are sceptical of it. The indicus pair observed nested in the
most undisturbed part of the study area. Almost all paddy fields during
the dry months, February to May, are less visited by humans than either
‘the gardens in which birds are continually disturbed by the gardeners, or
the waste land that is used as a short cut.across a State Capital, both of
which are chosen by malabaricus.

DISCUSSION

The conclusions of our earlier papers have not been overturned, but
some changes are appearing in the population.

Is this species breeding successfully—however-success is defined ?
Fortunately a recent review of mortality and fertility in birds of this group
has appeared (Boyd 1962). On immediate reading of this, after the first
draft of this paper was completed, our impression is how little we have
to offer for comparison. And one point may not have been sufficiently

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

emphasised. Many, perhaps most, European workers consider that they
study a more or less discrete breeding colony of their chosen species of
charadriid. These are not judged to be iso/ates in the genetical sense,
but it is considered worthwhile to consider, and if possible to measure,
both the return of young to them, and also other immigration. Our
population of malabaricus is defined by its study area, which is deter-
mined by human considerations, mainly the area which can be surveyed
critically from the roof of our single storied house, but this is complicated
by both the screening value of the vegetation in the various neighbouring
gardens, and by whether these are for public or private reasons available
for us to examine on the ground. Uninterrupted, and known to be
exploited, malabaricus habitat extends towards the north and west.
There are more territories to the north-east and east of our waste land
than we are able to survey, and in all directions throughout the new and
old cities, malabaricus pairs are known to breed.

Returning to the comparison with Boyd’s data, we know nothing
of the mortalities, including the several important subdivisions of these,
which have been obtained by ringing data. However, our tables provide
three of his parameters for the estimate of fertility. (Unfortunately three
are insufficient for the estimate), Over the 3 years 1964-66, Boyd’s ec,
the mean number of eggs laid per female per year, has been 43° or 5°65,
which is within Boyd’s range for Palaearctic species and well below the
maximum for V. vanellus itself, i.e. though verbal description suggests
that the performance by malabaricus for clutch replacement is greater
than for Palaearctic species, this is not borne out by the figures. For
malabaricus, Boyd’s u, the fraction of eggs laid which hatch, is ;“2, or
0-37. Only one value for u given in Boyd’s table is lower than this.
Boyd’s v, the fraction of hatched young which fly, is, for malabaricus,
44 or 0°33 which is a value lower than any Boyd has recorded. We have
no idea of the other relevant parameters, namely the age at first breeding,
and the mortality before this.

However, breeding success has altered from year to year. Though

from the two criteria of the number of pairs recorded in the area (which is — |

a maximum, and we do not know how critical), and the number of chicks
flying, the most successful year was 1965, this was achieved at the expense
of a much greater waste of eggs thanin 1964. This wastage was probably
the cause of the extension in time of the egg laying period. When the
monsoon broke, there were still pairs who had not yet raised a clutch or

had raised only one, and that several months before. Itis easy to suggest

‘that these late clutches have a poor prognosis for hatching because they
are laid in suboptimal ecological conditions, the terrain being damp.
Also. the delay between the laying of the first egg and the laying of the
first successful egg can be explained similarly. At this time, which is

-ayinter and comparatively cold, it is probable that alternative food supply

for various predators. is rarer than later in the season.

i

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 383

The period between the first clutch and the first successful clutch, and
that between the last successful clutch and the last clutch were both
increased in 1966, which also, by the other criteria, was less successful
than previous years. °

Thus it seems that the study area is deteriorating for yellow-wattled
lapwings. Whether this is correlated with the arrival in the area, very
late in the season, of one pair of the ecologically different closely related
redwattled lapwing is unknown.

The obvious explanation of this deterioration, but not necessarily the
correct one, is the increasing human activity in the area. This is both
activity, gangs collecting stones, building roads and culverts, and people
going to and from their places of work, and also the destruction oF the
habitat by building, but more the former than the latter. |

SUMMARY

A maximum of 22 pair-seasons of Vanellus malabaricus have been
observed in the not yet built upon ground in the centre of Unit 5
Bhubaneswar New Capital and the adjacent approaches to the Raj
‘Bhavan of Orissa. The activity of this species continues to be conspi-
cuous, but the breeding success during the years 1964 to ’66, suggests
that the environment is deteriorating. V. indicus entered the area for
the first time, late and ineffectually, in 1966,

REFERENCES

Aut, SALIM. (1961) : The Book of Indian adaptations. Zool. Jd. Syst. Bd. 92:
Birds. 6th ed. Bombay Natural History 53-72
Society, Bombay. ————— & — (19655). The
Baker, E. C. S. (1929): Fauna of yellow-wattled lapwing Vanellus mala-

British India. Birds VI. Taylor and = baricus (Boddaert), a tropical dry-season

Francis, London. nester. II. Additional data on breeding
‘Bock, W. J. (1958): A generic review biology. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
of the Plovers (Charadriinae, Aves). 62: 1-14.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,
No. 2.

Harvard 118: JERDON, T. C. (1864): The Birds of

India. Ill. George Wyman, Calcutta.

Boyp, H. (1962): Mortality and ferti-
lity of European Charadrii. Jbis 104:
368-387.

HALL, K. R. L. (1959) : A study of the
blacksmith plover Hoplopterus armatus
in the Cape Town area. I. Distribution
and Breeding data. Ostrich 30: 117-126.

—————. (1964) : A study of the black-

smith plover Hoplopterus armatus in the —

Cape Town area. MII. Behaviour.
ibid 35 : 3-16.

Howarp, H. E. (1920): Territory in
Bird Life. Murray, London.

Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide to the
Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University
Press, London.

JAYAKAR, S. D. & SpurRway, H.

(1965a): The yellow-wattled lapwing,

a tropical dry-season nester [Vanellus.

malabaricus (Boddaert), Charadriidae].
1. The locality and the incubatory

Lack, D. (1954): The Natural Regu-
lation of Animal Numbers. Oxford at
the Clarendon Press.

Nalk, R. M., GeorGE, P. V. & Dixit,
Durvuv, B. (1961): Some observations
on the behaviour of the incubating Red-

wattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus

indicus (Bodd.). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 58 : 223-230.
NETHERSOLE-THOMPSON, D. (1961):

The Breeding Behaviour and Breeding
Biology of the Lapwing in The Birds of
the British Isles by D. A. Bannerman.
10: 265-274. Oliver and Boyd, Edin-
burgh and London.

RreLcey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of
the Birds of India and_ Pakistan.
Bombay Natural History Society.

WHISTLER, H. (1949): Popular Hand-
book of Indian Birds. 4 ed. revised by
N. B. Kinnear. Gurney and Jackson,
London and Edinburgh,

Flora of the Bhillangna Valley of the
erstwhile Tehri-Garhwal State

BY

A. C, Dey,? M. R. UNIYAL? AND V. SHANKAR?

This paper gives an account of a collection of plants from the Bhillangna
Valley of Tehri-Garhwal, made during the years 1963 to 1965 during which
nearly 1400 specimens of 410 species were collected. The area covered
by this study includes river valleys, glacier beds, mountain slopes and
meadows ranging in altitude between 600 and 4200 metres.

INTRODUCTION

The Bhillangna Valley derives its name from the Bhillangna River
which runs through the entire length of the valley. The Bhillangna
River originates from Khatling Glacier, is fed in its course by Kshirganga
near Mahsar Tal and Balganga at Baunr, and finally meets the Bhagirathi
River at Tehri. Tehri-Garhwal, of which the Bhillangna Valley is a
part, lies entirely within the Himalayan ranges between 30° 20-30°50 N,
and 78°35-78°55 E and covers an area of about 1000 sq. miles. It is
surrounded by Ramain and Bashahr in the north, Tibet inthe east, Paurj
Garhwal in the south and Dehra Dun in the west. The region consists
of a series of ridges separated by narrow valleys running north-east to
south-west, and radiating from the lofty peaks bordering Tibet.

Burrard & Hayden (1907) divided the Himalayas into three zones ;
the greater Himalayas, the lesser Himalayas and the Siwaliks. The
area selected for exploration lies in the former two zones. The Greater
Himalayan ranges are composed of granite and crystalline rocks and are
characterized by the presence of snowy peaks, the average height of which
exceeds 6500 m. The lesser Himalayan ranges are made of sedimentary
rocks such as slate, quartzite, conglomerate and limestone and their
altitude ranges between 1800 m. and 3000 m.

From climatic point of view the Bhillangna Valley can be divided into
three zones similar to Hooker’s three climatic zones of Western Himalayas.

1. Tropical Zone: Extends up to an altitude of 1500 m., the lower
limit of snow-fall during winter. Annual rainfall 203 to 228 cm. The

1 Survey of Medicinal Plants Unit, Govt. of India Project, P.O. Gurukula Kangri
(Hardwar).

* Botany Department, College of Science, Gurukula Kangri (Hardwar).

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 385

temperature rarely falls below freezing point, and in May it rises to 40°56°C
or above. The monsoon starts about the middle of June and lasts up
to the end of September. Mist increases the humidity to saturation
point, In autumn due to continuous sunshine the humidity decreases.
Spring is the hottest season of the year.

2. Temperate Zone: Extends from 1500 m. to 3600 m. the upper
limit of trees. Here the temperature is lower and precipitation less with
considerable portion of it received as snow. The annual precipitation
falls as rain. Autumn is characterized by sunshine and low humidity.
During winter the temperature falls below—11°11°C. In spring the tem-
perature rises and the humidity is very low.

3. Alpine Zone: The alpine zone is above 3600 m. Here winters
are cold and growing season for plants is short. Spring and autumn
seasons are practically eliminated. Precipitation is very small and mostly
in the form of snow. Winters are characterized by heavy snow-fall.
This zone is characterized by large spreading meadows.

Recently R. K. Gupta (1956) gave a brief description of the flora of
Tehri-Garhwal. In Bhillangna Valley he confined his studies to Mahsar
Tal, Sashsar Tal, Chandrabadni and Ghansali, from where he described
' about 250 plant species. A greater part of the valley, however, remained
unexplored.

This paper presents a fairly comprehensive account of the flora of
_Bhillangna Valley. An extensive exploration of the valley was under-
taken by the authors during 1963, 1964 and 1965 during the months of
March, April, May, June, July, August, September and October.
Eighteen localities situated in river valleys, glacier beds, mountain slopes
and meadows, scattered over an area of about 680 sq. miles, were covered
during the course of study. Most of the area was covered on foot.
There is a motor road from Tehri to Ghansali. From Ghansali onwards
there are no proper means of communication and therefore the whole
journey from Ghansali to Ghuttu, and from Ghuttu to Rupagali (Ponwali
route), and from Ghuttu to Kalayani (Mahsar route) was performed on
foot. On the Ponwali route, Gawana (2100 m.) was the last village.
On the Mahsar Tal route, Gangi (2700 m.) was the last inhabited spot
above which we came across large meadows. In Gangi people live on
phapru (Fagopyrum esculentum), alu (Solanum tuberosum), marcha
(Amaranthus paniculatus) and their chief domestic animals are goats,
rarely cattle. Being a country of widely varying topography a large
variety of plants of different climatic zones were collected. At altitudes
above 3000 metres snow covered peaks were a common feature and
alpine herbs like species of Caltha, Potentilla, Primula and dwarf Rhodo-
dendron were blooming. The valley is important from the point of view

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

of medicinal plants. About 20 species of medicinal plants are exported
from here to the markets of Hardwar, Dehra Dun and Delhi. In recent
years the importance of the valley has further increased due to its suita-
bility for the cultivation of medicinal plants. Sandoz Ltd. selected
Matia, near Ponwali (3240 m.) for the cultivation of an important species
of medicinal plant, Podophyllum hexandrum from which Podophyllin,
an alleged cure for cancer, is obtained. Ponwali and Matia have been
considered suitable for the cultivation of Mee nes important medicinal
plant, Nardostachys jatamansi.

410 species of plants belonging to 90 families were collected during
the study. The Table gives a summary of the collections made.

TABLE
Families Genera Species
Dicotyledons a 79 276 362
Monocotyledons a 8 ii! 41
Gymnosperms iy, 3 5 i

In the detailed enumeration the following procedure has been adopted.
To facilitate easy reference the order of the families of flowering plants
is the same as in Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (1872-97). Every
effort has been made to bring the nomenclature up-to-date. All the
specimens included in the list are preserved in the herbarium of the Survey
of Medicinal Plants Unit, Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Dist.
Saharanpur. Brief mention is made of the locality and altitude of
occurrence of each species.

List OF PLANTS COLLECTED DURING 1963-65

RANUNCULACEAE
Aconitum falconeri Stapf Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle
Ponwali, Rajkhark, 3000- | Gangi 2700 m. ;
3600 m. ; Uniyal 3134 & 3602. Uniyal 781 & 3851.
A. heterophyllum Wall. Caltha palustris Linn.
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Ponwali 2700 m. ;
Uniyal 1646, 1490 & 3601. Uniyal 898, 665 & 1240.
A. laeve Royle ) Clematis buchananiana DC.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Dey 1265, Ghuttu 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1680,

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY

C. barbellata Edgew.
Ponwali 3300 m. ; Saxena 895.

C. nepaulensis DC.
Ponwali 2800 m. ; Saxena 1253.

Delphinium denudatum Wall. ex
Hook. .

Indrola 1200 m. ; Uniyal 704.

D. vestitum Wall. ex Royle
Tali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 605.

Paeonia emodi Wall.

Margaon 2100 m. ;
Uniyal & Saxena 1208.

tas
De
~~

Ranunculus hirtellus Royle
Ponwali 2800 m.; Uniyal 1213.

R. laetus Wall. ,
Ghuttu 1600 m. ; Dey 1206.

Thalictrum alpinum Linn.
Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 882.

T, javanicum B1.
Ponwali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1487.

T. foliolosum DC.

Alaknanda Range 2400 m. ;
Uniyal 3600.

T. reniforme Wall.
Ponwali 2800 m. ; Uniyal 3672.

MAGNOLIACEAE

Michelia champaca Linn.

Cultivated at Ghuttu 900 m. ;
Dey 1321.

Schizandra grandiflora Hook.
fede Dit

Ghuttu 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1098.

MENISPERMACEAE

Cissampelos pareira Linn.
Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 3335.

Cocculus laurifolius DC.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 3358.

Stephania glabra Miers.

Ghansali 900 m. : Uniyal 721.

BERBERIDACEAE

Berberis asiatica Roxb.
Ghuttu 1800 m. ; Saxena 486.

B. chitria Lindl.
Mataya 2700 m. ; Uniyal 441. |

B. coriaria Brand. |
Ponwali 2800 m, ; Uniyal 683,

B. lycium Royle
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 576.

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle

Ponwali and Rajkhark 3000 m., ;
Uniyal 1097 & 3832.

388. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)
PAPAVERACEAE

Meconopsis aculeata Royle
The Himalayan blue poppy, at Tali 3600 m.: Uniyal 3122.

FUMARIACEAE
Corydalis govaniana Wall. C. cornuta Royle
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 3326. Ponwali 2800 m. ; Uniyal 3440.
C. ramosa Wall. ex Hook. f. Fumaria indica Pugsley ;
Mataya 2800 m. ; Uniyal 1774. Chamba 1600 m. ; Uniyal 493.
VIOLACEAE
Viola biflora Linn. V. serpens Wall.
Gangi-Kalayani 2400 m. ; Ghuttu 1800 m. ; Uniyal 681.
Saxena 1183.
CRUCIFERAE
Barbarea vulgaris Br. Erysimum hieracifolium Linn.
Tali-Rajkhark 3300 m. ; Kalayani 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1335.
Uniyal 816. : ,
Eutrema primulaefolium Hook.
Capsella bursa-pastoris Medic. f. & Th.
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyai 1360, Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 1277.
Cardamine impatiens Linn. Megacarpaea polyandra Benth.
Ghuttu 2400 m. ; Saxena 797. Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 864.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia indica Merr.
Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 3655.

POLYGALACEAE
Polygala abyssinica R. Br. P. crotalariodes Buch.-Ham.
Chamba 1600 m. ; Dey 1048. Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 798.
P. chinensis Linn. P. persicariaefolia DC.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 1604. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 1605, |,

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 389

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Sagina procumbens Linn. Stellaria decumbens Edgew.

Mataya 2100 m. ; Uniyal 3890. Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 1287.
Silene griffithii Boiss. S. latifolia Benth.

Mataya 2700 m. ; Saxena 1378. Duphand 2100 m. ; Uniyal 639.
S. inflata Benth. S. media Linn.

Duphand 2100 m.; Uniyal Mataya 2400 m. ;

3436. Uniyal & Dey 1226.

S. venosa Aschers.
Gangi 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1450.

HYPERICACEAE
Hypericum dyeri Rehder. H. oblongifolium Choisy.
Duphand 2100 m. ; Saxena 1336. Chamba 1600 m. ; Uniyal 551.
H. elodeoides Choisy. H. perforatum Linn.
Ponwali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1491. Banchuri 1600 m.; Uniyal 717.

H. hookerianum Wall.
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 3310.

MALVACEAE

Abutilon graveolens Wt. & Arn. Sida cordifolia Linn.
Tehri 700 m. ; Uniyal 3690. Ghuttu 1000 m. ; Uniyal 3664.

Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. S. veronicaefolia Lamk.
Ghuttu 1200 m. ; Dey 1327. Ghuttu 1200 m. ; Dey 1327.

TILIACEAE

Grewia sapida Roxb.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 751.

LINACEAE

Reinwardtia indica Dum.
Banchuri 1600 m. ; Uniyal 3883.

390. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

GERANIACEAE
Geranium ocellatum Camb. G. wallichianum Sweet |
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 583. Mataya 2100 m. ; Uniyal 3884.
BALSAMINACEAE ~ |
Impatiens cristata Wall. Oxalis acetosella Linn.
Ponwali 3300 m. ; Saxena 1104. Mataya 2400 m.; Uniyal 1259.

I. macrophylla Gaertn.
Ponwali 3300 m. ; Saxena 1104.

RUTACEAE
Aegle marmelos Corr. Toddalia aculeata Pers.
Ghonti 950 m. ; Uniyal 3885. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 735.
Murraya paniculata Jack. Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. |
Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 738. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 575.

Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc.
Ponwali 2800 m. ; Uniyal 678.

AQUIFOLIACEAE
Tlex dipyrena Wall.
Gaja 1200 m. ; Uniyal 550.

~ CELASTRACEAE
Celastrus paniculata Willd. E. pendulus Wall.
Banchuri 1200 m.; Uniyal 708 Saord 2100 m. ; Uniyal 715.

or 3628.
E. tingens Wall.

Euonymus hamiltonianus Wall. Duphand 2100 m. ; Dey 1209.

Duphand 2700 m. ; Uniyal 686.

RHAMNACEAE |
Helinus lanceolatus Brand. R. triqueter Wall.
Duphand 2700 m. ; Uniyal 663. © Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 1320.
Rhamnus purpurea Edgew. R. variegatus Roxb.

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 888, =. Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 707,

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 391

VITACEAE.
Leea edgeworthii Santapau

Vitis lanata Roxb.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 751.

Duphand 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1309.

ACERACEAE
(Sapindaceae)
Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis
Duphand 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1309.

%
HIPPOCASTINACEAE

(Sapindaceae)
Aesculus indica Colebr.

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn.
Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 790.

Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 3644.

STAPHYLEACEAE

(Sapindaceae)
Staphylea emodi Wall. ex Brandis
Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 825.

ANACARDIACEAE

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) R. parviflora Roxb.
Merr.

Tehri 600 m. ; Uniyal 422.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 755.

R. wallichii Hook. f.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 1642
& 1335.

Pistacia integerrima Stew.
Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 446 &
3025:
Rhus cotinus Linn.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 577.

CORIARIACEAE
Coriaria nepalensis Wall. .
Banchuri 1600 m. ; Uniyal 1723.

392

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

CAESALPINACEAE

Bauhinia vahlii W. & A.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Dey 1376.

Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 721.

Cassia leschenaultii Wall.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 1141.

C. laevigata Willd.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 761.

PAPILIONACEAE

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth.
Ghuttu 1300 m. ; Uniyal 1079°

Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth.
Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 641.

Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.)

DC.
Ghuttu 1200 m. ; Saxena 778.

Lathyrus luteus Baker
Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1161.

Lespedeza stenocarpa Maxim.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 1062.

Lotus corniculatus Linn.
Gangi 2700 m. ; Saxena 858.

Indigofera gerardiana Wall.
Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 707.

I. dosua Buch.-Ham.
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Unival 3867.

Thermopsis barbata Royle
Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 827.

Trigonella gracilis Benth.
Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 876.

T. emodi Benth.
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 3306.

Piptanthus nepalensis D. Don
Mataya 2800 m. ; Uniyal 3103.

Uraria neglecta Prain
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 2079.

U. picta Desv.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 786.

Vicia tenera Grah.
Gaja 2100 m. ; Uniyal 598.

ROSACEAE

Agrimonia eupatorium Linn.
Gangi 2400 m. ; Saxena 847.

Cotoneaster obtusa Wall. ex Lindl.
Maghu 3300 m. ; Uniyal 685.

C. bacillaris Wall.
Duphand 2400 m.; Uniyal 3398.

Deutzia staminea R. Br.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 580.

Fragaria vesca Linn.
Ponwali 2700 m. ; Saxena 1221.

Geum elatum Wall.
Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 874.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY

G. urbanum Linn.

Kalayani 2400 m.;
1188.

Saxena

Potentilla kleiniana Wt. & Arn.
Poibagi 2100 m. ; Dey 1121.

P. sibbaldi Wall.
Ponwali 1700 m. ; Saxena 1224.

P. microphylla D. Don
Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 869.

P. gerardiana Lindl.
Ponwali 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1303.

P. atrosanguinea Lodd.
Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 878.

P. fulgens Wall.

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 3452.

Prunus cerasoides D. Don
Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Dey 1119.

Prunus cornuta Wall.
Mataya 2700 m. ; Dey 1111.

P. padus Linn.
Ponwali 2700 m. ; Saxena 1248.

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham.
Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 647.

P. lanata D. Don
Poibagi 2700 m.;
Saxena 1237.

Uniyal &

Rubus niveus Thunb.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 578.

R. ellipticus Sm.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 576.

R. paniculatus Sm.
Poibagi 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1236.

Rosa sericea Lindl.

Poibagi 2700 m. ; Uniyal 687.
R. moschata Mill.

Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 584.

Sorbus foliolosa (Wall.) Spach.
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Saxena 1251.

Spiraea bella Sims.
Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 813.

S. vestita Wall.
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1446.

SAXIFRAGACEAE

Bergenia ciliata (Roxb.) Raizada
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1683.

B. ligulata Engl.
Maghu 2700 m. ; Uniyal 674.

B. Stracheyi Engl.
Rupagali 3800 m. ; Uniyal 1670
& 3847.

Deutzia straminea R. Br.
Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Dey 1128.

Hydrangea anomala D. Don
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 664.

H. altissima Wall.
Kalayani 2700 m. ; Uniyal 806.

Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle
Mataya 2900 m. ; Uniyal 1502.

Ribes alperstre Wall. ex Decne
Khatlingh 3900 m.; Uniyal
1425. -

Saxifraga diversifolia Wall.
Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 1499,

394. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)
CRASSULACEAE

Sedum trifidum Linn.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1509.

DROSERACEAE

Drosera lunata Buch.-Ham.
Gangi 2400 m. ; Saxena 1150.

LYTHRACEAE
Punica granatum Linn. Woodfordia fructicosa Kurz.
Indrola 800 m. ; Uniyal 642. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 586.
ONAGRACEAE

Hartmania rosea G. Don
Banchuri 1500 m. ; Uniyal 620.

| COMBRETACEAE
Terminalia chebula Retz. T. belirica Roxb. i
Sarana 900 m. ; Uniyal 1322. Sarana 900 m. ; Uniyal 3886.
CUCURBITACEAE

Bryonopsis laciniosa (Linn.) Naud. ‘Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.)

Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 3624. Voigt. |
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 1324.

UMBELLIFERAE
Angelica glauca Edgew. B. maddeni C.B.C.
Rajkhark . 3300 m.; © Uniyal Ponwali 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1439.

3607. |
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall. Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 3170. .
Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 3421.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY Ses

Heracleum candicans Wall. S. vaginatum Clarke
Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 623. Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 3608.
Sanicula europaea Linn. Trachelospermum falconeri (Clarke)
Kalayani 2700 m.; Saxena Wolff.”
1190. Ghuttu 1200 m. ; Uniyal 3818.

Selinum wallichianum (DC,)
Raizada & Saxena

Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 3114.

ARALIACEAE

Hedera nepalensis K. Koch. Schefflera venulosa (W. & A.)
Banchuri 1500 m.; Uniyal 2010. _Harms.

age Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 747.
Pentapanax parasiticum Seem.

Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1657.

CORNACEAE

Cornus macrophylla Wall.
Banchuri 1500 m. ; Uniyal 713.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE :
Lonicera angustifolia Wall. Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Dey 1224. Mataya 2800 m.; Saxena &

; Uniyal 1130 & 1270.
L. purpurascens Hook. f. & Th.

Ponwali 3300 m. ; Saxena 1101. VY. nervosum D. Don

; Rajkhark 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1276.
L. quinquelocularis Hardw.

Gangi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 621. V. mullaha Buch.-Ham. ex Don
Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1662.

RUBIACEAE
Hymenopogon parasiticum Wall. Randia dumetorum (Retz) Lam.
Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1116- Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 1326.
Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Sm. R. tetrasperma Roxb.
Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1699. Tehri 600 m. ; Uniyal 426.

8

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Rubia cordifolia Linn. |
Banchuri 1500 m. ; Uniyal 525.

Uncaria pilosa Roxb.
Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1137.

Wendlandia exserta DC...
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 555.

VALERIANACEAE

Nardostachys jatamansi DC.
Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 1194.

Valeriana pyrolaefolia DC.
Maghu 3000 m. ; Uniyal 676.

V. jatamansi Jones

Ponwali 2700 m.; -‘Uniyal &
Saxena 484 & 682.

DIPSACACEAE

Dipsacus inermis Wall.
Kanatal 2100 m. ; Dey 1553.

Morina longifolia Wall.
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 1779.

COMPOSITAE

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 769.

Ainsliaea aptera DC.

Ponwali 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1666.

Aster asperulus Nees
Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1123.

A. molliusculus Wall.
Chamba 1200 m. ; Uniyal 726.

Conyza stricta Willd.
Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 582.

Cyathocline lyrata Cass.
Poibagi 2100 m. ; Dey 1086.

Dichrocephala chrysanthemifolia

DC.
Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 1157.

D. latifolia DC. :
Poibagi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1224.

Gerbera kurzeana Braum. & Asch.
Tali 3660 m. ; Uniyal 1268.

G. lanuginosa Benth.
Tehri 900 m. ; Uniyal 1234.

Gnaphalium luteoalbum Linn.
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1224.

Inula cuspidata Clarke
Ghonti 900 m. ; Uniyal 718.

Saussurea albescens Hook f. & Th.
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1665.

S. obvallata Wall.
Rupagali 4000 m. ; Uniyal 1489.

S. roylei C. B. Cl.
Ponwali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1455.

Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.
Ponwali 2700 m. ; Uniyal 1201.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 397

S. nudicaulis Buch.-Ham. Taraxacum officinale Wigg. |
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 581. Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 1671.
Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC. Tragopogon gracilis D. Don
Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 730. Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 1156.
Solidago virga-aurea Linn. Vicoa indica DC.
Ponwali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1506. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 763.

Tanacetum longifolium Wall.
Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 1275.

CAMPANULACEAE
Campanula colorata Wall. Cyananthus lobatus Wall. ex Benth,
Ghuttu 900 m. ; Uniyal 770. Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 1488.

C. latifolia Linn.
Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal 1501.

ERICACEAE

Cassiope fastigiata D. Don Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don

Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 821. Tali 3600 m. ; Uniyal 1296.
Gaultheria nummulariodes D. Don RR. arboreum Smith

Mataya 2400 m. ; Saxena 1099. Ghuttu 1600 m. ; Uniyal 1134.
G. trichophylla Royle R. campanulatum D, Don

Mataya 2400 m. ; Saxena 1098. Rajkhark 3300 m. ; Uniyal 1286.
Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude. R. lepidotum Wall.

Ghuttu 1800 m. ; Uniyal 1227. Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 819.

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 573.

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace lanuginosa Wall. A. rotundifolia Hardw.
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 684. Gangi 2100 m. ; Uniyal 1455.

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

A. umbellata Merr. L, lobelioides Wall.
Chamba 1500 m. ; Saxena 1047. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 749.

Lysimachia alternifolia Wall. ex L. pyramidalis Wall.
Roxb. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 749.

Tali 3800 m. ; Saxena 772. ;
Primula petiolaris Wall.

L. chenopodioides Wall. ex Hook. f: Poibagi 2500 m. ; Dey 1256.

Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 1142.
P. stewartii Wall.

L, japonica Thunb. Tali 3300 m. ; Uniyal 862.
Gangi 2100 m. ; Saxena 1147.

MYRSINACEAE

Maesa indica (Roxb.) Wall.
Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 732.

SYMPLOCACEAE
(Styraceae)

Symplocos chinensis (Lour.) Druce
Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 695.

OLEACEAE
Jasminum dispermum Wall. J. pubescens Willd.
Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1112. Ghansali 900 m. ; Saxena 688.
J. humile Linn. Syringa emodi Wall. ex D. Don
Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1112. Ponwali 3000 m. ; Uniyal &

Saxena 678 & 1235.
J. officinale Linn.

Ponwali 1800 m. ; Uniyal 1218.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa opaca Stapf. Vallaris heynei Spreng.
Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 1076. | Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 705.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY | 399

ASCLEPIADACEAE
_Asclepias curassavica Linn. Hoya longifolia Wall.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1093. Ghansali 900 m. ; Uniyal 699.
Cryptolepis buchanani R. & S. Marsdenia roylei Wight.
Indrola 900 m. ; Uniyal 3678. Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1118.
Cynanchum glaucum Wall. Tylophora govanii Decne.
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Saxena 1208. Ghuttu 1500 m. ; Uniyal 1619.

C. vincetoxicum Pers.
Poibagi 2400 m. ; Uniyal 1252.

GENTIANACEAE
Gentiana carinata Griseb. Swertia alata Royle
Tali 3600 m. ; Saxena 861. Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 3620.
G. pedicellata Wall. } _ §. angustifolia Buch.-Ham.
Gangi 2100 m.; Uniyal 799. Ghuttu 900 m.; Uniyal 1620.
Halenia elliptica D. Don S. purpurascens Wall.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1486. Banchuri 1800 m.; Uniyal 3644.
BORAGINACEAE
Cynoglossum micranthum Desf. Lindelofia spectabilis Lehm.
‘Ponwali 3300 m.; Dey 1325. Tali 3600 m.; Saxena 885.
C. wallichii D. Don Macrotomia benthami DC.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1415. Tali 3600 m.; Saxena & Uniyal
ey f 863.
Hackelia_ glochidiata (A. DC.)

Brand. Trichodesma indicum R. Br.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 3876. Sarana 900 m.; Uniyal 696.
CONVOLVULACEAE

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. I. purpurea Lam.
Tehri 600 m.; Dey 1072. Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1207.

Ipomoea hederifolia Linn.
Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 742.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

SOLANACEAE

Datura stramonium Linn.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 4280.

Nicandra physaloides Gaertn.
Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1144.

Solanum nigrum Linn.
Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 4269.

S. verbascifolium Linn.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 1312.

Nicotiana dahacam Linn.
Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 768.

Withania somnifera Dunal.
Tehri 700 m.; Uniyal 4229.

Physalis minima Linn.
Indrola 900 m.; Uniyal 4270.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

Aristolochia dilatata N.E. Brown
Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 852.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

P. gracilis Wall. ex Benth.
Mataya 2700 m.; Uniyal 3387.

Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Saxena 661

& Uniyal 1269. ;
Picrorhiza kurroa Benth.

Rajkhark, Ponwali 3300-3600 m.; '
Uniyal 1667 & 3843.

Lagotis glauca Gaertn.
Tali 3600 m.; Saxena 865.

Scrophularia himalensis Royle
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 1300.

Mazus surculosus D. Don
Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 756.

Veronica javanica Bl.
Kalayani 2400 m.; Saxena 1180

Lathraea squamaria Linn.

Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 672.

Pedicularis bicornuta Klotz
Mataya 2400 m.; Saxena 1465.

. GESNERIACEAE

Didymocarpus sabalternans Wall.
Gangi 2400 m.; Saxena 782.

Didissandra lanuginosa C. B. Cl.
Ghuttu 1200 m.; Saxena 725.

i

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 401
ACANTHACEAE ©
Adhatoda vasica Nees Rungia pectinata Nees
Indrola 900 m.; Uniyal 3682. Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyai 650.
Barleria cristata Linn.

Pteracanthus alatus (Wall. ex Nees)
Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 1606. Brem.

Gangi 2100 m.; Saxena 1371.

VERBENACEAE
Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl Premna barbata Wall. ex Shauer.
Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 729 Sarana 900 m.; Uniyal 1068.
& 588.

P. latifolia Roxb.
Clerodendrum serratum Spreng. _ Ghuttu 1500 m.;Saxena 3892.
Sarana 900 m. ; Uniyal 1616 &
697.

Pygmaeopremna herbacea (Roxb.)
Moldenke

Sarana 900 m.; Uniyal 3871

LABIATAE
Ajuga bracteosa Wall. Micromeria biflora Benth.
Pukhar 1200 m.; Dey 1063. Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 680.
A. parviflora Benth. Prunella vulgaris Linn.
Mataya 2700 m.; Uniyal 1206. Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 1176.
‘Anisomeles indica Ktze. Roylea cinerea (D. Don) Baill.
Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 777. Pukhar 1200 m.; Uniyal 1083.
Calamintha umbrosa Benth. Salvia plebeia Br. ,
Chamba 1200 m.; Uniyal 580. Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 752 &
1229.
Lamium album Linn.

Duphand 2700 m.; Uniyal 1250... Teucrium royleanum Wall.
Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 710.
Leucas lanata Benth.: = 6) CMO or
Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 649. Thymus serpyllum Linn.
Sahshratal 3800 m.; Uniyal
3 | 1376. ie :
Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 651, 7

L. mollissima Wall.

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago major Linn.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1283.

AMARANTHACEAE

Alternanthera sessilis R. Br.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal &

Saxena 733 & 775.

Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume

Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 1084.

Celosia argentea Linn.

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 759.

POLYGONACEAE

Fagopyrum cymosum Meis.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1073.

Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don
Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 1178.

P. capitatum Buch.-Ham.

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 1085.

P. chinense Linn.
Gangi 2400 m.; Saxena 788.

P. nepalense Meis.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1091.

P. sphaerostachyum Meis.
Ponwali 3500 m.; Uniyal 890.

P. vaccinifolium Wall. ex Meis.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1505.

Rheum emodi Wall.
Khatling 4000 m.; Uniyal 3880.

Rumex hastatus D. Don
Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 585.

(

PIPERACEAE

Peperomia tetraphylla (G. Forst.) Hook. & Arn.

Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 736.

LAURACEAE

Cinnamomum tamala Nees
Indrola 1000 m.; Uniyal 701.

Litsea umbrosa Nees
Gangi 2100 m.; Saxena 800.

Machilus gamblei King
Poibagi 2100 m.; Uniyal 714.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 403

THYMELEACEAE

Daphne papyracea Decne.
Poibagi 2100 m.; Uniyal 1288.

Wickstroemia canescens Meis.

Mataya 2400 m.; Uniyal 1388.

ELAEAGNACEAE

Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.

Kalayani 2400 m.; Uniyal 1181.

LORANTHACEAE

Scurrula elata (Edgew.) Dans.

Parasitic on Lynoia ovalifolia ;
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Saxena 1253.

Viscum nepalense Spreng.

Parasitic on Loranthus sp. on
Quercus incana, at Poibagi

: : 2100 m.; Uniyal & Saxena
Taxillus vestitus (Wall.) Dans. 1222 & 1655.

Parasitic, growing on rocks, at

Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1656.
SANTALACEAE

Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight

Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 728.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Andrachne cordifolia Muell.-Arg.
Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 744.

Euphorbia pilosa Linn.
Poibagi 2400 m.; Uniyal 1103.

E. royleana Boiss.
Ghonti 900 m.; Dey 1059.

Glochidion velutinum Wight
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1065.

Mallotus philippinensis Muell.-Arg.
Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 890.

Phyllanthus parvifolius Ham.
Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 1654.

Sarcococca saligna Muel.-Arg.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1094.

URTICACEAE

Celtis tetrandra Roxb.
Ghonti 900 m.: Uniyal 724,

Debregeasia hypoleuca Wedd.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Dey 1229.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Ficus clavata Wall. Pilea scripta Wedd.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1058. _ Gangi 2100 m.; Saxena 791.
F, palmata Forsk. Trema politoria Planch. |
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1059. Ghuttu 1200 m.; Uniyal 1087.
Maoutia puya Wedd.

Ghansali 900 m.; Saxena 1323.

JUGLANDACEAE

Engelhardtia spicata BI.
Pukhar 1200 m.; Uniyal 1133.

MYRICACEAE

Myrica nagi Thunb.
Banchuri 1500 m.; Uniyal 721.

BETULACEAE
Alnus nepalensis D. Don Carpinus viminea Lindl.
Poibagi 2400 m.; Uniyal 1110. Mataya 2400 m.; Saxena 1114.

Betula utilis D. Don
Tali 3800 m.; Uniyal 3878.

FAGACEAE
Quercus incana Roxb. Q. semecarpifolia Sm.
Banchuri 1500 m.; Uniyal 3800. Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1221.
SALICACEAE
Salix elegans Wall. ex Anderss. S. tetrasperma Roxb.
Rajkhark 3300 m.; Uniyal Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 4271..
4270. aon ‘
ORCHIDACEAE
Calanthe tricarinata Lindl. _* Cephalanthera ensifolia Richard

Gangi 2400 m.; Saxena 1186, Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 668. -

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY

Cypripedium cordigerum D. Don
Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 6669.

Dendrobium alpestre Royle
Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 3620.

Eulophia campestris Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 664
& 892.

E. herbacea Lindl.
Pukhar 1500 m.; Uniyal 1318.

Eria alba Lindl.
Gangi 2100 m.; Uniyal 783. :

Habenaria intermedia D. Don
Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 794.

405

Herminium monorchris Br.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1311.

Luisia teretifolia Gaud.
Ghansali 900 m.; Uniyal 700.

Microstylis muscifera (Lindl.)
O. Kuntze

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 3617.

Orchis latifolia Linn.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 833 &
3345,

Pholidota articulata Lindl.
Pukhar 1500 m.; Uniyal 3885.

Vanda parviflora Lind].
Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 590.

SCITAMINACEAE

Roscoea procera Wall.
Gangi 2100 m.; Uniyal 1349.

R. alpina Royle
Poibagi 2100 m.; Uniyal 3875.

Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 3640.

HYPOXIDACEAE

Hypoxis aurea Lour.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1152.

TRIDACEAE

Iris ensata Thunb.
Gangi 2400 m.; Saxena 795.

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1100.

406

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

LILIACEAE

Allium stracheyi Baker

Kinkoliya Khal
Uniyal 3894.

3600: =m.;

A. govanianum Wall.
Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 3852.

Asparagus curillus Buch.-Ham.
Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 448.

A. gracilis Royle

Indrola 900 m.; Uniyal 703 &
1089.

A. filicinus Buch.-Ham.
Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 3894.

Disporum pullum Salisb.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 1118.

Fritillaria roylei Hook.
Mataya 2800 m.; Saxena 658.

F, cirrhosa D. Don
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1188.

Lilium polyphyllum D. Don
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 1459.

L. roseum Wall.
Banchuri 1500 m.; Uniyal 4228.

Nomocharis
Balf, f.

Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 879.

oxypetala (Royle)

N. nana (Klotzsch.) E. H.
Tali 3600 m.; Uniyal 3879.

Polygonatum cirrhifolium Royle

Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 763 &
3876.

P. verticillatum All.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 616.
Smilax aspera Wall.
-. Indrola 1000 m.; Uniyal 616.

S. parvifolia Wall.
Ghuttu 1500 m.; Uniyal 694.

Trillium govanianum Wall.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 662.

JUNCACEAE

Juncus membranaceus Royle
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 889.

ARACEAE

Arisaema tortuosum Schott.
Ghuttu 1800 m.; Uniyal 784.

Gonatanthus pumilus (D. Don)

Engl. & Krause. :
Mataya 2400 m.; Uniyal 1307,

Remusatia hookeriana Schott.
Mataya 2100 m.; Uniyal 716.

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY 407

TAXACEAE

Taxus baccata Linn.
Ponwali 3000 m.; Uniyal 872 & 1266.

PINACEAE

Abies pindrow (Royle) Spach. Pinus excelsa Wall.

Ponwali 3000 m.; Saxena 873. Ganwali 2100 m.; Uniyal 4273.
Pinus roxburghii Sargent Cedrus deodara Loud.

Ghonti 900 m.; Uniyal 618. Gangi 2400 m.; Uniyal 435.

CUPRESSACEAE

Juniperus communis Linn. J. recurva Buch.

Kinkolya-khal 3600 m.; Uniyal Khatalingh 4200 m.; Uniyal

4228. 4275.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their thanks to Dr. C. Dwarkanath,
Adviser, I.S.M. Govt. of India, Ministry of Health & Family Planning,
for providing necessary facilities to carry on the above work. Grateful
acknowledgement is also made to Dr. H. O. Saxena, Forest Botanist,
State Forest Institute, Jabalpur, M.P., for the identification of certain
plants and to the authorities of the Botany branch, F.R.I., Dehra Dun,
for herbarium and library facilities provided.

REFERENCES

Gupta, R. K. (1956): Botanical Hooker, J. D. (1875-97): Flora of
explorations in Bhillangna Valley of British India, Vols. 1-7, Kent, England.
ErstwhileTehri-Garhwal State. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 581-594 ; 54 : 878-886.

On the occurrence of Triops mavliensis

(Tiwari), Notostraca (Crustacea), in the

~ Okhamandal Region of Saurashtra ©
(India) |

BY

S. V. SHANBHAG AND N. B. INAMDAR
Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay

(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Like other Branchiopods, Triops is an archaic genus that has been
evolutionarily stagnant since the Triassic period. Because of its rare
occurrence, discontinuous distribution, variable sex ratio and peculiar
mode of reproduction, it has attracted considerable attention. In India,
‘major work on this group was done by Gurney (1925); Mahabale (1939),
Tiwari (1952, 1954, 1956) and Karande & Inamdar (1959). Very little
is known about the distribution of these forms, and information about
their reproduction is also scanty. Till now Triops has been collected
from nine different localities in India. They were first recorded from
Gandharbar (7000 ft.) in Kashmir by F. Smith in 1907 and identified by
Gurney (1925) as Apus cancriformis Schaefer. Kemp (1911) recorded
this species from Kashmir, Sarghodha (now in Pakistan) and Bulund-
shahar (U.P.).

_ Triops also occurs in Panchgani (4378 ft.) in Maharashtra State.
These were identified by Gurney (1925) as Apus asiaticus Gurney and
were thought to be similar to those collected from Central Asia and
Baghdad. Later, Tiwari (1952) redescribed the forms collected from
Panchgani as a new species Apus orientalis Tiwari. |

Triops is also recorded from Ahmedabad (Gujarat) by Mahabale
(1939) who described them as Apus cancriformis Schaefer.

Sixteen female specimens of a Triops species collected at Mavli
(Rajasthan) were described by Tiwari (1952) as a new species Apus may-
liensis Tiwari. A single specimen of Triops recorded by Chacko (1950)
from Tirunelveli (Madras) was later identified by Tiwari (1952) as Apus

OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS IN SAURASHTRA 409

sudanicus Brauer. Finally, Mathur & Sindhu (1956) recorded an un-
identified species of Triops from Pilani (Rajasthan).

. During recent visits to Port Okha (Gujarat) in June 1966 and August
1966, specimens. of Triops, together with other Branchiopods, were
collected from shallow freshwater ponds. Collections were made from
three distinct places, namely, Okha town proper, Gopi village (12 miles
from Okha) and Poshetra village (23 miles from Okha). These specimens
‘were identified as Triops mavliensis (Tiwari), and have revealed a few
facts. about the biology of this species, including the morphology of the
male, which have not been recorded before.

OBSERVATIONS

The area from which collections were made was a coastline of coralline
‘rocks with occasional very shallow ponds. The depth of these ponds
does not exceed four feet. The annual rainfall of this region is 4 to 20
inches. The rainy months are from late June to September, the peak
being in July and August. For most part of the year the ponds are dry,
but with the onset of monsoon, they are filled and remain so for five to
six weeks.

" PINDARA |

Fig. 1. Map of Okha and surrounding places from where Triops were collected.

Two visits to the area were made on 30 June and 15 August of the
year 1966, and specimens of Triops, together with other Branchiopods,
were collected from freshwater ponds. Places of collection are indicated

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (23

in Fig.1. During the first visit 141 males and 238 females were collected,
while during the second visit 21 males and 56 females were obtained.

The occurrence of Triops at high altitude led to the belief that the
factors affecting their distribution are correlated with heavy rainfall,
characteristic soil condition and low temperature. Barnard (1929) has
also expressed similar views with regard to the South African species of
Triops. However, our present collections were made from shallow ponds
over coralline rocks, where climatic conditions are quite different from
those prevailing at high altitudes. It is, therefore, obvious that the
nature of soil, rainfall or temperature, are not the principal governing
factors in the distribution of Triops. |

The occurrence of Triops at sea-level has been recorded previously
by Gurney (1907), Weldon (1909) and Balfour-Browne (1948) but this
is the first record in India, at sea-level.

Phyllopods, except one species of Branchipus and one species of
Limnetis (both cave-dwelling and blind) are not found in underground
waters or wells. However, while collecting Triops from Poshetra (Fig. 1),
from a flooded well, we also collected other Phyllopods namely Eocy-
zicus sp. and Streptocephalus simplex (Gurney).

MORPHOLOGY

The morphology of fifty-five females and fifty-three males were studied
in detail, and compared with the description given by Tiwari (1952) which
was based on only sixteen female specimens. The results are sum-
marised in Tables 1 to 4.

TABLE |

Triops mavliensis (Tiwari)—-FEMALE

Tiwari’s Our
observations observations

Total body length =f 8°8 to 15°8 mm. 8:00 to 22°50 mm.
Apodal segments a 8 to 10 8 to 10
Sulcal spines as 36 to 44 36 to 54
Exposed segments behind sinus ie 20 to 24 15 to 26
Post-genital segments iy 25 10 27 24 to 29
Movable segments 4 36 to 39 35 to 41

With the exception of the above variation in measurements and
number, our specimens agree in general with the description of the female
by Tiwari (1952).

Table 2 shows the distribution of morphological variations in the
female.

OCCURRENCE OF TRiOPS MAVLIENSIS IN SAURASHTRA 411

essences ewes

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412, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 65 (2)

Males were collected in fairly large numbers. There is, however, a
clear distinction between the two Sexes in this species, as in many others.
The males are yellowish brown in colour while the females are light green.
This character is clearly seen when the specimens are fresh. The cara-
pace (Fig. 2) is ovalinthe female. This character is distinctive in females

TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS
DORSAL VENTRAL

Cllrs

ANS
CK

1 YORE:
. 4 ase

*~ - Pa

x RNY. - ia
(cs . : a Vee s
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aT te gy te

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4
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FEMALE

Fig. 2. Dorsal and ventral views of female Triops mavliensis (Tiwari).

because of the curvature in the mid-dorsal region. In the male, how-
ever, the carapace (Fig. 3) is almost flat, thus appearing more or less
circular. The shape of the carapace as well as the colour are often
variable, and hence cannot be accepted as dimorphic characters. A
more dependable dimorphic character, according to our observations, is
the armature of the telson. The spines on the dorsal surface of the
telson are more or less similar in both the sexes. The armature of the
ventral side, however, differs in the two sexes (Fig. 4). In the male, the
ventral median spines and the post-marginal spines are short, stout and
brown (due to chitinous material) whereas in the female they are slender,
weak and yellowish. This difference, though not seen in other species
of Triops, is very distinctly seen in this species. Out of the 238 females

OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS IN SAURASHTRA 413

enna n nen eases SS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSSA ;

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414 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2).

in our first lot, there were 5 females (with brood pouch) which had a
yellow and circular carapace characteristic of the male, but their telson

-APUS MAVLIENSIS

itd icone VENTRAL

MALE

Fig. 3. Dorsal and ventral views of male Triops mavliensis (Tiwari).

showed the distinctive female characteristics. The furcal spines also
differ in the two séxes to a certain extent, They are slender and
yellowish in the female, and are shorter and brownish in the male.
This distinction requires careful examination.

The characteristics of the male of Triops mavliensis (Tiwari) are as
follows.

TABLE 4

Triops mavliensis (Tiwari)—MaL.e.

Total body length ai 9°50 to 21.00 mm.

Apodal Segments ve Litto’. 13
Sulcal spines ue 38ito 51
Exposed segments om 18. to 28

In all 53 males were examined out of a:collection of 162. Table 3
shows the distribution of variation in morphology of the male.

OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS: IN: SAURASHTRA 4145

| SEX RATIO:
The sex ratio is considered to be variable in Triops and males are said
to be rare amongst European species. Main (1953) records that males

ARMATURE OF TELSON
MALE j

FIG. 2@

RSAL | |
DORSAL cee pili

Fig. 4. Armature of telson of male and female specimens of Triops mavliensis
Tiwari).

DMS—Dorsal median spines.

PFS—Prefurcal spines.

PMS(D)—Posterior marginal spines—dorsal.

PMS(V)—Posterior marginal spines—ventral.

STS—Setal spines.

VLS—Ventro lateral spines.

VMS—Ventro median spines.

are abundantly found in Australian species. As far as Indian species are
concerned Tiwari (1954) has recorded that males are not so rare in Triops

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

orientalis (Tiwari) while they are said to be rare in Triops cancriformis
(Schaefer). The sex ratio in Triops mavliensis (Tiwari) in our collection
works out at 37:5 % males to 62°5% females. The occurrence of males
decreases towards the end of the monsoon. |

APODAL SEGMENTS

The number of apodal segments is found to be highly variable in the
Australian species of Triops (Main 1953) while in Indian species it is
fairly constant (Tiwari 1954). This conclusion applies also to Triops
mavliensis (Tiwari) which has been described in this paper. The number
of apodal segments is 8 to 10 in females and 11 to 13 in males.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION

Longhurst (1955) considers the armature of the telson in different
species of Triops as of great taxonomic importance, and basing his
analysis on this he considers 7. /ongicaudatus (LeConte), T. australiensis
(Spencer & Hall), 7. cancriformes (Bosc) and T. granarius (Lucas) to be
the only valid species of Triops. In his opinion T. orientalis (Tiwari) and
T. mavliensis (Tiwari) are synonymous with 7. granarius (Lucas). The
differences in these two species are, according to Longhurst (1955), due
to geographic distribution. He further adds that there is a strong cor-
relation between the spine pattern of the telson and the geographic dis-
tribution of these forms, but none with the sex. Ifthis conclusion is based
on the samples of 7. mavliensis (Tiwari) sent to Longhurst from the
Zoological Survey of India, then they are based only on the study of
females. In our collection we examined a large number of males also,
and found that there does exist a correlation between the telsonic spines
and sex in this species. He explains the different pattern of telson in
T. mavliensis (Tiwari) as due to immaturity of specimens, but our samples
contained mature females possessing brood pouches with eggs, and their
telson still differed from the general pattern described for 7. granarius
(Lucas). We therefore feel that T. mavliensis (Tiwari) is a valid species.

OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS MAVLIENSIS IN SAURASHTRA 417

REFERENCES

BALFOUR-BROWNE, F. (1948): Redis-
covery of ise, cancriformis. Nature
162 : 116.

BARNARD, K. H. (1929): -Contribu-

tions to. the Crustacean fauna of South
Africa. Aan:.S. African Mus. 29 : °181-
270.

CuHacko, P. I. (1950) : Occurrence of *

the Fairy Shrimp Apus in a temple ‘tank
in Tirunelveli District, Madras. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : my

Fox Munro, H. (1949): On -Apus—"

its rediscovery in Britain, nomenclature
and habits. Proc. Zool. Soc. London
119 : 693-702.

GURNEY, R. (1907) : Apus cancriformis
in Great Britain. Nature 76 : 589.

(1925): Some Asiatic Spe-

cies of Apus. Rec. Indian Mus. 27:
439-442. ean

KARANDE, A. A. & INAMDAR, N. B.
(1959) : Observation on the taxonomic
characters of Apus orientalis (Tiwari).
J. Bambay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 215-225.
Kemp, S. & Watton, S. J. (1911):
East Asiatic species of Apus. Rec. Indian
Mus. 6: 351.
- LonGHursT, A. R. (1955): The re-

production and cytology of the Notos-

1-57,

‘Notostraca.

traca (Crustacea Phyllopoda). Proc.
Zool. Soc. London 125: 671-680.

(1955).2-A Review. of the
Bull. British’ Mus.-3 (A):

» MAHABALE, _T. S. (1939) : * On the

Notostraca.

MCCuTEERCE of Apus in Gujarat, Western

India. Curr. S¢i. 8: 471.

MAIN; A. (1953) : Sex ratio and varia-
tion in Apus australiensis (Spencer &
Hall), W. Australian Nat. 4: 34-39.

MATuHur, S. W. & SINDHU, N. (1956) :
Occurrence of Apus (Crustacea Notos-
traca) in Pilani (Rajasthan). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 54 : 961-962.

TIwaRt, K. K. (1952) : Indian Species
of the genus Apus (Crustacea, Branchio-
poda) with description of two new species.
Rec. Indian Mus. 49: 197-206.

——-——— (1954): On sex ratio and
variability of Apodal segments in Apus
(Phyllopoda, Crustacea). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 641-644.

—_—___—. (1956) : Reproduction of

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
53 : 491-492.

WELDON, W. F. R. (1909) :
bridge . Natural
Crustacea.

in Cam-
History Series 4,

A Catalogue of the Birds in the
Collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society—2

Anseriformes
BY

HuUMAYUN ABDULALI

[continued from Vol. 65 (1) : 199]

This instalment covers 459 specimens of the Anatidae (Ducks,
Geese, and Swans) up to Register No. 22981. Though it is probable
that more ducks than any other kinds of birds are shot every year
in India, good series of several species of duck are not available. No
special efforts have been made to obtain such specimens and many of
them, particularly of the swans and geese, are heads and roughly
prepared skins sent by sportsmen either for identification or for
confirmation of records. It is hoped that members, particularly
in northern India, will keep this in mind and try and preserve specimens
to establish the correctness, of some of the records and to make
the collection more complete. Small series of the resident species
(Spotbill, Nakta, Cotton Teal, etc.) from different parts of the country
would also be of value. Arrangements for skinning birds for the Society
exist at New Delhi, Calcutta, and of course in Bombay, and offers from
other places can also be examined.

75 Branta ruficollis (Pallas) (Lower Ob, Southern Russia) Siberian
Redbreasted Goose 6 : 407
nil,
Stuart Baker and Mandy both saw this species on the Brahmaputra
in Assam, but no specimen appears to have been obtained in India.
Vaurie (p. 93) omits it for our area.

EL Anser fabalis fabalis (Latham) (Great Britain) Bean Goose
2:1 3,19 Denmark.

76 ? Anser fabalis middendorffi Severtzov (Oudskoi Ostrog) Bean
Goose (of which one form is the Pinkfooted Goose) 6 : 404. —
nil.
[19]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—2 419

77 ? Anser fabalis rossicus Buturlin (West Siberian Tundra) Tundra
Bean Goose :
nil.
Neither subspecies has been definitely recorded from fae limits,
though the former was reported from Burma (FAUNA 6 : 404)

77a Anser fabalis neglectus Sushkin (East Russia) Sushkin’s Goose

| 6 : 403
Specimen No. 15292 0? Imphal, Manipur, Assam, recorded as Anser

neglectus, has the wing 467, tarsus 70, and bill 63. The bill has a black
tip to both upper and lower mandibles, and the black at the base of the
upper mandible extends beyond the nostrils.

According to BR. HANDBOOK (3: 197) ‘A. f. neglectus has a slender
pink bill and pink feet and may be a fairly frequent individual variation
or localized in a breeding area not yet discovered ’.

In a footnote Ripley (p. 25) refers to Sushkin’s Bean Shei
A. f. neglectus, being recorded from Assam, and adds that. this is
now considered merely a colour phase of the mixed population
fabalis rossicus, presumably referring to two subspecies fabalis and
rossicus.

78 Anser fabalis brachyrhynchus Baillon (France) Pinkfooted Goose

6:
1 § Denmark (Reg. No. 22171). 401

Wing 433; bill 49 ; tarsus 70
There appears to be no satisfactory evidence as yet for the occurrence
of this bird in Indian limits, the last ‘authentic’ record being a

wrongly identified Anser albifrons from Bikaner (see Apa
JBNHS 63 : 198).

79 Anser albifrons albifrons Beapouy (North Italy) Whitefronted
Goose 6 : 399

5 : 4 heads only ; 1 immature.

3 Mesopotamia ; 1 Imphal, Manipur ; | Bikaner, Rajasthan.

The last specimen (Reg. No. 15293) was originally identified as
A. f. brachyrhynchus.

80 Anser erythropus (Linnaeus) (North Sweden) Lesser Whitefronted
Brose 6 : 401

ba: 8S Lo?

1 Mesopotamia Gesaieied’ as albifrons) ; 1 Bahwalpur, West Punjab.

81 Anser anser rubrirostris Swinhoe (Shanghai) Greylag Goose 6 : 398
15:13 492 100? 2albinoid; 2 pull. ; 6 heads and necks.

2 Mesopotamia ; 4 Shiraz, Persia (2 adults with clipped wings and 2 pull.) : 1 Kabul
River, Peshawar; 1 Punjab; 2 Kashmir (albinoids) ; 2 Sind; 1 Mandvi
gesich ?) ; 2 no data,

[ 20]

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

In the absence of any suitable range of specimens, it is not possible
to name any of them racially. The two white birds, both from Kashmir,
include No. 15297 from Haigham Jheel, Srinagar, which was recorded
as Anser hyperboreus (=caerulescens) and the present identification has
resulted in the removal of this species from the Indian list (see Abdulali,
JBNHS 63: 198).

82 Anser indicus (Latham) (India) Barheaded Goose 6 : 405

62366 19,20? 1 pull*

] Chitral* ; 2 Jabalpur, M.P.; 2 Crawford Market, Bombay; 1 Tungabhadra,
Mysore.

83 Anser caerulescens caerulescens (Linnaeus) (Hudson Bay) Snow
Goose
Specimen No. 15297 which is an albinoid A. a. rubrirostris was re-
corded as A. hyperboreus Pallas. This species is now removed from the
Indian list (see Serial 81 above). ' |

84 Cygnus columbianus bewickii Yarrel (Yarmouth, England) Bewick’s
or Whistling Swan 6 : 381

6:1¢ 50? 1juv.* ; 2 juv. heads; 1 leg only.

1 $§ Denmark; 1 Mardan, N.W.F.P.; 2 Dora Momin, Kabul River; 1 leg, Jacobabad;

1 Rajpur, Delhi*. :

There has been much confusion regarding the identification of some
of our swans and geese, mainly due to lack of definitely identified mate-
rial for comparison. A few specimens recently received in exchange
from the Copenhagen Museum have permitted a more critical examination
and I. hope that my readjustments are correct. The two heads (juv.)
obtained by Col. Magrath on the Kabul River in Peshawar District in
1910 were named Cygnus cygnus and are recorded in the FAUNA under
this name. Their bills, from gape 88 and 94, compare better with the
three others of this form (83, 85, and 88) rather than C. cygnus [101,
102, 105 (2)] and the yellow of the bill does not extend as far forward as
the nostrils. The tops of their heads are also more like the juvenile of
this species rather than of cygnus.

The label on the Jacobabad leg is marked C. jankowskii, while it was
recorded by Stuart Baker as bewickii JBNHS 23 : 456: |

85 Cygnus columbianus jankowskii Alpheraky (Ussuriland) 6 : 382

2 Nig Sw Ost

1 Campbellpur, Attock, Punjab ; 1 Kutch.

The wings measure 530 and 550, against 545, 505, and 512 in bewickii;
the bills from gape are about equal to the last form but the feathers of
the forehead commence further back and the bills measure 107 and 99
against 86-90(2) in the others,

[21]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—2 421

Though there is an apparent difference in the size of the bill, it may
be noted that Vaurie (1965 : 107 footnote) confirms the earlier finding
of Tugarinov (1941, Fauna USSR., Ptitsy, 1, pt. 4, p. 117) that this is
not a valid race.

86 Cygnus cygnus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whooper Swan 6 : 380

4:13 10? 2heads only; | grey plumage.*

1 Denmark ; 1 Khetri, Jaipur, Rajasthan* ; 1 River Beas, Punjab ; 1 Sind (2).

Except for Hodgson’s specimens from Nepal (1829) these specimens
appear to cover all known Indian records of this species.

87 Cygnus olor (Gmelin) (Russia) Mute Swan 6 : 383

7:13 12 50? limm.; 4 heads only.

1 Denmark ; 1 Persian Gulf ; 1 Persia; 1 N.W.F.P. ; 2 Punjab ; 1 Sind.

The two from Persian Gulf and Persia have their tarsi 78 and 85
against 102 in the g from Denmark.

88 Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield) (Java) Lesser Whistling Teal,
Tree Duck 6: 411
21:73$ 892 60? Ich.

2 Rajputana; 1 Gwalior; 2 Kymore, M.P.; 6 Bombay, 1 Bombay Market;

1 Karwar ; 1 Ceylon; 2 Darbhanga, 2 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Calcutta Market,
Bengal; 1 Goalpara, 1 Sylhet, Assam.

One from Sylhet, Assam, has an irregular band of white across the
breast continuing on to the shoulders of the wing and including the
primaries. Fresh skins are much darker above than old ones, the black
of the head fading into brown. Young birds have a more greyish
wash and are less brown below.

A specimen of D. fulva (now bicolor) though correctly named on the
label was listed with this species.

89 Dendrocygna bicolor (Vicillot) (Paraguay) Large Whistling Teal
6: 413

13 Calcutta Market (5 Nov. 1899).

90 Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) (Tartary) Ruddy Sheld-duck, Brah-
miny Duck 6: 416
8:445 299 20? Ich.
1 Amara, Iraq; 1 Aliabad, Shiraz, Iran; | Parman, Ladak* ; 1 Ghoti, 2 Bombay
Market, Maharashtra; 1 Kheri, 1 Pilibhit, U.P.
The bills (from feathers) are smaller than indicated in the FAUNA:

[4 So 41-46 av. 44 (58-68) ; 2 92 39-42 av. 40°5 (54-60)]
[22]

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

91 Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common Sheld-duck 6 ; 414

15:2¢¢ 322 .100? Severalinimmature plumage. |

1 Norway ; 1. Baghdad* ; 1 Basra, Iraq; 1 Aliabad, Shiraz, Tran ; 2 Balachistant
2 Sind; 1 Jamnagar, Gujarat; 1 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Calcutta, l Calcutta
Market, Bengal ; 2 Burma ; 1 Tientsin, China.

As in the last species, the bills are smaller than indicated in the FAUNA.

92 Anas angustirostris Menetries (Lenkoran, Transcaspia) Marbled
Teal ct 6:: 445

TMS 93' 29" 2.0" 9 |
2 Iraq ; | Ferozepur,.Punjab.; 5 Sind ; 2 Gujarat ; i-dhirtpedn fees iabace snes

In this small series, the wings are smaller than suggested by the
FAUNA : 6 3d 197-208 av. 203 (206-215); 3 22 198-200 av. 199 (198-210).

93 Anas acuta (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Pintail | } 4 6 : 437

17:6gg 892 39? 3 albino.

1 Mesopotamia : ; 1 Persian Gulf; 1 Shiraz, Iran; 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Sind ;
1 Kutch; 1 Gujarat; 1 Panvel, { Nasik, Maharashtra; 1 Bihar; 3 Calcutta.
Market, 1 Gangpur State, Bengal ; 2 Assam ; | Tsingtaw, China.

Some of the females have unmarked underparts while others are
heavily spotted. Specimen No. 15441 (Calcutta Market) is a partial
albino with greatly reduced markings washed with pale brown on the
upperparts. Two other albinos (No. 15443-4) show some differences —
in the proportions of their bills, but all the measurements are within the

range noted for the species.

i Anas crecca crecca Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Teal 6: 431
13 gg 5922 20? 1 head only*.

1 ean Germany ; 2 Mesopotamia; 1 Iran; 1 Quetta, Baluchistan* = 3 Sind ;-

2 Chitral; 1 Kashmir; 1 Delhi ; 2 Calcutta Market ; 3 Ghoti, Maharashtra ; 2

Burma ; 1 Peking, China. : .

*The head displays gynandromorphism, in the form of the rufous

and green eye-patch of the breeding male on one side and the female

or winter plumage on the other (see Salim Ali, JBNHS 44 : 127-130).

An excellent character by which it appears possible to separate this

species from Anas querquedula is that the shafts of the a are
brown against pure white in querquedula. |

95 Anas formosa Geore! (Lake Baikal, Siberia) Baikal or Clucking

Teal. (6 : 433
(SSS 1292160?

1 Dungagali, N.W.F.P.; 1 Bhimasar, Kutch ; 1 Juhar, Ahmedabad ; 1 Bankipur,

Patna, Bihar ; 4 Assam ; 2 Tientsin, 1 Peking, China. |

One in female plumage was registered under Anas querquedula and

another under Nettion albogularis, both from Assam, . ei

[23]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY: NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-—2 423

~The legs and feet of all the specimens appear as if they were originally
red or orange.

The trivial name means ‘pretty’ from the Latin formosus (Delacour
& Scott, WATERFOWL OF THE WORLD 2: 103) and the name Formosa
Teal, often applied to this species, is unwarranted.

96 Anas gibberifrons albogularis (Hume) (Andamans) Grey Teal
6:

435
Roo 66 (eee Lo?

3 Port Blair, South Andamans ; 4 Betapur, Middle Andamans.
For remarks on validity of Fleming’s /eucopareus from North Reef
and Middle Andaman Islands, see Abdulali 1967 (JBNHS 64 : 154).

97 Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster (Ceylon) Spotbill
Duck . : 6: 421
~—9:23d 292 So? talbinoid.
1 Sirsa, Punjab; 3 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 2 Daman, Gujarat; 2 Nasik,
Maharashtra ; 1 Upper Assam.
Wing 253-291; bill 55-61.

According to the FAUNA, the young are like the adults but i no red
spots on the bill. Specimen No. 25356 from Sirsa, Punjab, has dis-
tinct red spots though it is not yet fully grown—bill 47 (next smallest
measurement : 52) and wing 246 (248). The rump is also paler than
in the adults and the head slightly but distinctly streaked—both ap-
parently good characters of juvenility as supported by specimens of
other races, Mr. M. J. S. Mackenzie of Chabua, Lakhimpur, Upper
Assam, informs me (in epist.) that he had seen traces of red spots in
three-week chicks.

~The feathers of the forehead terminate in a point in some birds and
in a short straight line in others. It has not been possible to associate
this character with age or sex, but an examination of a larger and cor-
rectly sexed series may perhaps explain it.

98 Anas poecilorhyncha haringtoni (Oates) (Shan States) 6 : 423
9+ 1 3 1 Q ko?

8 Taungyi, Southern Shan States ; 1 Fort Stedman, Burma.

This race was separated from the nominate form mainly because of
the absence of the red spots and the shorter bill. The latter character
is omitted in the FAUNA, but the specimens available, mostly unsexed,
ee wings 248-274 and bills 50-56.

- The fleshy spots at the base of the bill are distinctly present in some
Specimens, though now they all appear black, and not red. In the
BIRDS OF BURMA, p. 551, it is stated that the position of the different
races in Burma is not clear. Hopwood (JBNHS 18 : 498) said that all
but one of a dozen shot on the Upper Chindwin had black patches at

{24 ]

424. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

the base of the bill while the exception (15th February) was pure orange.
At the end of October in the same place 4 had orange patches with black
centres. Is it possible that in Burma the colour changes seasonally?
There is no evidence or suggestion that this is so in Indian birds. In
preserved specimens also, the red spots are distinct in the oldest skins.

99 Anas poecilorhyncha zonorhyncha Swinhoe (NINERS, China) Grey

sts 6 : 422
"1S 2 OF
; Pasighat Sadiya, Frontier ; 2 Chabua, Upper Assam (see JBNHS 63 : 438-440).
100 Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus (Sweden) Mallard 6 : 419
PEt Coie eo:

4 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Sind; 1 Bombay Market ; | Upper Chindwin; 1 Bhamo,
Burma ; 1 Tientsin, China.

While the wing measurements are in keeping with those in the FAUNA
and BR. HANDBOOK the bills in both sexes appear to be larger than sug-
gested therein :

766 53-60 av.56 (50-57 FAUNA; 50-56 HANDBOOK)

2 99 52-53 av. 50°5 (44-55; 43-52)

This is confirmed to some extent by Ticehurst (Birds of Sind, Ibis
1923 : 446) who measured ‘males 50-60°5 (mostly 54-58), females
47-55”.

In addition to the above, the collection includes a specimen (No.
15473) from Srinagar, Kashmir, which is very like a drake mallard but
has a spatulate beak, and a green-purple speculum. It is marked asa —
hybrid between a mallard and a shoveller.

101 Anas strepera strepera (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Gadwall 6: 426
16:10¢¢ 492 20? 1 juv.* 2; 1 albino.

6 Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf ;31 Shiraz*, Iran ; 3 Sind ; 1 Gujarat ; 3 Kolaba,

1 North Chanda, Maharashtra ; 1 Saran, Bihar.

The males are noticeably larger than the females, and have their
wings 257-275 av. 268. These measurements are nearer those in the
BR. HANDBOOK (3 : 244) 260-282 than in the FAUNA 270-285, The albino
from Basra, Iraq, marked 2 (wing [230), has her bill proportionately
larger (44) and narrower (14) than in any of the others. ©

Specimen No. 15384 from Kashmir marked as a hybrid gadwall/
mallard is not included above?.

102 Anas falcata Georgi (Asiatic Russia) Falcated Teal 6 : 424
20:93¢ 592 60? 1 head only.
$3 wing 243-266 av. 253; bill41-47 av. 44.

1The five hybrid ducks in the collection are being separately reported o
Dr. J. Harrison in a later issue of the Journal. : hea 5 d on by.

[25]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--2 425

92 wing 226-259 av. 238; bill 37-43 av. 40.
~ 1 Rawalpindi, 1 Jullundur, 3 Karnal, Punjab; 1 Sind; 1 Delhi; 4 Roorkee,
1 Gonda, 1 Jogwala Jheel, Lhaskar, U.P.; 2 Calcutta Market; 1 Imphal,
Manipur, | Chabua, Upper Assam ; 2 Peking, 1 Tientsin, China.

In Birds of Mesopotamia, JBNHS 28: 331, a bird shot by Thornhill
but not preserved is mentioned but the record is omitted in recent lite-
rature. H.S. Wood in MILESTONES OF MEMORY (1950) p. 145 refers to
one shot in Mesopotamia during World War I; I do not know if this
is the same or another instance.

The collection contains two other birds (No. 15474 Imphal, Assam,
and 15479 Calcutta Market) which are similar to the males of this species
except that bills widen at the tip to varying extents and are 55 and
53mm.long. One of them is marked in Salim Ali’s handwriting ‘ Bronze-
capped Teal-Shoveller hybrid—Identified by E. C. Stuart Baker, who
cannot explain the presence of chestnut on wings (His letter d/26.6.26) ’.
This letter is not now available.

103 Anas penelope Linnaeus (Sweden) Wigeon 6 : 429

25:12¢6 792 60? 1 albinoid.
1 Germany ; 1 Mesopotamia ; 3 Iran; 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 3 Punjab; 6 Sind;
2 Nasik, 1 Panvel, Maharashtra; 1 Delhi; 1 Roorkee, 1 Dhanari, U.P.;
2 Calcutta Market ; 1 Upper Burma.
_ The males have wings larger (248-261 av. 254) than the females
(232-244 av. 238) but their bills are 32-37 and 31-36 both averaging 33,
A male from Roorkee, U.P., (No. 15403), is a partial albino having
pale brown markings on the upper surface and being all white below.

104 Anas querquedula Linnaeus (Sweden) Garganey 6 : 439

22:1033 692 60?

2 Rawalpindi, Punjab; 2 Sind; 2 Bharatpur; 2 Daman, Gujarat; 4 Ghoti,

2 Bombay, Maharashtra ; 4 Calcutta Market; 1 Alleppy, Kerala; 2 Lower
Burma ; 1 Yarkand, China.

Specimen No. 15456, unsexed, from Daman, Gujarat, has its bill
from feathers 39 mm. long and which is very similar in shape to that of
A. crecca as which it was originally registered. It has, however, blue
shoulders and white shafts to the wing quills which render the present
_ identification fairly certain.

105 Anas clypeata Linnaeus ers organ Shoveller 6: 442

~18:8g9 899 2 0?

2 Mesopotamia ; 1 Persian Gulf ; 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Srinagar, 1 Garampani,
Kashmir ; 1 Sind ; 2 Kharaghoda, Gujarat ; | Rex Rajputana ; 5 Nasik,

. Maharashtra ; 2 Calcutta Market.

_-Five males: with white upper breasts (24th December, January (2),
March and ‘ April-August’) are apparently in breeding plumage but,
though the sides of the head and neck are glossed with green, this colour

[26 ]

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2).

is absent at the top of the head. According to the FAUNA the whole
head and neck is glossy green, but Delacour (WATERFOWL OF THE WORLD
2: 187) says “head metallic green, blackish on the crown, the face and
the foreneck’.

106 Rhodonessa caryophyliacea (Latham) (India) Pinkheaded Duck:

6: 390
Ba oo Oto?

| Palia, north of Kheri District, U.P. (1921); 1 Darbhanga, Bihar (1903);
1 Alipore Zoo (1897); 1 Calcutta Market (1899); 1 Sinju Kulag, Mandalay
District,-Upper Burma (1909).

Burma is excluded from the range of this species, now believed to be

extinct, in the SYNopsis, but the above specimen was recorded (JBNHS’

19 : 264) and there are earlier records from Arakan and Bhamo.

107 Nettarufina (Pallas) (Caspian Sea) Redcrested Pochard 6:448

177 Gee Le oO!
1 Persian Gulf; 1 Mesopotamia ; 1 Shiraz, Persia; 1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P. ;
5 Sind ; 1 Ahmednagar; | Vizianagram, south India ; 1 Rajputta Saran, Bihar ;
2 Calcutta Market ; 1 Gauhati, Assam ; 2 Mandalay, Burma.
The bill in some specimens, particularly males, appears to taper more
prominently than in others.

108 Aythya ferina (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common Pochard 6 : 450
153 836 5.52.20? 3

1 Mesopotamia; 1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P.; | Tho Rajputana ; 1 Indore,
Central India ; 1 Saugor, Madhya Pradesh ; 2 Saran, Bihar ; 3 Nasik, 2 Thana,
1 Bombay Harbour, Maharashtra ; 2 Calcutta Market.

Wing Bill.
& 200-215: 'av. 207. (210-225) 47-52. av.49 (43-50
2 199-201 av. 200 (200-213) 45-47 av. 46 -50)

109 Aythya nyroca (Guldenstadt) (S. Russia) White- ered Pochard
6 : 453
16° 68 529) 40;?

3 Persian Gulf; 1 Aliabad, Iran; 1 Nowshera, N.W.F.P.; 1 Larkana, Sind; 1
Ghoti, Nasik, 1 Greater Bombay, Maharashtra ; 1 Saugor, Madhya Pradesh ;
1 Meerut, U.P. ; 3 Calcutta Market ; 3 Assam.
The bills in 6 males measure 38-43 av. 41 (4 females 39-42 av. 40)
against 27- 30 in the FAUNA and 40-43 in BR. HANDBOOK (3 : 292).
Specimen Nos. 15529 (Calcutta Market) and 15332/3 (Imphal, Assam)
differ in having no. pure white on the underparts, this being replaced by
a greyish brown, many of the feathers (almost entirely in one) having
whitish margins. The only bird sexed, a male, shows signs of typical
reddish brown-on the head and upper breast. This is apparently a sub-
adult plumage of which there does not appear to be any mention in the
standard literature available to us.
a oe

BIRDS .IN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—-2 427

110 Aythya baeri (Radde) (upper Salbatch Plain, middle Amur
River, Siberia) Baer’s Pochard 6: 454
4:393 192.
2 Calcutta Market ; | Manipur, Assam ; | Peking, China.
The males have their wings 208 (2) 209 (208-240), and the female
198 (193-215) and the bills 46-47 (2) in the males and 41 in the female,
against 39-42 in the FAUNA, presumably for both sexes.
In addition to the dark head, both sexes are noticeably larger than
A. nyroca.
Specimen No. 15534, a female from Patao, Upper Burma, listed
in this species is paler all over and has been identified as N. fuligula by
Dr. Ripley to whom it was sent.

111 Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Tufted Duck 6 : 458
5 63gd 999 20?
1 Pithoro, Sind; 1 Viramgam, Gujarat ; 2 Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; | Agra, U.P. ;
1 Gwalior ; 2 Ghoti, 2 Thana, | Ratnagiri, Maharashtra; I Jeypore, Orissa ;
2 Calcutta Market ; | Patao, Upper Burma, | Prome District, Burma ; 1 Tientsin,
China.

112 Aythya marila marila (Linnaeus) (Lapland) Scaup Duck 6: 456

Pel SLO?

1 Imphal, Manipur ; | Ahmednagar, Maharashtra.

The male from Imphal (No. 15539) has its wings 203 (g¢ 220-230 ;
2 210-220. BR. HANDBOOK 3 : 307) and the other, which is very similar in
appearance, 215 mm. The vermiculations on the upper surface are
also vestigial and very different from those shown in the plate in BR.
HANDBOOK. Accordingly both were sent to Dr. Ripley, who confirms
that they are of the nominate form.

113. Aix galericulata (Linnaeus) (China) Mandarin Duck 6: 394
2:14 12 Imphal, Manipur, Assam. 7
This pair, which were among 4 birds shot and recorded in JBNHS
37 : 490 are omitted in the SYNOPSIS.
Both birds have larger wings, § 244 (223-240) and Q 225 (170-197)
than indicated in FAUNA though Delacour (1959, THE WATERFOWL OF
THE WORLD 3: 106) measures females 217-230.

114 Nettapus coromandelianus coromandelianus (Gmelin) (Coromandel,
India) Cotton Teal 6 : 392
2615.65. 822 30? | albino*. 1 juv.
2 Kutch; 1 Ahmedabad, 2 Daman, Gujarat ; | Dhar, Central India ; 9 Thana,
1 Khandala, Maharashtra ; 1 Saugor, | Kanker, Madhya Pradesh ; 1 Yellapur,
N. Kanara; 1*Madras; | Baghowni, Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market, Bengal;
1 Kheri, U.P.; 1 Ataran, | Little Tenasserim, Burma.

i [ 28 ]

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

The males have wings (153-172 av. 162) slightly larger than the
females (151-160 av. 156°6) but the bills in both sexes range from 21-24
barely averaging larger in the males.

Blanford (4 : 433) referred to a summer-winter plumage in males, but
Stuart Baker described the former as an adult plumage and made no
reference to seasonal changes. From the series available there can be
little doubt that the ‘ final’ plumage with black breast band, vermicula-
tions at the sides, and black undertail coverts represents a breeding
plumage acquired in March/ April and discarded by December or pro-
bably earlier. At this time only the white patch and the green on the
wings separate them from the females.

A young male (19th February) is very like a female while another
(3rd March) has acquired a little green on the upper-parts.

115 Sarkidiornis melanotos melanotos (Pennant) (Ceylon) Nakta,
Comb Duck 6 : 385
13: 5 33 (3 by size and plumage) 592 30?
2 Sind; 1 Mahikanta, 2 Bhuj, Kutch, Gujarat; | Dhar, C.1.; Handa, M.P. ;
3 Nasik, 1 Kolhapur, Maharashtra ; 1 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Calcutta Market.
The measurements, particularly of the bills, differ from those in the
FAUNA :

Wing Bill
3 335-370 av. 353 (339-406) 52-60 av. 55 (63-70)
© 293-305 av. 298 (280-309) 44-48 av. 47 (59-66)

116 Cairina scutulata (S. Muller) (Java) Whitewinged Wood-Duck
6 : 387
10:4¢3 392 30?
1 Dibrugarh, 2 Sadiya, 2 Chungki, Manipur, 5 Burma.
In the small series some of the measurements are a little different
from those in the FAUNA : .

Wing Bill
g 321-375 av. 343 (363-401) 59-66 av. 62 (58-66)
2 315-341 av. 329 (305-356) 58-61 av. 59

In view of the general paucity of information regarding the breeding
habits of this bird (only one egg is referred to in NIDIFICATION) the follow-
ing from Wood’s SHIKAR MEMORIES (1934, p. 183) may be worth quoting :
‘Close to one of the deserted tanks in heavy forest [near Dimapur,
Sibsagar, Assam—H.A.], I saw an old tree bare of everything and in it
there were six nests of the Wood-duck. Several were sitting at the time.
Those eggs would be worth a lot of money now ! ’

[29]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-—-2 429

117 Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus) (Northern Sweden) Longtail or
Old Squaw Duck
2:13 12 (by plumage).
1 Chaman, Baluchistan ; | Drig, Larkana, Sind.
_ The male’s wing is 211 against 219-236 in BR. HANDBOOK (3 : 323).

118 Bucephala clangula clangula (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Goldeneye Duck
6 : 460
6:13 592 (4 by piumage).
1 20 miles from Babylon; | Margil, Basra, Mesopotamia ; | Kalabagh, Mianwali,
1 Jhelum, Punjab ; 1 Roorkee, U.P. ; 1 Tientsin, China.
The five females have their wings 189-202 av. 195, slightly smaller
than 197-213 in FAUNA and 197-210 in BR. HANDBOOK (3 : 313).

119 Méergus albellus Linnaeus (Mediterranean Sea near Smyrna) Smew
. 6 : 466
15:4¢¢ 722 40?

2 Mesopotamia; 1 Shiraz, Iran; 5 Sind; 1! Gujarat; ! Meerut, U.P. ;

1 Monghyr, Bihar ; 3 Peking Market, 1 North China.

Among the females and unsexed specimens some appear to have
smaller wings (under 180 mm.) and bills (25-26) than others (wings 180-
204 ; bills 28-30). Though more of the smaller ones appear to be from
the east, I cannot associate them with any character of plumage or
Separate areas as would permit me to suggest a subspecific separation.
Larger series may perhaps be examined to advantage.

120 Mergus merganser merganser Linnaeus (Sweden) Goosander,
Common Merganser 6: 469
B22 266 19.
2 Peking, 1 Tientsin, China.
dd wing 280-283.

*121 Mergus merganser comatus (Salvadori) (Native Sikkim)
7:53 (2 by plumage) 12 *2 heads only.
*| Dadapur, Ravi River, Punjab; 1 Marshalong nr. Leh, 12,000’, Kashmir; *3
Garhwal, U.P.; 1 Gangpur, Bihar; 1 Goalpara, Assam.

The ¢ wings 278-300 do not differ from those of the Chinese birds
listed as of the nominate race, but the bills are distinctly different in shape
(see sketch) and shorter. The latter is best indicated by a measurement
from the notch in the feathering at the base—60-65 av. 61°4 against 68
and 69 in the others, which are also stouter.

Of the two females available, the head and the grey upper parts of
the Garhwal bird are paler than those of the Chinese.

As this agrees more closely with Vaurie’s version (pp. 140-142) of
comatus rather than *orientalis Gould (accepted in FAUNA and SYNOPSIS
but which Vaurie merges with the nominate form), | am accepting the
Himalayan birds as comatus.

[ 30 ]

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi: 65 (2)

The bird from the Ib River, a tributary of the Mahanadi, was shot, by
the Ruler of Gangpur on 31 December 1958, out of a flock of some

—— aay. a ee
PIL he
3 aa See ra

fifteen birds. D’Abreau, JBNHS 38, p. 116, referred to one shot on

the Mahanadi in the adjoining Raipur District, indicating that this

species occurs further south than is generally accepted.

122 Mergus serrator Linnaeus (Sweden) Redbreasted Merganser
6 : 473
lo? No. 15598 Ormara, Mekran. Wing 218 (moulting); bill 55. —

2 females of Mergus merganser from China and Garhwal were listed
under this species. As well illustrated in BR. HANDBOOK (3 :.337) the
nostril is nearer the base of the bill than in M. merganser and this appears
to be a useful and reliable character.

123 Oxyura leucocephala (Scopoli) (Probably from northern Italy)
Whiteheaded Stifftailed Duck | 6 : 463

16j2.3 66-292 AL o?, :) tpull*
*1 Bahm-i-Shur Lake, Fars, Iran; 1 Kashgar, China ; 5 Baluchistan ; 3 N.W.F.P. ;
5 Punjab ; 1 Sind.
Wing Bill

355 162-164 av.163 (160-168) 45-47 av. 46 (46-49)

2 29 157-158 av. 157 (150-157) 43 (2) (45-47)

100? 150-158 42-47

(to be continued)

13t4

The Nilgiri Wild Life Association
and Status of Wild Life
in the Nilgiris

BR Co DAVIDAR
(With two places)
[NG RO DU C ELON

The Nilgiri Wild Life Association, for a long time known as the
Nilgiri Game Association, was formed in Ootacamund in 1877 by a band
of keen sportsmen, who feared that the indiscriminate shooting and
fishing that was then taking place would exterminate all game and fish in
the Nilgiris unless immediate action was taken. The stated objects were
‘ the preservation and management of the existing wild life in the Nilgiris
District and the adjoining areas included under Madras Act IT of 1879
and the introduction and preservation of other birds, animals and fish.’
Beginning with restrictions upon themselves in the form of close seasons
etc., the founders urged the Government to bring in legislation aimed at
preserving game and fish. As a result, in 1879 the Government
of Madras passed the Nilgiris Game and.Fish Preservation Act, the first
piece of legislation of its kind in India.

Almost from the start this body was associated with the regulation
and management of shooting. In 1926 the management of the rainbow
trout fishery, started at the Association’s instance, was also entrusted to
its care. And with that the Association had grown to its full stature.
In the December 1939 issue of this Journal (41 : 384-396), the late Lt.
Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, from whom I took over as Hon. Superin-
_tendent of the Association in 1958 and continued till January 1964,
reviewed the work of the Association. In the 90th year of its existence
it is time that its position is reviewed again. These notes are written
with this object.

CONSTITUTION

The holders of season shooting licences and until recently annual
trout fishing licences of the Nilgiris automatically become members of
the Association during the currency of their licences, On an average

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

there are 150 such members in a year. But with the taking over by
the Government Fisheries Department of the trout fishery and the
imposition of new restrictions prohibiting the issue of shooting licences
to persons holding licences for other Forest Divisions in the State the
membership is expected to drop to about 50. Besides, there are
Honorary Members, most of them officials. The Collector of the
Nilgiris is the President and the District Forest Officer, Nilgiris Divi-
sion, is the Honorary Secretary. The affairs of the Association are
managed by a committee consisting of not more than 24 members
assisted by an Honorary Superintendent elected from among the
members. Thus, although the Association is a private body, Govern-
ment interests are fully protected and there is happy co-operation between
officials and non-officials at the district level, which is most essential for
successful wild life preservation,

~ FENANCES

The money obtained from the scale of shooting and until recently
trout fishing licences is made over to the Association by Government
and is the chief source of revenue. Rent from Game Huts, boat hire
charges, profits on sale of maps, etc. are the other sources. With the
loss of the income from the sale of trout fishing licences, the Associa-
tion’s finances are in a delicate position. Fortunately the Association
is in a position to exist for a decade or two on its investments.

ACTIVITIES

The Association maintains a staff of game watchers for the protec-
tion of wild life and fish and generally assists the Forest Department
in the enforcement of game laws. This includes prevention of offences
and detection thereof when committed. It maintains two Anti-Poaching
gates in the low country’ to prevent motor car poaching, and pays
rewards for the detection of crime.

It advises on the formulation of wild life and fish preservation rules
and regulations, taking into consideration local conditions.

It runs an office for the convenience of resident and tourist sports-
men, which assists in the screening and issue of licences, maintains
statistics and records, and has a small library. It prepares and sells maps,
issues booklets on shooting, and publishes a printed report annually.

’ The Nilgiris are made up of two plateaux. The upper plateau, with an ele-
vation of 6000-8000 ft. above m.s.1., is referred to in these notes as the ‘ plateau ’,
the lower plateau with an average elevation of 3000 ft. as the ‘low country ’, and
the slope between the two plateaux as the ‘ slopes’.

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 433

It acts as a liaison between the Forest, and Revenue OBA aga in this
field at the district level.

The Association owns and maintains two game huts on the plateau,
and plies a boat on the Mukerti Lake. It conducts census operation
whenever necessary, and assists in research. It maintains a register of
professional shikaris and regulates their profession. It pays rewards for
the destruction of vermin, and has instituted prizes in Forest Colleges
to promote the study of wild life and wild life preservation consciousness.
It maintains certain tracks and approaches.

The Association represents wild life and shooting interests on the
State Wild Life Board, and wild life and fish interests in the local tourists
advisory committee. Its most important activity is the prevention of
poaching through the activities of honorary Game Wardens and sports-
men, whose mere presence in the jungles is a deterrent to the poacher,
both official and non-official. It acts generally as a watch dog jin all
matters connected with wild life management and preservation.

These are some of the more important of the Association’s activities.

STATUS OF WILD LIFE

Elephant. Elephants are strictly protected and only those that are
proscribed are allowed to be shot by licence holders. Such proscrip-
tions are quite rare although about half a dozen people are killed by
elephants every year. Solitary bulls raid crops and get peppered with
buck shot, protection not extending to private lands, and when the
wounds fester these pain-maddened beasts turn on their human tormen-
tors. Fortunately in most cases this fit of madness passes with the
healing of the wound. But solitary elephants are best avoided at all
times. Elephants are found in the low country. But there have been
rare cases of stragglers visiting the plateau by the Sispara Pass for very
brief periods. As regards its status, there are more elephants now than
there were 2 to 15 years ago, probably more than at any time before
in living memory. Not all this increase is due to migrations from
Mysore and Kerala as some people believe. The number of calves in
each herd would show that there is really an explosion of elephant
population. Unless some thing is done to check their numbers the
Nilgiri elephants are-going to make themselves a thorough nuisance.

_ Gaur. Confined to the low country and the slopes. Gaur are on
the increase. The country around Mudumalai in the Sanctuary being
more favourable, more are found there. Shootable bulls, that is bulls
whose horns have a span of 33 inches and above or a girth of 18 inches
and above, are not easy to find in the shooting area except on the difti-
cult slopes,

434. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

There are some herds on the southern slopes both above and below
Mettupalayam which falls within the area covered by the Nilgiris game
licence. With the loss of shooting territory around Mudumalai
efforts are being made to popularise this area to shooting and thus
better preserve the wild life in the area. Already these efforts are bearing
fruit.

Sambar. Writing in the December 1939 issue of the Journal Lt. Col.
Phythian-Adams, wrote: ‘ Though a fair number are to be found
in the low country the great majority are on the plateau where
they have so increased in spite of ravages of tigers, panthers, and wild
dogs....’. Alas, the position of the sambar on the plateau is far from
satisfactory today. Except in a few pockets where there are between
half a dozen to a dozen animals, the sambar is very scarce. Estate
labour with dogs killed quite a few. But poachers could not have
accounted for all the missing sambar, for poaching never get out of
hand in the Nilgiris as in the other districts. How they could have
disappeared even from areas where no poaching took place is a mystery.
However, it is comforting to know that there are more sambar on the
plateau today than there were a few years ago. As soon as there is an
appreciable increase, wild dogs invade the plateau from the low country
in numbers and bring down the population. In 1960 there was such
an invasion and in one bay of the Pykara Lake alone 14 sambar skulls
were recovered. It is hoped that the new wattle plantations of the
Forest Department on the plateau will provide more cover for the
sambar and help it to some extent to make a come back. But this
would depend upon the extent of grassland left for it to feed upon. In
the low country sambar are definitely on the increase. But shootable
herds continue to be shy and come out late in the evening and retire
before dawn, when they cannot be legitimately shot.

A 443-incher, a record for the Nilgiris, was shot on the plateau in
1952. | |

The bag limit on an annual licence has been further reduced from
two to one. The size limit remains at 28 in. |

Chital. This species has recorded a spectacular increase. Herds
of a hundred or more are not uncommon. In 1939 Lt. Col. Pythian-
Adams wrote: ‘The great majority of the stags shot come from the
Mudumalai Forest’. Mudumalai is now in the heart of the wild life
sanctuary of that name, but the concentration has moved east and
large herds are now found around Masinigudi and Anaikatty. Stags
with antlers of 35 in. and 36 ins. are obtained every year. 37 in. and
38 inches are by no means rare. This shows that the chital has improved
not only in numbers but in quality also. Until about the end of the
last century a 324} in. head was considered a prize (vide SPORT ON THE

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2)
Davidar: Nilgiri Wild Life Association

Wild Tusker in Bamboo—Sigur
(Photos : Author)

J BompBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2)

Davidar: Nilgiri Wild Life Association

Nilgiri Rainbow Trout on spawning bed—Avalanche
(Photos : Author)

PLATE [I

THE NILGIR! WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 43

in

NILGIRIS by F. W. F. Fletcher). A close season is observed between June
and October and, during part of the open season, many of the stags
are in velvet and cannot be shot. Two stags are allowed on an
annual licence, but to prevent over-shooting the rule imposes a 30-day
interval between the shooting of the Ist and the 2nd stag. Some
culling may have to be done in the not distant future by sacrificing a
few old does periodically in the larger interests of the species.

Nilgiri Tahr. The 1963 census (vide April 1963 issue of the Journal)
revealed that there are not less than 300 animals living on the cliffs along
the western face of the plateau. This stock was built from the few
that were left at the end of the last century.

Only * saddle backs’ are allowed to be shot and their numbers vary
from year to year. No spectacular heads have been obtained in recent
years.

Roads have been formed under the Kundah Hydro-Electric Scheme
right in the heart of the tahr country and thousands of workmen are
living and working on the scheme in places where the tahr was the sole
inhabitant. This is only a passing phase. After the project is com-
pleted only a skeleton maintenance staff will remain and peace will
return. But the real danger to the tahr lies in the wattle and blue-
gum plantations of the Forest Department which are spreading their
tentacles far and wide and in many places right up to the verge of the
cliffs. Depriving the tahr of its feeding grounds will certainly not be
in the interests of the preservation of the animal. The Association
has been trying hard for the reservation of a belt of grass along the
cliff line, but the assurances given to it are repeatedly broken. The
future of the tahr will depend upon what is left to it to eat.

Blackbuck. There were not many of these antelopes at any time.
In 1951 a state-wide ban was placed on the shooting of these animals.
Once the sportsmen lost interest even the few that were left vanished
from their old haunts around Masinigudi, Moyar and Kargudi. Being
partial to cultivation they must have fallen victims to the crop protec-
tion gun. A few are said to lead a precarious existence in the scrub
jungle between the Bhavani and Moyar Rivers above the Bhavanisagar
Reservoir. Here is a species which could be and ought to be reintro-
duced.

Barking Deer. This deer locally known as the ‘jungle sheep’, is
more partial to the plateau than to the low country. The conditions
on the plateau are so unsettled because of the work on the Kundah
Hydro Electric Project and the extensive wattle plantations of the
Forest Department that these deer venture out of the security of the

Sholas only late in the evening thus making it difficult to assess their

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

status. The cover provided by the new wattle plantations it is hoped
will help the barking deer to propagate its species provided enough
grassland is left unencroached. It is doubtful if this will be done.

The bag limit has been further reduced to two on an annual licence
and to one on a monthly licence.

Four-horned Antelope. The few that occur in the low country are
found chiefly in the light jungle above the Moyar Canyon. They are
now protected. One of their enemies is the ‘ sportsm2n’ who cannot
distinguish between the four-horned antelope and the barking deer !

Tiger. With the depletion of the vast sambar population on the
plateau and on account of the disturbed conditions prevailing there
few tigers are resident on the plateau. In the low country they are
maintaining their strength. The vast area of sanctuary and the tem-
porary protection now afforded them throughout the district there ought
to be more tigers. In fact this does not appear to be the case although
poisoning of tigers is not practised on a large scale. There have been
only a few suspected cases. Particularly in the case of the larger
canivore unless a realistic policy is adopted the ‘ protection’ afforded
them is likely to act to their detriment. Payment of compensation
during the closed period would be a right step in this direction.

Nilgiri Tigers have a deeper coat and are prettier. Except for a
very heavy tiger shot a few years ago there is no record of outsize tigers.

Tigers, panthers, and bears were classed as ‘game’ only recently.
The shooting of these animals is now prohibited altogether.

Panther. There are more panthers in the low country than on the
plateau. But they are by no means numerous and are very elusive.:
Black panthers are seen occasionally.

Bear. As in the case of gaur, the best bear country falls within the
sanctuary and those that are in the shooting area live in difficult country
along the slopes and are rarely met with during the day.

Hyena. These animals are not classified as game. Except for a
few stragglers on the plateau hyenas mainly occur in the low country
around Masinigudi and Anaikatti. Even there they are not nume-
rous and are seldom seen except at ‘ kills’.

Pig. The pig population fluctuates. For some years they go on
increasing then for some unknown reason their numbers go down.
They are equally at home in the low country as well as on the plateau.
They are also not classified as game and consequently there is no bag
limit.

Wild dog. This animal seldom takes up permanent residence on
the plateau, Some years they do not visit the plateau at all. They are.

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 437

numerous in the low country and do considerable damage living mostly
on young deer, ;

Small game. There are fewer jungle fowl in the plateau today
chiefly because the natural sholas are either being destroyed or replaced
with bluegum and wattle plantations. Some of the famous wood-
pigeon sholas have also vanished. So far as the winter visitors namely
woodcock and snipe are concerned there has been no appreciable
change. But with the exodus of the resident European sportsmen
who were chiefly interested in small game there are fewer pursuers of
game birds now.

‘In the low country ee and jungle-fowl have gore aced as compared
with a few years ago. Peafowl have registered a larger increase.

PROBLEMS FACING WILD LIFE

Among the many problems faced by wild life, indiscriminate slaughter
on and around private lands continues to be the gravest.

Next on the list are the arm-chair conservationist and the unrealis-
tic policy of the Government in closing of forests to shooting to placate
him without affording special protection to wild life in the area resulting
in wholesale slaughter.

Disturbed conditions prevailing | in the various hydro-electric pro-
ject areas, population pressures, increasing demands made on forest
lands, denudation of forests, disturbance of natural conditions and
forests by the planting of bluegum wattle and other such exotics on
a. massive scale, use of insecticides and pesticides, harmful to wild
life, excessive cattle grazing and consequent soil erosion,. and better
transport facilities have not been conducive to the preservation and
propagation of wild life. In spite of these handicaps wild life in the
Nilgiris has not done too badly and in the case of certain species has
shown a marked increase thanks to the wild life preservation con-
sciousness and sportsmanship roused by the Association.

FISHING

Experiments in trout culture began as early as 1863 and continued:
at great expense to the Association and.to private persons. But until
1906. when on the suggestion of the Association, the services of Mr. H. C:
Wilson as Fish Conservator were obtained from Ceylon, it was still in
the experimental stage. Mr. Wilson introduced the rainbow trout in
preference to the brown trout and, in 1909, built a hatchery at Avalanche
for its culture. By 1911 he had placed the Nilgiri trout fishery on a
sound footing.

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

In 1926 the Association resumed control of the trout: fishing on the
plateau and managed it till 1965. It discontinued running the hatchery
jn 1956 as by that time every trout stream was overstocked with small
trout. The main problem then was finding food for the trout.

Since then the conditions have changed. With the implementation
of the Kundah Hydro-Electric Scheme and the extension of the Pykara
Hydro-Electric Project almost all the trout streams have been dammed
or are in the process of being dammed. The miles of spawning
_ beds in every stream are now deep down under water and are useless
and artificially hatched out and bred trout have assumed importance
once more. As the Association could not run the hatchery with its’
slender resources it was made over to the Government Fisheries Depart-
ment in 1958. A modern hatchery with a larger capacity is necessary
if the trout fishery is to remain an attraction.

With the changed conditions the pattern of fishing has also changed.
Fly fishing which was the only authorised method of fishing is being
replaced by spinning. Wet-fly fishing is practised or rather anglers
are compelled to practise this art in the few streams that are left and
in the upper reaches of reservoirs.

For the first few years after each dam is built water backing up
behind the dam floods fields and forests and thus provides more food
for the trout and helps it to put on weight rapidly. It is then that the
sport is at its best. But, once the food supply is exhausted, the fish
start going back, and the loss of spawning grounds soon starts telling
upon their numbers as well. 3 : : .

The Fisheries Department’s idea of the introducing’ mirror carp into
every likely water would have ruined the trout fishery altogether had
not the, Association got the Government to agree to the reservation of
certain top level reservoirs exclusively for trout.

Every summer the reservoirs are almost drained dry and many trout
are lost in this manner.

To compensate for the lost trout streams, the Association success-
fully introduced trout into every stream on the plateau capable of hold-
ing trout.

As in the case of game preservation, fish is also best preserved by
associating anglers in the management of the fishery, particularly in a
delicate sport fishery like the trout fishery which cannot stand much
abuse. What the Association achieved with the expenditure of a few
thousand rupees the Fisheries Department is unable to do in spite of
spending enormous sums of money,

THE NILGIRI. WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 439
CONCLUSION

The experiment in associating the sporting public through the Asso-
ciation in wild life and fish preservation and preservation through well-
regulated shooting and fishing has proved an immense success as a
survey of the wild life and trout position in the Nilgiris as compared to
other similar areas in south India would show.

Unless the problems facing the Association and wild life and fish
preservation are appreciated and timely assistance rendered, the future
for both is none too bright.

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

| TABLE | /
BiG GAME SHOT BETWEEN THE YEARS 1940-1966

Licences .
= %. g < 2 E
6 8.8 6 8b. 8 Sb 2 Fo ees
GasO 2) Bure Goat ee ere
1940-42 6817. 13: 8 AS gis 46° 6 205
42-43 By Ome! es aes 9 60° 27.20" Bien 24
43-44 $) DSi ne Bri 6 ADA Be 6244-38. 2795
44-45 518 15a SH ae oe ea 71 5167 ee ede
P5AG? glee! Crean Vee Geen 28 86 46 47 25 36
4647 oc 110 A 3) Ee NG 92S Se tol an sone
A7-4B 2 AD 9G ASE Da ae 90s Too eo ee
48-40 OL OUTS so Ok Dine 34° S400 (95/9130 tae
49-50 5.9 9 VIS 6.105 15% at 99 21a Oe
5051... 7 9-47 92 6 40 58a eo eo oe
51-52 413 16'-2 Cs 5.8 A> 4ot ie, dom tg
BOER Ue cA bilk a ents an aC uD ea 30°. 89. 23.0 Oe mt e
53-54 ie ete uae 8 TP V82 eh eee
54-55. 4,5 S83 10) A 3 a 2 Re ee ee
55-56 5 CDi Mee aa eG 16 GC M0l? ah aes
56057 ee A 16 OS = Se Oe ee
57-58 3 4/322 CORR Ma hari 72, Oe Hi oe eae bieic
58-59 2) HARD G4 G6. 1 Me 30h SOT ioe es
59-60 5 2S 40°6 Cu 4 oe (31997 fe) donaon ita
60-61 ae Shh ie Chetek spit 16 C 109 32 6 |
61-62 3 12 46 C 1: ab 12 Ge 1935 eese ra
62-63 2.44) 98 Re CA aelore oO a Makes 8
63-64) cI 326 3 1 Soe Os ie ae 2
64-6505 0 As O90. Cs Ca nes ane
65-66 4 1 OAR Ge Nee ne
“T Nom: Ceclosed, ee eat ee

44}

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION

‘pasojo=9

0c v2 2) 2) € Ol O€ OV rl (4S ai (K6 OL 09 9¢ cS vs 99-S9
cl 6C ©) oS) e (G6 CY 8P O£ 18 81 9C Sl 08 l€ O08 tL 69-9
cE LC 2) 2) Oo OS $8 6£ EC LSI LO¢E 6P CV fe 6cl OP Col = GE p9-€9
(6 tv ©) 8) oe) 9¢ cP (6) SI OS Bale OC ee L 98 6C Ig 19 £9-C9
é Le 8) » 2 60 8t CL. Pl 98 60£ LS cl 91 6S CC v6 L9 c9-19
S vs 3) 2) 2) cs €8 eye OV Cll 617 €9 LE A! OL 9¢ cs L8 19-09
ce cv O 2) 2) 6L 8P VL OL L8t Stl 68 Of O£ LC vs 9¢ OO! 09-6S
9 6C ®) 3) oO 98 9¢ S8 6V LEG eS (G4 (GS (Go PS v9 Ci Cel 6S-8¢
LI A! oO O Ol Sie EC LV Ol LCG SL 06! cl L€ vv $9 (G4 Lol 8S-LS¢
SI cl 2) 2 61 Ps cv O08 LEG CULe 200 cel SI VC 6 fe 8P 86 LS-9¢
6 61 ©) ®) SI cS (G6 €¢ LEC 18 89 86 SC ce 6£ SP 6S L8 96-S¢
9 bee ®) 2) Oc cs LV CP Lt EL =-8S GEC ct 97 Tg tv €Or ¢¢ CS-rS
CY OV ©) 2) Ol SV OL EL ce OS vs SIT SV cs 69 6S (Ta\ VS-Es
ce CL eo) O Ec cs Ge vL €8 Clizeeered 987 ; c8 LOI 09 OL £6 CS-TS
8t SL ) 2) VC IL Ss 88I L8 OVC O8l ce 69 OUT Ss OLY 6 lle 081 cS-TS
Sv cS cl 6£ CC 18 8c OOc oti COE =—OE VPC OC 9¢ Eye [Sl = 9 Ie Sel 1S-0¢
js OL cv 8C | vcr PV SSI Sop oOOT'T OPE 97 8S L8 SES Ol i 00c OS-6P7
6S 8S eo 9S IZ 68 c8 AG, lotta] Oh STG oS CST 9¢ €8 vit eel OC LS Eri 6P-87
I€ Sv 8C SI Gl 89 HL £6 a 1 Spies eo L9I ce (4) 1 (4 ee 0 | 8cl = 8El 8P-LV
SI OV vat OC je, LE €€ GE OV SEC c6s LE PSs Sv 80I ¢¢ 61 Lv-9V
IC CV el vl I CL 6£ 08 18 VET 8 al LES C9 6I1 [8 2) OPS
ox 6C € ¢ (6 Le LY 6£ v8 6) Ol eSl L vl SC vs ve 8cl CV-Pr
OI ce 1G Vv C Lil L8 I¢ £9 cOE 8 SIs 8E 67 LOL OP 8cl = Stl PEP
PC OTT 6£ 69 if 9cl GO} -60T- 82 CLE oe COV C6 Iv LOT ©) lol —-crl tv-cv
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a | | { |
| =| | = ty
Bee Ee Pes) akon B. | Bt) Bel BS 8 | Be eee: :
See iee . S ) Se Sr eel eee oe fel pete ce Seer ice, = ae
2 : | i |
aspin) usy | yood | 313aq7) | = =y909 uodsIg IMO} uoy yooo
ar) aM -vog | Lae Sant read 8 Ppoom adiug | -indg qysunr gygune

“Poem

O961-6£61 SUVAA FHL NAAIMLIG LOHS INV TIVWS
Il agave

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

TABLE III
VERMIN DESTROYED AND OFFENCES REPORTED BETWEEN THE YEARS 1939-1984

VERMIN DESTROYED

Z 2 =
Be oe ee wee
jolt) S is) ise) m=
Year re} = 6 S = iB zs of
eal ee 5 $ > a Z . o 83 < s0
= a ) a 5 =
Se go 8 6 8 8 eee
Se ee = OS aa ee eee oe eee
1939-40 38 13 if 14
40-42 37 10 4 Ly bs 8 3
42-43 11 4 3 66 16 11 4
43-44 18 2 — 46 i oi oe ye 5 2
44-45 9 1 a 8 D 3 af a , 7
45-46 20 9 3 5 ‘| es 10 17 2
46-47 10 6 5 5 11 1 3 6 20 3
47-48 13 9 5 Poy ee 2 2 i a
48-49 14 ee 225 2300" 2 4 1 6 2 9 1
49-50 17-0. 3429 26 21 49 1 oe 1 7 =) 2
50-51 1G * 53 9 8 19 1 1 2 5 8 I
51-52 PA ety 3 2 ps 24 1 1 1 1 3 a
52-53 Qe One Goes ty * 3 8 1
53-54 5. 30) eal 15° 330 2 ov a6 6 2
54-55 Gre 23 6 Die 23 1 5 4 5 8 44
55-56 3 36 ake S82 p) 8 6 4 7 1
56-57 20°38 12 Vo iS {5 2 6 5 5 8 7
57-58 6 40 9 26. = 2 1 2 4 2 oie ete
58-59 9 12 8 LVS AT Z 2 2 5 te
59-60 10532 4 Sar) a A 1 6 Pen valle
60-61 11 15 3 6 6 | | » oe 14. - ag
61-62 & \ 19 3) 5 + em, 3 12°.
62-63 6} 8 1 1 4 5 2 Lb. 42
63-64 Ore 2s 3 5 60 6 3 Benne ©

POACHING AND VERMIN

Poaching can never be rooted out entirely. But the existence of the Associa-
tion and the activities of its members and staff and, of course, the Forest and
Fisheries staff help to keep it within bounds. Poaching by licence-holders and |
officials is not as serious as in other districts. Motor car poaching has been ©
brought under control since the erection of the anti-poaching gates. Poaching —
cases are dealt with through the Forest Department and the courts. In deserving
cases rewards are paid. |

Rewards are paid for the destruction of vermin and their numbers are thus
kept in check.

THE NILGIRI WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION 443
TABLE IV

FISHING RETURNS BETWEEN THE YEARS 1939-1964 '

lb. 2Ibs. 3lbs.» 41bs. 5 ibs, © Put

Meer biliedl, Shs hey Oh ORS Pr aaa
over over over over over turne d)

1939-40 3847 321 82 6 1870
40-41 4237 220 30 1 me 7 2268
41-42 5392 213 20 Ae a BY 2943

_ 42-43 4578 229 24 cn ai Be 2693
43-44 5269 291 47 5 ; 2082
44-45 3202 202 64 5 3125
45-46 4112 Dis 38 8 3648
46-47 4010 156 21 nt BY Ye 2811
47-48 5366 216 24 2) ae st 2911
48-49 2869 244 23 2 ; 1278
49-50 3493 141 8 756
50-51 2655 146 18 3 587
51-52 2950 102 A 1118
52-53 2563 88 4 2 me ) 515
53-54 1972 108 5 a she a 423
54-55 1985 143 75) 11 ant hy 732
55-56 1432 141 35 27 12 hd 473
56-57 1973 146 56 32 17 11 771
57-58 3801 75 50 5 2 Ne 1547
58-59 2505 67 34 4 1 , . 1449
59-60 2812 82 11 4 1 1417
60-61 2573 143 29 19 11 9 1703
61-62 2153 184 76 45 24 8 1362
62-63 2613 421 78 40 13 5 1542

2

11

On the relation between age and linear
measurements of the Pearl Oyster,
Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher), of the
Gulf of Kutch

BY

K. R. NARAYANAN AND M. S. MICHAEL
Fisheries Research Station, Government of Gujarat, Jamnagar

(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The coral reefs along the northern coast of Jamnagar District,
Gujarat State, yield good quantities of Mother of Pearl Oysters. Their
systematics have not been worked out in detail so far, but they have
been provisionally identified as Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher), which
name is used in this paper. Regular pearl fisheries have been conduc-
ted in the area and records are available from the year 1913. The authors
are not aware of detailed investigations on the oysters from this locality
except by Gokhale et al. (1954), who studied the age, growth rate
and approximate age of pearlformation. In the present study an attempt
is made to relate the age of the oysters (as represented by the annual
growth rings) with the linear measurements, like length, breadth, hinge
length, thickness, and hinge width and to examine the dependability of
these measurements in assessing the age of the oysters.

PREVIOUS WORK

Hornell (1922) found that ‘ the growth rate of the Indian oysters is
distinctly retarded after the third year, the life conditions being more
favourable to the young than the old ’, and that * the hinge line is shallow
at first but with increasing age, becomes deeper and gutter-like’. ‘ Its
depth and width are our best indications of the age of the oyster’. Cahn
(1949) reports that Yamagouchi working on the developmental history
of the Japanese Pearl Oyster, Pinctada martensii observed that the growth
rate is fast up to the fourth year, after which it is retarded. Devanesan &
Chidambaram (1956) also observed that the rate of increase in the

AGE AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PEARL OYSTER 445

measurements is great in the young oysters and decreases with age and
that the number of growth rings cannot be accepted as a key for deter-
mining the age of the oysters, as * these concentric curving lines are too
closely set in the young and are generally abraded in the adult’. How-
ever, Rao (1951) had used such rings in ascertaining the age of Katelysia
opima (Gmelin). According to him, the rings are ‘ disturbance rings,

‘caused by the cessation of growth, which may be due to drop of salinity

of sea water’. Gokhale et al. (1954) found that the rings are formed
annually on the shells of the oysters and hence used them as indicators
of age of oysters and that the thickness gave more consistent data than
other measurements. Though Hornell (1922) had recommended the use
of hinge width and hinge depth measurements in aging oysters, these two
measurements, it appears, have not been studied by other authors except-
ing Tranter (1958), who observed that the Australian Pearl Oyster, Pinc-
tada albina (Lamarck), attained maturity at a heel depth of 0°5 mm.

Alagaraja (1962) studied the length-weight relation of pearl oysters of

the Gulf of Mannar but has not indicated the relationship between age
and thickness or hinge.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The material used is the data on length, breadth, hinge length, hinge
width, thickness, and the growth rings of pearl oysters reared in the Pearl
Oyster Park and the sea-water tank at Sikka, by the Department of
Fisheries, Gujarat State. In addition, measurements of about a thousand
oysters collected at random during the survey conducted by the Fisheries
Research Station, Government of Gujarat, Jamnagar, in 1964, have also
been incorporated.

The authors have followed the terminology, as adopted by Devanesan
& Chidambaram (1956) Length is the actual depth of the animal

ba
Fig. 1 H : Hinge; T-T1 ; Thickness ; W-W1 ; Hinge width.

jand indicates the longest distance between the hinge line and the
| outer margin of the valves. Breadth is the maximum distance, along the

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

antero-posterior axis of the body and corresponds to the actual length of
the animal. Thickness, the maximum distance between the external
surfaces of the two valves. The hinge length is the actual length of the
animal along the hinge line, and the hinge width, the maximum distance
between the edges of the two valves at the hinge (Fig. 1).

The measurements, excepting hinge width, were measured with vernier
callipers and the hinge width with a pair of dividers. All linear measure-
ments are in millimetres.

DATA ANALYSIS

The weighed mean of the length, breadth and hinge length of the
valves were worked out age-wise and are shown in Table 1.

TABLE |
Age in years Length Breadth Hinge length
1 44°05 42°14 38°42
2 61°68 58°93 55°45
3 76:20 67°66 62°00
4 81°62 74°32 66°09
5 85°15 T1735 69°37
6 86°65 80°50 72°44
7 86°67 76°70 69°84

It is apparent from the table that the length, breadth and the hinge
length increase with age. The rate of increase is rapid up to the third
year, but retarded subsequently and is negligible after the sixth year. This
might be due to the lessening of the metabolic rate of the animal with
increasing age (Fig. 2). These observations agree generally with those
of Hornell (1922), Cahn (1949), Devanesan & Chidambaram (1956) and —
Gokhale et al. (1954). However, Hornell’s contention that the lessen-
ing of the rate of growth is due to encrustations has not been accepted
by Gokhale et al. (1954). Our observations support the views of the
latter since the oysters studied were periodically checked and cleaned of
encrustations at regular intervals. |

The thickness and hinge width were correlated with the annual growth |
rings, as shown in Tables 2 and 3. |

As can be seen from Table 4, the age-wise increase in thickness and |
hinge width are more or less uniform, though not constant (Figs. 4 and |
5). There is no retardation in the increase of these measurements at any |
particular stage, unlike in length, breadth and hinge length. |

92.

Be.

él.

60,

52.
48,
iy,

ko.

MERSUREMENTS {IN IN.M.-

TE AND LINEAR MEASUREMEN
a hs t

' P roy
ea Tl 0m bed i

——,= LENGTH

TS OF THE PEAR

{
(

Tul nee yaa) a

i
Abas
be Bee

rat

a

~--— - BREADTH

o—e - HINGE LENGTH

AGE IN YEARS
Fig. 2

Qe

L OYSTER 447

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (2)

TABLE 2

CORRELATION BETWEEN AGE AND THICKNESS

Number of oysters of the age group

J URGRIGES [p= a eos

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19 11 = —= ats pee oe a 11
20 30 — = aus ae <n Hie 30
21 64 29 — -- — = za 93
2) Dy 60 — — — — --- 111
23 15 30 26 — — — — 71
24 12 15 32 — — —. = 59
25 9 50 Al 40 a ae ae 140
26 8 12 q5 41 15 — — 151
2h 2 11 51 34 16 -— — 114
28 5 7 49 32 25 — — 118
29 — 6 30 25 19 12 — 92
30 —- — 26 24 Dy. 15 24 116
31 = — 15 18 28 13 12 86
32 — — 8 8 18 9 9 52
33 — — 1 4 15 ) 16 43
34 — = — — 11 6 20 37
35 — — — —_ 6 3) 13 24
36 — — — — — 5 12 17
37 — — —_ — — 6 9 15
38 -- —- —— — — 4 9 13
39 — — — —- aa —- 7 )
Total 207 220 354 226 180 82 131 1,400
DISCUSSION

Gokhale et al. (1954) estimated the life span of the pearl oysters of the
Gulf of Kutch as seven years, though a few individuals survive to the
eighth year. According to Hornell (1922) and Cahn (1949), the Indian
pearl oyster and the Japanese pearl oyster live for five and eight years
respectively. We have not been able to collect oysters of the age of eight
years or more, but two specimens collected from Kalumar Reef in
October, 1964, had annual growth rings indicating that they were above
eight years of age.

From Table | it is seen that the growth rate of oysters, as denoted by
the increase in the length, breadth and hinge length in relation to age, is
not uniform. It fluctuates and at a certain stage the growth is either
retarded or stopped. The rate of variation in different age groups is
also very wide. Variations in the growth rate occur within the year, as
oysters grow vigorously from November to February and growth is
arrested during summer. In Fig. 2, the measurements of length, breadth
and hinge length are plotted against age. |

AGE AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PEARL OYSTER 449

Our observations show that length, breadth and hinge length are not
very dependable in estimating the age of oysters, as the shell is subject
to great wear and tear. In the case of thickness and hinge width, the
growth rate in relation to age, is uniform and is not much affected by
erosion in older shells. Figures 3 and 4 show that the thickness and
hinge width are more or less proportionate to the age of the oysters and
hence are more dependable.

34

33,

31

3Q

NO
©

s

x
THICKNESS IN 222. %%.

2 AGE IN YEARS
Fig. 3

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2).

Taking two points from each of the straight lines of Figures 3 and 4,
an Equation of Straight Lines? could be arrived at, which was found to
satisfy the other points of the graphs. When two points were taken

TABLE 3

CORRELATION BETWEEN AGE AND HINGE. WIDTH

Number of oysters of the age group

Hinge: width: (esa ee Peer emnUaN cir ianss ur rg ray ee)

—
N
Ww
aN
ON
ON
YJ

1 7 — _— a mee lat aes 7
2 99 42 — = at dee wos 141
3 89 99 94 — -—— — — 282
4 12 65 125 70 — -— — 272,
5 — 11 97 112 55 — — O55
6 — 3 38 19 105 37 9 211
fl — — — 15 18 35 51 119
8 — — a 10 1 7 49 67
9 — — — — 1 2 18 (21
10 noe a ee: a — 1 4 5
Total ‘207 220 354 226 180 82 131 1,400
2 TABLE 4
Age Thickness Hinge width
1 21°9 2°50
2 23°6 3°25
3 26°0 4°20
4 27°8 5:00
5 30°0 5°80
6 32:2 6°70
7, 33°8 7°66

from Fig. 2 and they were applied to the Equation of Straight Lines, it
was possible to arrive at a formula, 2a -+- 20 = t, where a is age in years,
t thickness in millimetres and 2 and 20 constants.

a A a

— = eee

X—X?=y—y"
and y? is —=-
x*—x? =y?—y?

2 From Tables 2 and 3, the weighted mean of thickness and hinge width at the end.

of every year were calculated which are shown in Table 4,

1 An equation of straight lines passing through two given points x1, x?, and y?

oe ges

me

AGE AND. LINEAR MEASUREMENTS ‘OF THE PEARL OYSTER 451.

Similarly, when two points were taken from Fig. 4 and applied to the
equation, the formula was 10a + 20 = 12 w, where a is age in years,
w hinge.width in millimetres and 10 and 20 constants, .

10

HINGE WIDTH IN 721,72,

4 5 é
AGE-IN NEARS
Fig. 4
SUMMARY

1. The growth rate of the pearl oysters, as denoted by the increase
in length, breadth and hinge length, is not proportionate to age. It
fluctuates and is retarded after the sixth year.

2. The increase in thickness and hinge width is more or less uniform

» in relation to age. When the readings were plotted on graph, they gave

straight lines. The equation of straight lines could be applied to these
graphs and two formulae could be arrived at, one correlating age with
thickness and the other age with hinge width.

3. The thickness and hinge width of pearl oysters are more depend-
able for estimating age of the oysters than length, breadth and hinge
length.

452. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are very thankful to: Shri C. R. Easwaran, Research
Officer, Fisheries Research Station, Jamnagar, for facilities, and guid-
ance in the preparation of this paper ; to Shri S. B. Mani, Dy. Director
of Fisheries, Government of Gujarat, Ahmedabad, for literature and for
kindly going through the paper ; to Shri K. V. Nawathe, Director of
Fisheries, Gujarat State, Ahmedabad, for kindly scrutinising the paper.

REFERENCES

ALAGARAJA, K. C. (1962): Observa-
tions on the length-weight relationship
of pearl oysters. J. Mar. biol. Ass.
India 1962, 4 (2): 198-205.

CAHN, A. R. (1949): Pearl culture in
Japan. U.S. Department of Interior,
Fish and Wild Life Service, Fishery Leaflet
357, November 1949.

DEVANESAN, D. W. & CHIDAMBARAM, K.
(1956): Results obtained at the Pearl
Oyster Park, Krusadai Island, Gulf of
Mannar, and their application to pro-
blems relating to Pearl Fisheries in the
Gulf of Mannar, Part I. Contribution
from the Marine Fisheries Biological
Sato Krusadai Island, Gulf of Mannar,
No. 4.

GOKHALE, S. V., EASWARAN, C. R. &.

NARASIMHAN, R. (1954): Growth rate
of the pearl oyster, Pinctada pinctada,
in the Gulf of Kutch, with a note on the
Pearl Fishery of 1953. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 52 (1): 124-136.

Horne, J. (1922): The Indian Pearl
Fishery of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Bay. Madras Fisheries Bulletin No. 16.

Rao, K. V. (1951): Studies on the
growth rate of Katelysia opima (Gmelin).
Section II of Proceedings of the Indo-
Pacific Fisheries Council, 1951,

TRANTER, D. J. (1958) : Reproduction
in Australian pearl oysters (Lamelli-
branchia). 1.Pinctadaalbina (Lamarck) :
Primary Gonad Development. Aust. J.
Mar. Freshw. Res. 9 ; 135-143.

An Introduction to the Study of
Indian Spiders

T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

It is a pity that owing to ignorance man fears many harmless creatures
and neglects their study. One such neglected group of animals is the
spider. From the earliest times man has had an aversion for spiders.
The conception that spiders are highly poisonous, noxious and ugly is
purely prejudice. Scientists have proved that but for a few exceptions,
spiders are generally harmless to man. Apart from the question of
poison, acquaintance with spiders reveals that they form as fascinating
a group as birds or butterflies. ‘ Among the wonders of Natural History
few things are more remarkable than is the multitude of these small many-
legged animals, often of beautiful structure, striking habits, and complex
life-histories, yet seldom obtruding themselves upon our notice.’ Their
external morphological characters, their protective adaptations and
coloration, their habits—all present such a range of complexity and
variety that they really form engrossing subjects for study.

Consequent upon the general dislike for spiders many species of
spiders in this country still remain unnamed. Regarding the ecology
of Indian spiders we have but a few notes. There is therefore much
scope in this field and in a tropical country like India, rich in all kinds of
fauna and flora, there can never be any shortage of specimens. The
systematist with the assistance of reference books and a microscope can
with some trouble identify and draw up a list of all the available species ;
but his chief difficulty lies in the fact that he has few named collec-
tions of species for comparison. Further in order to fully appreciate the
economy of nature, the ecology of spiders should be studied more
enthusiastically.

The province of this paper is primarily to recommend spider collec-
tion for those who are interested in field natural history. The aim is to
describe the external characters, habits, and habitat of the common
spiders met with in this country, to indicate the localities where the different
genera abound, to suggest some methods of capturing them and finally

454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

to sort them out and preserve them. This work is not intended for
advanced systematists but for providing a guide to budding arachnologists.

- EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF SPIDERS

A short account of the external morphology of spiders and the chief
characteristics of the more common families are given below.

Spiders form a distinct Order Araneae under the Class Arachnida.
The body of a spider can be easily distinguished by the presence of a
constriction separating the anterior cephalothorax from the posterior
abdomen. On the upper surface of the cephalothorax, near the middle
region, a depression is noticeable termed median fovea and radiating from
this towards the sides are certain lines called the radial striae. The head
or the cephalic region or caput forms the anteriormost part and is gene-
rally more elevated than the thorax. The caput normally bears eight
eyes (in some cases 6 and in a few cases 4). The eyes are arranged in
two rows an anterior and a posterior, of two laterals and two medians.
The row may be straight or curved with convexity backward (procurved)
or convexity forward (recurved). The four median eyes together are
called the median quadrangle. The arrangement and disposition of the
eyes are of distinct taxonomical value. The ventral side of the cephalo-
thorax is protected by a plate called the plastron or sternum usually
notched at either side for the reception of the legs which are eight in
number. The legs are seven-jointed, consisting of a coxa, trochanter,
femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus and tarsus ending in a bunch of hairs
the ungual tuft and in two or three claws. If three claws are present the
ungual tuft is generally absent: In some species which have a spinning
plate or cribellum the metatarsus, especially of the 4th pair of legs, posses-
ses a comb-shaped set of hairs called the calamistrum.

The other appendages of the cephalothorax are the chelicerae and
the pedipalps. The chelicerae or the mandibles consist of two joints :
(1) the basal segment or paturon articulated immediately below the
clypeus (the anterior edge of the head region), and (2) the distal joint, the
fang or the unguis which folds against the lower side of the paturon along
a groove which is toothed. The paturon contains a poison gland.

The pedipalps are six-jointed and in general shape and architecture
resemble a dwarf leg minus the metatarsus. The coxa is usually fur-
nished with a process, the maxilla. In the males, however, the tarsus of
the pedipalp develop into a remarkable copulatory apparatus called the
palpal organ which presents different designs in different species and is
of great systematic importance.

The abdomen differs remarkably in shape in the different groups of
spiders although generally it is oval, globular or cylindrical. The in-
tegument that covers the abdomen is generally smooth and flexible but

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 455

in some cases thickened and drawn into spines or tubercles. On the
ventral side of the abdomen are the openings of the respiratory, alimentary
and genital systems and the spinnerets. ‘The spinning mamillae or the

(
a i eo S 4 ogee
ound, ge 3 |
‘ We mh

_ A. Ventral side of the posterior end of a Dictynid Spider: 1. Anterior
spinnerets; 2. Posterior spinnerets; 3. Median spinnerets; 4. Anal papilla;
5. Cribellum.

B. 4th leg of a Dictynid Spider: 1. Coxa; 2, Trochanter; 3. Femur;
4, Patella; 5. Tibia ; 6. Meta-tarsus ; 7. Tarsus; 8. Calamistrum.

C. Terminal portion of a spider’s leg showing 2 claws and ungual tuft.

D. Profile of an Arachnomorphic spider showing horizontal articulation of
the paturon with the cephalothorax. f

E. Profile of a Mygalomorphic spider showing vertical articulation of the
paturon with the cephalothorax.

F. Veniral side of the cephalothorax of a spider: 1. Maxilla; 2. Clypeus;
3. Palp; 4. Sternum.

G. Dorsal side of the cephalothorax ofa spider: 1. Palpal organ of a male;

Z Unguis; 3. Paturon; 4. Caput showing eyes; 5. Radial striae; 6. Median
ovea.

spinnerets are normally six in number, two superior, two median and
two inferior. The number, however, shows reduction in some families.
The spinnerets and the nature of the vulva in females are also
of taxonomical value. Those spiders having a calamistrum possess in
addition to the six spinnerets an extra spinning organ in the form of a
double sieve plate, the cribellum, already referred to. |

There is marked sexual dimorphism in spiders, the females being
larger than the males. The female lays a large number of eggs all en-
closed in a cocoon. The cocoons of different species differ widely in
Shape, size, and colour. The eggs hatch and give rise to spiderlings.
There is no metamorphosis as in the case of insects.

Spiders are cosmopolitan. No part of the world is without a spider
population. Spiders as a Class occur in all climes and under all cir-

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

cumstances. Exposed to bright sunshine, hunting on the open ground,
concealed in dark crevices and holes of trees, adventurously jumping
after prey along walls and fences, silently sitting confined to webs stret-
ched along tree branches, under stones and decaying rubbish, and in the
corners of shelves or inside less frequently handled office box files. For
the far and wide distribution of spiders their habit of dispersal by the
‘ rope-trick ’ or ‘ gossamer’ must be mainly responsible. Apart from
this the wonderful adaptability of these creatures must be another reason.
In the words of Savory ‘ their distribution is much more nearly that of a
creature able to fly than that of a terrestrial animal, as a spider must
properly be considered’.

CLASSIFICATION AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE
COMMON FAMILIES

Spiders are conveniently divided into two groups the Mygalomorphae
and the Arachnomorphae. In Mygalomorphic spiders the paturon is
articulated with the cephalothorax in a vertical plane, the unguis closing
backwards. In Arachnomorphic spiders the articulation of the paturon
with the cephalothorax is in the horizontal plane and fang closes inwards.

Under each of these groups there are a number of families.

MYGALOMORPHAE

Most of the members are medium, and large-sized spiders of dull
_ brown or black colour living on the ground under stones or in specialized
burrows.

A. Spiders with coxa of pedipalp haying a large ne process
and six spinnerets

Family Aty pidae. The analtubercle well removed from the posterior
spinnerets. Chelicerae without rastellum. Strongly built spiders with
smooth integuments. Legs stout but with weak spines and three claws.
They live in burrows on the ground.

B. Coxa of pedipalp without maxillary process and spinnerets
limited to four

Family Ctenizidae. Mandible provided with rastellum. Poste-
rior mamillae short or moderately long, anterior ones situated close to-
gether. Tarsus without ungual tuft but with three claws. Eyes form a
compact group on an eminence. They live in silk lined burrows under
stones. Some of them are trap-door spiders.

AN INTRODUCTION YO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 457

Family Dipluridae. Differs from the above in having no ras-
tellum. Legs with three claws. Posterior spinnerets long and the an-
terior ones situated wide apart. Medium-sized spiders without burrows
or holes but closely woven webs as residences.

Family Barychelidae. Medium-sized spiders with mandibular
rastellum. Tarsus with ungual tuft and two claws. Spinnerets four or
two in number and the extreme segments of the posterior spinnerets very
short. They are all buriowing forms.

Family Theraphosidae. Medium or large-sized spiders differ-
ing from the previous family in the absence of the mandibular rastellum
_ and in having the extreme segments of the posterior spinnerets long and
slender. The body is hairy, the claws and tarsi having a bifid appear-
ance. The eyes are set on a distinct tubercle. They are nocturnal in
habit living under stones or holes in trees where they weave a slight web.

ARACHNOMORPHAE

A. Spiders with cribellum and calamistrum

Family Filistidae. Ocular group compact. Palpal organ of male
simple. Legs normal. Abdomen with short spinnerets : anterior pair
thick and separated from others. Medium-sized spiders found under
Stones, bark of trees, dry leaves. Webs of close texture of an irregular
tubular nature.

Family Urocteidae. Ocular group compact. Carapace roun-
ded in front and on sides and emarginate behind. Mouth parts weak.
Legs short and strong and nearly of equal length. Tarsus with three
claws. Abdomen large and depressed, truncate in front and oval be-
hind. Anterior spinnerets short, separated by a colulus. Posterior
Spinnerets long and jointed. Anal papilla large and hairy. Small
Spiders spinning slight webs under stones or in holes of walls.

Family Eresidae. The four median eyes form a small quadrangle ;

_ anterior laterals on the sides of the head ; posterior laterals far removed

_ from the rest of the eyes and situated high up on the posterior portion of
the head. Cephalic region of the carapace broad and elevated. Clypeus
low. Mandibles flattish in front. Maxillae inclined obliquely inwards.
Fang groove weakly toothed. Legs short, strong and thick, three clawed
and weakly spined. Abdomen oval, spinnerets with cribellum. Medium-
sized spiders. Webs irregular and sticky. Indian genus Stegodyphus
of social habits.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.HIST. SOCIETY; \Vol:-65 (2)

Family Psechridae. .Head moderately elevated. Clypeus: high,
mandibles short and strong, toothed below. ‘Legs long and slender: with
ungual tufts.and three clawed.: The first two pairs much longer:than the
rest. Abdomen oval or cylindrical. Cribellum ‘large.. »Fairly ‘large
spiders weaving somewhat en ae webs and hanging within i in an in-
verted position.

Family Uloboridae.. tacvaees set. on tubercle. :. GHriehoen
elongate. First pair of legs longer than-the rest... Tarsus without ungual
tufts. Abdomen rounded or oval. Anal papilla long and conically
acuminate. Small or medium sized spiders Veo a regular orb- web.
Common among rafters of outhouses.

Family Dictynidae. Eyes in two: aa or: slightly curved
transverse lines. Cephalothorax oval;:head broad and.convex. Legs
strong and three clawed without: ungual:tufts. Anal papilla short and
semi-circular. Small spiders spinning untidy webs on leaves and twigs.
General colour variable,

B. Spiders without, cribellum and calamistrum

Family Sicariidae. Spiders with,six eyes, Cephalothorax ,with-
out median fovea, Palpal organ of malesimple. Legs weak, abdomen
oval or rounded. Small spiders found on leaves, under stones or in. out-
houses.

Family Dysderidae. Spiders with six eyes. Cephalothorax
rather flat. Maxillae long and scopulate. Palpal organ simple. | Legs
strong ; sternum, excavated along its border for the reception of legs.

Abdomen oval or cylindrical, Indian genus Ariadna, common under —

stones and loose soil.

Family Palpimanidae. Small'spiders with the first pair of legs
enormously developed and thick and usually employed for sina Tarsi

pedunculaté and almost clawless.

Family Zodariidae, Small spiders — with posterior — spinnerets |
absent or much shorter than the anterior. Tarsi three clawed. ‘Abdomen |

ornamented with dots or patches.

Family H ersillidae. Eyes Horniett Carapace as wide as long, la
head region round but narrow infront. Thoracic fovea and radial striae
well marked. Legs long and spiny with three claws ; third pair shorter. |
Abdomen: short and oval with posterior spinnerets tole and slender— |
hunting spiders common on tree trunks and walls, EOBE 1610

| .

= i

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 459

Family Pholcidae. Anterior median eyes small, others large form-
ing a group on either side of the head. Cephalothorax flat and round
with fovea well defined. Mandibles untoothed. Legs very thin and
long, with spines. Abdomen round oval or sub-cylindrical ; spin.
nerets short and sub-equal. Sedentary spiders weaving untidy webs in
corners and ceilings of outhouses.

Family Theridiidae. Strikingly resembles the following family
but generally small-sized forms with rounded abdomen. Members
possess a comb of spines on the tarsus of the fourth pair of legs. Webs
are irregular and not perfect orbs.

Family Argiopidae. Lateral eyes on the sides of head typically
close together away from the median quadrangle. Mandibles strong and
toothed but variable in size and shape. Legs show great variation in
different genera. Abdomen also highly variable but spinnerets normal
and rosette-like behind abdomen. Sedentary spiders spinning geomet-
rical orb-webs. ,

Family Thomisidae. Eyes are normal. Mandibles weak and
weakly toothed. Legs strong, 2nd and 3rd pairs shorter. Abdomen
prominent, oval, flat, triangular or pentagonal. Generally called
‘ crab-spiders ’. |

Family Lycosidae. Eyes of posterior row recurved and large ;
anterior ones usually small, compact, and directed forwards. Man-
dibles strong and powerfully toothed ; pedipalp with short maxillary pro-
cess. Carapace elevated and narrow in front. Legs strong and spiny,
Jast pair longer. Abdomen long oval with spinnercts sub-equal. Power-
ful, hunting, ground spiders.

Family Sparassidae. Median eyes form a normal quadrangle.
Carapace as wide as long ; clypeus low. Tarsal claws armed with teeth.
Abdomen sub-oval.

Family Clubionidae. Median eyes arranged in a recurved cres-
cent. Carapace flat usually wider than long. Clypeus suppressed ;
maxillae project forward and not inclined on the labium. Mandibles
powerful and toothed. Legs strong and spiny with scopulate tarsi ;
tarsal claws unarmed. Abdomen oval with anterior spinnerets in con-
tact.

Family Oxyopidae. Eyes form a compact sub-circular group ;
anterior line recurved and posterior procurved. Carapace oval and
elevated. Mandibles long and weakly toothed. Legs strong and spiny.
Abdomen oval in front and tapering behind.

eT

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Family Attidae. Anterior median eyes very large ; eyes of posterior
line forming a square on the sides of the head. Head region large and
raised. Legs strong; tarsi with ungual tufts and 2 claws. Abdomen
oval but sometimes narrow behind. Common jumping spiders.

SOME HINTS TO SPIDER COLLECTORS

Although spiders are ubiquitous there are some difficulties for the
collector to detect and catch them mainly because of their habits, diver-
sity of form, colour and behaviour, calculated to deceive and surprise.
- There are spidersnearly as bigas a small bird (Nephila maculata) and those
as small as mites (Oonopids) ; spiders gorgeously coloured as well as in-
significantly dull ; sedentary spiders with magnificent webs and also vaga-
bonds without residence ; social spiders and cannibalistic ones ; skilful
hunters (Lycosids), jumpers (Attids), excellent mimics, expert architects
and specialised swimmers. The different species of spiders with their
protective adaptations evade their enemies so well that unless the
collector is astute and enthusiastic it is difficult to catch them.

The equipment necessary for the collection of spiders is simple. A
cylindrical glass jar (2 to 24in. diameter and 6 in. high) containing some
spirit and provided with a proper lid, a pair of forceps with flat ends, a
muslin kerchief and a small net like the one usually employed by butterfly
collectors, are enough for spider collection.

Sedentary spiders resting on walls, leaf blades, tree-trunks or in the
webs can be caught in the jar by holding it open beneath them and by
tapping the spiders into it with the lid. Running and vagabond species
like lycosids and attids can be caught by throwing a kerchief over them
and carefully holding them with the hand in the folds, transfer them into
the jar. Small spiders residing among grass and herbage can be caught
in the net by sweeping it sideways. Shake a tree branch vigorously, and
spiders living there will be thrown off and will attempt to climb up by
their threads when it is easy to tap them into the jar. In handling spiders
the use of forceps must as far as possible be avoided as the brittle limbs
give way easily.

GROUPING AND IDENTIFICATION

Spiders being collected in spirit, are already killed and the collector
has only to sort them out. With the assistance of literature on the subject
and with an ordinary lens, it would not be very difficult to group the collec-
tion into the principal families. Put the specimens into separate tubes
(flat-bottomed) with labels containing information regarding date and
place of collection and the collector’s name. Close the mouths of the
tubes with tissue paper. Immerse all the tubes in a big Kilner-jar con-

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 461

taining dilute spirit or a mixture of glycerine and formalin. Spirit is
generally preferred as formalin hardens the specimens. Before closing
the Kilner-jar, see that all spider tubes are well under the spirit level.

For identification of the specimens and for placing them under proper
genera and species, the student will have to consult some standard sys-
tematic reference book such as the FAUNA volume on Arachnida by
Pocock. It should, however, be borne in mind that since this book was
published certain families have been revised and supplemented by other
authors. Moreover, many families are altogether omitted in this work
and the species dealt with under the different families are limited, being
possibly based on the actual specimens examined by Pocock during his
study. Therefore for a comprehensive study this book is inadequate.
There is still much work to be done on Indian attids, theridiids and
several other families. Dr. F. H. Gravely, late Superintendent of the
, Government Museum, Madras, contributed several papers on Indian
lycosids, ctenids, sparassids, selenopids and clubionids. These papers
appeared in the Records of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, during the years
1921 and 1924. Other contributors on Indian spiders are Rae Sheriffs,
Dayal, and more recently, Tikader. Literature on extralimital species
should also be consulted for grouping Indian species. Cecil Warburton’s
chapter on spiders in the Cambridge Natural History Series, Savory’s
BIOLOGY OF SPIDERS, Thoreli’s SPIDERS OF BURMA, Ellis’s SPIDERLAND,
Comstock’s COMITY OF SPIDERS etc. are books which should be read by
every spider collector.

In order to bring the list of spiders occurring in this vast country up-
to-date, more workers are required and it is believed that the spider
enthusiasts will receive necessary assistance and encouragement from
our Universities, Natural History Museums and the Zoological Survey
of India.

(to be continued)

Reviews

1. POPULATION STUDIES OF BIRDS. By David Lack.
pp. v+341 (2416 cm.), Oxford, 1966. Clarendon Press. Price 63s.

The author’s earlier work THE NATURAL REGULATION OF ANIMAL
NUMBERS appeared in 1954. In the same year, Andrewartha and
Birch put forward their views in their book THE DISTRIBUTION AND
ABUNDANCE OF ANIMALS. Since then numerous critiques of both
views have appeared. More recently, in 1962, Wynne-Edwards
advocated evolution through group selection, in his book ANIMAL
DISPERSION IN RELATION TO SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR. Moreover, in the last
two decades definite, though slow, progress has been made in the field,
and so, the present book has come none too soon.

The book is based mainly on the long-range detailed studies of
13 species of birds, made by different teams, or individual workers,
in England (9 studies), tropics (2 studies), Germany (1 study) and New
Zealand (1 study); 11 minor studies relevant to the major ones are
also used. Lach species is discussed separately, in most cases in a
chapter, or a part of it. However, one does not miss the continuity
from one chapter to the next, as the book is carefully planned and
the chapters are interwoven with the numerous themes reoccurring
in many chapters and the author’s scholarly exposition of Nicholson’s
theory of population dynamics. The following account, largely in the
author’s own words, will give an idea of the numerous problems
discussed in the book.

Discussing the role of territory, the author is not blinded by an
ever-growing list of functions attributed to the territory. “The terri-
torial behaviour of most species of birds is generally considered to
assist in pair-formation, while in many of them a wide spacing of
the nests presumably assists their concealment from nest-predators:
defence of a nesting site similarly, ensures safe breeding for hole-
nesting species. Hence there seems no need to postulate any additional
function of territory. Nevertheless, in various species any owners of |
territories that die are rapidly replaced, so territorial behaviour plays _
some role in breeding dispersion. But both the nature and the |
functions of this role are still obscure, and the seemingly obvious lf
view that territorial behaviour limits numbers in relation to the food |
supply requires more critical study than it has yet received’ {p. 279). |

REVIEWS 463

The author’s earlier view that ‘the breeding seasons of single
brooded species have normally been evolved so that they lay their
eggs at such a time that their young hatch in the most favourable
period for raising them, usually when their food is most abundant’
(p. 272), has been modified in this book. Several examples cited
indicate that the food available to the laying female may be a chief
proximate factor determining the time of egg laying. “Murton found
that the gonads of the Wood Pigeon are in breeding condition for
longer each year than the period in which laying actually takes place.
and he concluded that the main proximate factor inducing laying was
the food supply. . ... A long potential breeding season, with
food as the proximate factor inducing laying, is presumably what has
enabled the Wood Pigeon to adapt its breeding season so successfully
to man’s grain harvest’? (p. 179). For the Bullfinches in England,
Newton showed that the main diet in the spring prior to breeding
is buds, ‘but they turn to fresh seeds when these become available
in late April. Probably this is what determined the start of breeding
in early May, because buds contain comparatively little nutriment,
and seeds might well be needed before the hens can form eggs. Also
when Newton provided eight hens in outdoor aviaries with seeds, six
of them laid eggs in mid-April, a fortnight before he found any eggs
in the nearby woods’ (p. 188). In the Pied and Collared Flycatchers,
‘there is a correlation similar to that found in the Great Tit between
the preceding spring temperatures and the average date of laying each
year, but these ftlycatchers are migrants which arrive on their breeding
grounds only in late April, so do not themselves experience most of
the temperatures in guestion. Hence they presumably respond either

to the appearance of fresh green vegetation or to their insect foods,

both of which appear earlier in a mild than a cold spring’ (p. 29).

The data presented in the book largely substantiate the author’s
view ‘developed especially for birds, that the reproductive rate (in
particular, the number of eggs in the clutch) has been evolved through
natural selection to correspond with that number which, on average,
gives rise to the greatest number of surviving offspring’ (p. 3).

The clutch-size, however, is subjected to phenotypic modifications.
Such modifications during the course of a breeding season may be
‘adapted to the subsequent food requirements of the young. In the
Great and Blue Tits, Pied and Collared Flycatchers, Swift and
Kittiwake, clutches tend to be largest at the start of the season and
thereafter to decline, and there is eviclence that these species find it
harder to raise young later than earlier in the season. In the Black-
bird, Song Thrush and Robin. on the other hand, clutches laid in
the middie of the season are larger than those either earlier or later:

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63 (2)

correspondingly, the food available for these species in woods is more ~

plentiful in mid-season, end this is also near to the time when the
davs are longest’ (p. 274). The clutch size in the Great, Blue and
Coal Tits is inversely correlated with the population density. This
variation in the Great Tit (and also in other tits) is ‘presumably adapted
to the food situation for the nestling tits because, other things being
equal, it is harder for a parent to find food for its young when there

are more than few Great Tits searching for it? (p. 28). ‘Similarly

in the Great Tit, Blackbird, Yellow-eyed Penguin and Kittiwake,
older females lay rather larger clutches than those breeding for the
first time and are also rather more efficient in raising young’ (p. 274).
The clutch size is affected by the feeding condition at the time of
egg laying. This is so in the Cuckoo, though it is ‘a special case
because it is a brood parasite’ (p. 6). There are circumstantial
evidences that in gallinaceous birds, ‘clutch-size is affected by the
amount of food available to the female during or just before laying
These findings do not mean that the food available to the hen
birds at the time of isying is the sole factor affecting the clutch-size
of gallinaceous birds. Hereditary factors must also be involved, at
least in determining the size of the eggs, and hence the amount of
food needed for each, and probably also in determining the limits
between which the clutch-size of each species can be modified by
the food supply at the time of laying’ (p. 6 and 7). ‘Finally, in the
Tawny Owl, Short-eared Owl. anc Bullfinch, larger clutches are laid
When their main food, woodland mice. field voles and certain seeds
respectively, is more abundant than in other years’ (p. 274).
Certain modifications in clutch-size are non-adaptive. The Great
and Blue Tits and the Pied and Collared Flycatchers tend to lay smaller
average clutches when the breeding season starts later. This is

apparently not correlated tc the amount of food supply available for
the young.

There are some exceptions to the author’s view on the clutch-

size. In the Glaucous-winged Gull, on Mandarte Island, British

Columbia, “as in nearly all other species of Larus, the normal clutch |

is three, but Vermeer showed that, at least in one year, the parents |

were able to find enough food to raise four, five or even six young, |

and the proportion of young Jost in these large broods was similar
to that in broods of three ... Possibly, however, the present situation
on. Mandarte Island is unusually favourable for the feeding of the
Glaucous-winged Gull, as it is increasing rapidly, which is attributed

to the food supplies unintentionally provided by mankind on city |
refuse dumps’ (p. 247). Similarly, in the Gannet, ‘more young survived |

REVIEWS 465

per brood from artificially made up broods of twice the normal size
than from broods of normal size...” (p. 251).

Following Skutch, a number of workers have maintained that the
clutch-size for several tropical species is far smaller than the number
of nestlings the parents can feed. ‘Snow argued that, since the Black
and White Manakin can obtain all its food in under 10 per cent of
the day, the female should in the course of the whole day be able
to find much more food than is needed for herself and two nestlings.
He therefore agreed with Skutch that the reason that such species
have evolved a clutch of two cannot be because two is the greatest
number of young which they can feed. Instead Skutch suggested and
Snow agreed, that if there were more than two young, the parent
would have to bring food more frequently and would therefore be
in greater danger of revealing the nest to predators’ (p. 170). The
author, on the other hand, thinks it likely that ‘predation is not the
main factor which has led to the evolution of a clutch of two in
manakins, and that further study should be made to determine whether
two might be the largest number of young for which the parent can
find enough food. Admittedly fruits are abundant during the breeding
season, but they are not a satisfactory dict from which to form
proteins . . . Snow found many more remains of fruit than insects
below nests with young, but fruit is more likely to leave remains than
insects, so insects perhaps comprise more of the nestlings’ diet than
he thought. Hence the critical factor limiting brood-size might be the
time taken by the female to find insects, but this needs testing .. .’
(e171).

The author’s interpretation of the adaptive significance of asyn-
chronous hatching in raptorial and other birds, that ‘all the food goes
to the first-hatched and largest nestlings until they are satisfied’ and
that ‘if the food is plentiful the youngest then receives enough’, but
‘it food is sparse it is not wasted on young that would die anyway’
(p. 223), is extended to the asynchronous hatching in the White Stork.
‘The position is more complex in the White Stork than in other species
with asynchronous hatching because nestling sometimes dies, not of
starvation, but through being thrown out of the nest, or even killed
and eaten, by one of its parents which Schiiz (1957) named “chronism”
after the titan Chronos who ate all save one of his offspring’
(p. 223). It is possible that ‘parent Storks kili primarily such
nestlings as do not respond adequately to them because they were
already weak from starvation, in which case the parents merely acce-
lerate deaths that would occur anyway, and thus ensure that food
will not be wasted on a dying chick’ (p. 224).

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Most of the species considered in the book breed at the age of
one or two years. But, ‘in the White Stork and in those sea birds
discussed here, breeding starts at an age varying between two and
seven years or more, depending on the species. There is neither
evidence for ‘the view of Wynne-Edwards (1955, 1962) that such
deferred maturity has been evolved throvgh group-selection in long-
lived species to reduce the number of young and so prevent over-
population,’ nor for the author’s alternative view that, “in such species,
breeding is difficult and individuals which try to breed when younger
than the normal age leave, on the average, fewer not more surviving
young than those which start later’ (pn. 275). )

The data on adult mortality seem to fit with the author’s view
that ‘the higher the reproductive rate the higher the annual mortality,

. a simple consequence of population balance through density-
dependent regulation of the mortality’ (p. 275). Food shortage is the
main density-dependent mortality factor. In some species there is
positive evidence for the limitation of numbers by food outside the
breeding season. “The correlation between the number of Wood
Pigeons alive in early March and the availability of clover indicates
that the number of birds remaining alive on the area keeps close to
that which the declining quantity of focd can support. This happens
because there is direct competition of food in the feeding flocks, and
one individual not infrequently displaces another from an item which
it has found, with the result that some of the displaced individuals,
presumably those in the social hierarchy fail to get enough food and
die’ (p. 187). ‘A peck-order is of survival value both to those higher
and to those lower in the order, for thcse higher because they obtain
food with very little fighting, and for those lower because it saves them
wasting time on fights which they would anyway lose, and _ their
energies can be conserved for searching elsewhere’ (p. 276). The
Quelea, one of the two tropical species considered in the book, ‘may
be limited in numbers by its food suppiy. It need not. of course, be ©
so limited throughout the year, and during much of the year the small
seeds of wild grasses which it prefers are abundant. As already
mentioned, it is primarily when these small seeds become sparse in the
later part of the dry season that the Queleas turn to larger seeds,
including human crops. But the time when food becomes really scarce
for them, at least in Nigeria, is in early rains, at the end of June and
through July, since in this period all the wild seeds that are !eft on |
the ground start germinating’ (p. 157).

The appendix at the enc of the book gives a chapter-wise summary
of the NATURAL REGULATION OF ANIMAL NUMBERS which is now out of
print, and 22 pages of discussion on the alternative views, mainly of

os

= iy

REVIEWS 467

Andrewartha and Birch and Wynne-Edwards, on population dynamics.
The bibliography contains 467 titles referred to in the book. Illustra-
ations include 31 graphs and charts and 27 excellent line drawings
of the species discussed in the book.

An elegant exposition of a large and important literature on bird
population makes this a standard reference book for ecologists and
ornithologists. The author’s focus on the slow rate of progress in the
field. emphasizes a need to attract scientists of diverse disciplines
towards population studies. Handling of some of the problems, such
as, the factors involved in starting and terminating the egg laying and
modifying the clutch-size, adaptive significance of clutch-size in tropical
birds and the relative efficiency of the young and old parents in raising
their brood, which are not conclusively established, should yield quick
results in the hands of experimental zoologists. To these workers, the
meticulously collected information on a few species of birds and the
objective analysis of different points of view should be of great
use. Finally, ornithologists concerned about the paucity _ of
imaginative reading material on Field Ornithology for graduate train-
ing, will find what they want in this book,

R. M. NAIK

2. THE METABOLISM OF INSECTS. By Darcy Gilmour. pp.
ix +195 (21X14 cm.). Edinburgh/London, 1965. Oliver & Boyd.
University Reviews in Biology. Paper Back. Price 15s. net.

THE METABOLISM OF INSECTS by Darcy Gilmour is a welcome
addition to the literature in biochemistry. It is valuable in that different
aspects of insect metabolism are treated in a very precise manner,
and the book should be of great value to students at the post-graduate
level.

The book is divided into nine main chapters dealing with energy
metabolism (two chapters), carbohydrate metabolism, lipid meta-
bolism, metabolism of insecticides, metabolism of amino acids,
metabolism of some N-cyclic compounds, protein metabolism, and the
control of metabolism. Each chapter is further divided under several
subheadings.

In the chapters on energy metabolism the author discusses, among
other topics, sources of energy, catabolism of carbohydrate, oxidation
of fat, oxidation of amino acids, terminal oxidation, and anzrobic
phase of energy metabolism. The chapter on carbohydrates deals
with different kinds of carbohydrates utilised by insects in their diet
and storage of food and in the formation of cuticle, Various enzymes

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

involved in the metabolism of monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and
polysaccharides (chitin etc.) are discussed. Storage polysaccharides
and glycoproteins or mucins, which perform a variety of structural
and lubricating functions, are dealt with in detail.

The section dealing with fats describes the storage of fats, meta-
bolism of fatty acids and glvcerides, synthesis and hydrolysis of
glycerides, transport of fat, and conversion of fat into carbohydrates.
Hydrocarbon derivates of physiological importance with special
reference to the behaviour of insects, designated as pheromones, and
the role of other lipid derivatives secreted by insects for defence pur-
poses are discussed under the subheading ‘Pheromones’. ‘he chapter
on insecticides deals with important insecticides, their action, and the
mechanism of detoxication developed by insects to resist their effect.

The short concluding chapter is devoted to the reviews of control
mechanism and hormonal ccnirol of the metabolism of the whole
insect. Regulation within the cell, between cells, and between in-
dividuals of the same species is also discussed.

References are few compared to the volume of the data reported.
Additional references in appropriate places would be of great help
to students for the detailed study of particular topics. References
at the end of each chapter rather than collectively at the end of
the book would have been more convenient.

ALMAS RIZVI

3. ECOLOGICAL METHODS: witH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO
THE STUDY OF INSECT POPULATIONS. By T. R. E. Southwood. pp.
xvilit+391 (23X15 cm.). London, 1966. Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Pricé’ 75s. netiin “U.K. only:

Research workers tend to work in compartments. Medical ento-
mologists seldom know what agricultural entomologists are doing, and
vice versa. To a non-ecologist a book like this is especially use-
ful as a guide ‘to developments in other fields, and as a source of
ideas which can be adapted to his own field,

By and large ecological methods have not been applied to the
study of insects of medical importance. A few of the techniques
used have been adapted. For example. the Rothamsted suction trap
for sampling a unit volume of air has been adapted by Lumsden for
mosquitoes on a living host. No work has, however, been done on
the efficiency of the modified trap under different conditions, nor
has it been used very much.

There is an interesting chapter on marking and capture-recapture
techniques, which ought to be read by everyone concerned with

REVIEWS 469

problems of absolute population densities. The simple ‘Lincoln index’
was first used on ringed and recaptured birds, and was applied to tsetse
fly populations by Jackson in 1933. Since then it has become a very
sophisticated tooi.

There is necessarily a great deal of mathematics in the book. The
basic principles are explained very clearly. however, and the sampling
methods described are of interest to all kinds of entomologists.

Re UR:

4. COMMON INSECTS OF INDIA. By N. P. Kalyanam. pp.
x+136 (21:5X14 cm.) Bombay. Asia Publishing House. Price
RS! 12:

Books on insects in India are few whether they deal with
economic or systematic entomology, though insects play such an
important part in the daily life of man. Books and publications on
the subject. therefore, are very welcome and should be encouraged.
This book is an introductery effort about information on _ insects.
It gives, in brief, a fairly good idea regarding the division of this
class into different orders and families and a few important insects
of economic importance in each. The large number of illustrations
help the reader in identification. However, a few suggestions for in-
corporation in the next edition. may not be out of place.

The size is important and a scale by the side of each illustration
would be more useful than metitioning it in the text.

While describing a family, the name of one important insect of
that family is mentioned above the family name, giving the impression
that only that insect is dealt with, whereas actually the whole family
is described.

Descriptions in some cases are too brief. By adding a few words
in some of them at least, much more information cculd be given,
e.g. where there is sexual dimorphism as in the case of most species
of Lampyridae (male winged, female wingiess). Similarly brilliance
in the coloration of Aspidomorpha (p. 114) deserve mentioning:
E. fabia has a green band in the middle of the forewing etc.

N.T.N.

5. AVIAN MYQLOGY. By J. C. George and A. J. Berger: pp.
xii +500 (15X24 cm.), 247 illustrations. London and New York,
1966. Academic Press. Price $18-06,

470 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

_ The joint endeavour of J. C. George, a pioneer in comparative
histochemistry, and A. J. Berger, an outstanding worker on the mor-

phology of avian muscles, has resulted in the producticn of a much-

needed treatise on avian myology. The book not only covers almost
all the modern topics in the study of avian musculature, but brings
out also the previous shortcomings in this branch of study and the
complicated problem of nomenclature of bird muscies.

Two aspects are broadly treated in the book. The first and the
major one, is a review of the work done on the histochemistry of
avian muscle fibres, specially those of the breast muscles; the second
deals with the anatomy of the various muscles of birds. The book
concludes. with suggestions on the trends of evolution of the avian
pectoral muscles deduced from histochemistry and biochemistry.

Though apparently a synopsis of the authors’ researches on avian
muscles, the book is, nevertheless, an excelient guide for advanced
students of avian myologyv, especially for those interested in its
modern aspects. It covers such tonics as morphology, histology, histo-
chemistry, histophysiology, biochemistry jand evolution of flight

muscles. In fulfilling a task of this magnitude, certain lapses are

bound to creep in, many of which are due to lack of information,
for which the authors are not to blame. The book, however, could
have been more useful to the beginners if the authors had given a
complete and thorough picture of the avian muscles. A major short-
coming of the treatise is perhaps the lack of detailed skeletal account
both in the text and in illustrations: tubercles, ridges, etc., essential
for the study of muscle-insertions. ‘The description of the two major
pectoral muscles similarly suffers from lack of detailed anatomical
account. Equally disappointing is the absence of references to other
minor pectoral muscles and the tendon-complex inserting on the
humerus. Among the other short-falls, some errors in the zoological
names of birds, omission of a few text-references in the bibliography,
and lack of a key to the biochemical abbreviations often used, need
mention. Illustration of the wing- and leg- muscles, and of histology
are good, but those of the jaw-muscles could have been better.
Functional morphclogy, especially of the jaw-muscles—and a much:
studied topic of avian mvology in recent years—has been entirely
avoided in the book. Not even the excellent bibliographies at
chapter ends satisfy a reader interested in this topic.

However, AVIAN MYOLOGY is a milestone in an extremely difficult
and little-known field of avian biology. The reviewer is certain that
for many years to come the book would remain a standard reference
to students of ornithology, especially those of avian myology.

A. DE

Miscellaneous Notes

1. SPHAERIAS BLANFORDI (THOMAS, 1891) FROM
HIMALAYAN REGION OF UTTAR PRADESH: AN
ADDITION TO THE CHIROPTERAN FAUNA OF INDIA

Blanford’s Fruit Bat, Sphaerias blanfordi (Thomas, 1891) was first
described under the genus Cynopterus F. Cuvier, 1824, on the basis of
specimens collected in Karen Hills, Burma. The genus Sphaerias was
created by Miller (1906) to include this single species which has some
remarkable morphological differences from other members of the genus
Cynopterus. Tate (1947) studied additional material of this species
from. Mt. Angka in northern Siam and included Thailand in its distri-
bution. The same distributional records for this species have been given
by Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) and the species has not so far
been recorded in India.

In all 15 males and 39 females of this species were collected by the
author during recent tours inthe Himalayan region in Uttar Pradesh,
in connection with a survey of haematophagous arthropods. The bats
were trapped in Japanese mist nets which were set up near fruit orchards,
edges of forests, and wheat fields. Skins and skulls of three males and
six females were preserved for study. In addition, skulls of two males
and four females were also prepared. The species was identified after
a study of these preserved skins and skulls. Other specimens recorded
here were identified by comparing them with the preserved material.

Detailed collection data are as follows : 2 29° from Dharchula in Kali
Valley, alt. 1070 m., Pithoragarh District, on 17 and 18 March 1967,
skin of one and skulls of both the bats preserved ; 3 99 from Kotera
near Dharchula, alt. 1130 m., on 19 and 20 March 1967, skulls of all the
three preserved ; 1 ¢ and 2 992 from Kataithbara near Bageshwar in
Sarju Valley, alt. 920 m., Almora District, on 23 March 1967 ; 4 3¢ and
11 99 from Kuiti near Tejam, alt. 1220 m., Pithoragarh District, on 3
and 4 April 1967, skin and skull of one female preserved; 2 ¢¢
at Gwaldam on Nandakeshri road, alt. 1920 m., Chamoli District on 9

April 1967, skin of one and skulls of both preserved ; 1 2 from Deosari
- range forest near Gwaldam, alt. 1980 m., on 12 April 1967 ; 4 2° from
Guliyo at Gopeshwar, alt. 1070 m., Chamoli District, on 27 May 1967,
skin and skull of one female preserved ; 2 3¢ and | 2 from Tejam in
eastern Ramganga Valley, alt. 1070 m., Pithoragarh District, on 13
September 1967, skin and skull of the female preserved ; | 2 from Lilam
— in Johar Valley, alt. 1830 m., Pithoragarh District, on 17 September 1967 ;

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2)

472

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 473

2 29 from Dummer in Johar Valley, alt. 1680 m., Pithoragarh District,
on 25 September 1967, skin and skull of one specimen preserved ; 4 3g
and 4 @@ (three adults and one juvenile) from Girgaon, alt. 1980 m.,
Pithoragarh District, on 27 September 1967, skins and skuils of one male
and one female preserved ; 2 29 (juvenile) from Kapkot in Sarju Valley,
alt. 1130 m., Almora District, on 30 September 1967; 1 3 from Dhakuri
in Pindar Valley, alt. 2710 m., Almora District, on 2nd October 1967,
skin and skull preserved ; 3 29 (one adult and two juvenile) from Khati
in Pindar Valley, alt. 2290 m., Almora District, on 3 October 1967 ; and
1 g and 3 992 from Loharkhet in Sarju Valley, alt. 1920 m., Almora
District, on 10 October 1967.

It is interesting to note that the bat Sphaerias blanfordi was met with
only in the interior valleys during the survey at elevations between 800
and 2710 metres while the other species of fruit bats namely Cynopterus
sphinx, Eonycteris spelaea and Rousettus leschenaulti were collected from
outer valleys and lower elevations. However, their populations were
found mixed with Sphaerias blanfordi at elevations between 800 and 1000
metres between the Himalayan high ranges and the foot hills.

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE,

WELLESLEY ROAD, H. R. BHAT
POONA I. :

January 8, 1968.

REFERENCES

MILLER, G. S. (1906): Twelve new ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scorrt,
genera of bats. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- YT. C.S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic
ton 19 : 83-86. and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946.

Tate, G. H. H. (1947) : Mammals of British Museum, London: 810.
Eastern Asia. New York. Macmillan :
366.

2. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GOLDEN LANGUR
PRESBYTIS GEEI (MS. KHAJURIA) GEE

INTRODUCTION

The author and his wife stayed in the Manas Wild Life Sanctuary
from 25 March to 13 April 1967 and during this time they spent six days
observing a troupe of Golden Langurs Presbytis geei in the forest on the
Bhutan side of the Manas River. _

DESCRIPTION OF HABITAT

_ The jungle in this area falls within the type known as tropical moist
deciduous (Champion 1938). The trees are high, up to 150 feet, and the
Canopy is almost closed, dominant species being deciduous. Climbers

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

are numerous and the shrub layer beneath the trees is dense in patches,
elsewhere the forest floor is covered with fallen leaves which at this time
of the year are dry and brittle. A feature of this type of forest is that
the trees undergo a leafless period during the dry season at the end of .
which new leaves or flowers are produced in a sudden rush. Some trees
burst into flower while still leafless especially Erythrina, Salmalia and
Cassia fistula. The leafless period was just ending and many trees were
in flower when the following observations were made.

HABITS

Size and composition of population

The study area consisted of a comparatively small part of the forest
surrounding the Manas Bhutan camp and probably did not exceed one
square mile. It was difficult to count the exact number of langurs living |
in the area due to the thickness of the overhead canopy in some places
and the speed with which the monkeys made off when approached. It
is known that there were not less than twenty nor more than thirty-five
individuals present.

Sometimes virtually all the langurs in the area would congregate in
certain trees where food was plentiful. However, such large groups were
wary and when approached the langurs would dash off through the trees —
in several directions. There appeared to be two main groups of eleven
and seven animals and these formed the basis of our observations.

Both groups were presided over by a dominant adult male and
in the larger group some quarrelling was observed between the largest
male and another almost as big. On one occasion during a fight the
larger drove his opponent almost to ground level within a few feet of the |
observers.

Two adult females in the larger group each had a baby clinging to |
her body between her front legs, while one female in the smaller group
was carrying a very young baby. The rest of the animals in both groups
consisted of females without young, or sub-adults.

Breeding season

The largest of the three babies seen was still being carried by its mother |
though it would sometimes leave her and climb about on its own, even |
jumping small distances from bough to bough. Once it ran to the end of |
a bough and, faced with a long leap to the next tree, went through all the |
movements the langurs make when working up for a big jump.
Grasping a branch on each side with their hands they rock backwards —
and forwards, finally launching themselves by pulling forwards with their |
arms while springing with their hind legs. Adults can cover enormous |
distances, in the region of 20 feet from tree to tree, although dropping |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 475

almost as far in the process. On this occasion the young langur decided
the gap was too wide and ran back to its mother who jumped with it
clinging beneath her body.

The youngest baby was still very small, it never left its mother and
was quite easy to overlook when the female was climbing about in the
trees. She spent much time grooming it, sitting in an upright position
on a bough with the baby in her lap while she carefully combed its fur
with her long fingers. At other times she would hold it to her breast to
suckle. The age of this baby was estimated to be between one and two
months and the breeding season of the Golden Langur would therefore
seem to fall between December and February.

Feeding habits

The langurs were active from shortly after dawn throughout the
hours of daylight but they invariably spent from 14 to 2 hours resting
during the heat of the day. Towards noon the group would congregate
high up in a tall liana-draped tree, there they would sit huddled in the
shade of the creeper. During their siesta they remained very still and
were often well hidden ; at this time they would allow the observers to
walk beneath the tree and no amount of hand clapping, shouting, or
hurling of small stones would make them move.

When they awoke the langurs dispersed amongst the trees and re-
commenced feeding until dusk when they settled down for the night,
usually high up in a liana covered tree. According to the forest depart-
ment staff they sometimes moved down to the river to drink during the
afternoon, lapping the water or licking the rocks which in places are rich
in minerals. This behaviour has been described by Gee (1964) but was
not seen during the present study and may depend upon what other source
of water is available to the langurs. At this season of the year they
feed largely upon the succulent cherry-like buds and flowers of the
‘Balu’ tree, Dillenia pentagyna.

The langur’s normal posture when feeding is to sit on a bough hold-
ing it firmly with one or both hind feet, its long tail hanging down and
both hands free to pluck the leaves or flowers which are then transferred
to its mouth, or a spray of foliage may be pulled down and eaten straight
off the twig. When adopting the first method the langur often plucks
a single petal most daintily. The animal is always careful to retain its
grasp on a bough with its feet or hands.

During this study (25-31 March) the Golden Langur was seen to feed
on the following :—

Dillenia pentagyna .. buds and flowers
Careya arborea

Bombax ceiba
13

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Bauhinia vahlii aac leaves
An unidentified climber, possibly of the Legu-
minosae .. leaves

Mode of progression

When moving through the tree tops the langurs make use of
horizontal boughs whenever possible, running along them on all fours or
occasionally, when circumstances allow, running in an upright position
but grabbing the vegetation on either side in their hands. In each case
the long tail is used as an aid to balance. Their method of leaping from
tree to tree has been described above. During its flying descent the
animal adopts what is virtually a sitting position in the air with its feet
and arms thrust out in front ready to seize the next bough and its long
tail streaming out behind. At times such leaps are prodigious and quite
often the animal only manages to grab the tip of a bough or hanging
strand of creeper in one hand to dangle in space before getting a grip
with its other hand. At such times it will travel short distances by
brachiation but this is not its normal method of progression.

Members of a group almost invariably followed one another along
an exact course when on the move, often queuing upto leap across a gap,
If followed for a considerable time a group would become very strung
out, the adult males and females carrying babies being left far behind
by the nimbler sub-adults. Even under these conditions each individual
followed the same route.

If suddenly alarmed a group dispersed in every direction but once the
danger was over they reassembled. Such behaviour evidently has
survival value in the event of an attack by a predator.

Once they became used to the presence of the observers the langurs
would permit us to move about quietly beneath the trees without taking
fright although they always showed signs of nervousness if we stood
directly beneath them, then they would defecate and urinate. Since
alarm would have caused them to flee it would seem that this behaviour
was merely the result of nervousness though the accuracy at times might
suggest that it was a conscious act on their part.

Voice

The most commonly heard utterance of the Golden Langur was a low-
pitched, fast repeated wr-ur-ur-ur- usually made when quarrelling or
mildly disputing food or right of way. This noise is of low intensity
and not unlike the ‘ whickering’ of the European Badger Meles meles.
If suddenly alarmed the langurs uttered a harsh bark of anger, this was
always a double note agh-agh repeated at intervals.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ay 477
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is especially grateful to Mr. E. P. Gee for all his help and
advice which made the expedition to the Bhutan Manas Sanctuary
possible. He also wishes to acknowledge with gratitude the assistance
given by the staff of both the Bhutan and the Assam Forest Departments.

DIRECTOR,

NORFOLK WILDLIFE PARK, | PHILIP WAYRE
GREAT WITCHINGHAM,

NorwitcH, U.K.

March 21, 1968.

REFERENCES

CHAMPION, H. (1938): A preliminary GeE, E. P. (1964): The wild life of
-survey of forest types of Indiaand Burma. India. Colins. London.
Ind. For. Rec. (N.S.) 1.

3. BREEDING HABITS OF THE FIELD RAT MILLARDIA
MELTADA (GRAY)

INTRODUCTION

Of the 91 species of rats and mice found in India, at least 25 occur
in the Punjab (Deoras 1964). Among the field rats found around
Ludhiana, Millardia meltada (Gray) is very common and comprised 50
per cent of the rats collected during September-November. It is
abundant, and along with other species of rats, causes serious damage to
important field crops like wheat, gram, sugarcane, groundnut etc.
Previously, efforts to breed Tatera indica, another important species, in
captivity for studies on its biology did not meet with success due to its
cannibalistic habits (Singh 1961). Cannibalism was a problem in
M. meltada also, but during the period of this study it was possible to
reduce cannibalism to a low level in this species by giving special food ;
and the results of the study on its breeding habits in captivity are
presented in this paper.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty new born young with their mothers were dug out from fields
_ during March to May, 1965. These were kept in breeding cages measur-
“ing 45x<3022°5 cm. made of strong wire netting. The bottom of
each cage was provided with a sliding metal tray for collecting faeces and
urine. To provide darkness and privacy the cages were painted black,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

478

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 479

placed on racks and curtained. They were fed on gram flour enriched
with multivitamins, ostocalcium and sugar at the rate of 2, 2 and 10 per
cent, respectively. The quantity of food and water provided was always
in excess of their requirements and food was renewed every day. The
mother rats were removed as soon as their young started feeding on
flour bait. Only 15 (7 males and 8 females) of the 20 young survived
up to 2 June, 1965, when pairing was done. Thus, 7 pairs were
made and the extra female was discarded. In 6 out of the 7 pairs, siblings
were paired. Each pair was placed ina cage of the dimensions mentioned
above. The young produced by each pair were allowed to remain in
the same cage until they started feeding on the flour bait, when they were
separated and placed in a different cage.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Out of the seven pairs, one pair died on 23 July, 1965, without
producing a single litter. The breeding records of the remaining 6 pairs
are presented in Table 1. The young born in captivity to rats of first
generation in the month of August were paired in the month of October,
and their breeding behaviour is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2

BREEDING IN SECOND GENERATION Millardia meltada IN CAPTIVITY

Date of litter Number of

Sr. No. Date of birth Date of pairing production young in the

litter
tT: 23.8.65 23.10.65 15.4.66 4

2; 21.8.65 23.10.65 18.4.66 6

Breeding Seasons: As seen in Table 1, litters were produced in two
breeding periods: (i) from March to May and (ii) from August to
October. These findings are in agreement with those of Deoras (1964)
who maintains that in Bombay rats breed mainly during the hot months,
one peak being during August to October and the other during March
to May. This is also supported by the findings of Singh (1961) who
found that in the field, the young of Tatera indica are available with their
mothers in the months of March to May and again in October to
November.

Number of litters and young per litter: In each breeding period
M. meltada reproduced 1 to 4 times—a female produced a maximum of 3
litters during March to May and 4 litters during July to September,

:

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Thus, the number of litters in an year may range from 2 to 7. This
observation is similar to that of Burton (1962) who reported that in a
year Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus produced 5 to 6 litters and 6

litters, respectively.

TABLE 3

APPROXIMATE GESTATION PERIOD IN THE FIELD RAT, Millardia meltada

|
Sr. No. Date last litter Date next litter SE Geo:
f. 23.8.65 16.9.65 24
2. 14.8.65 18.9.65 ates
3; 26.3.66 15.4.66 20
4. 26.3.66 16.4.66° 21
5), 26.3.66 6.5.66 41
6. 9.4.66 20.5.66 41
of 15.4.66 6.5.66 21
8. 28.7.66 18.8.66 21
9. 7.8.66 29.8.66 22
10. ; 29.8.66 26.9.66 28
11. 18.8.66 10.9.66 23
12; 10.9.66 1.10.66 21

During this laboratory study the 6 pairs produced 93 young in 27
litters and the number of young ones per litter varied from 1 to 8, the
average being 3°44; whereas in field collections each of 6 litters contained
5 to 8 young, the average being 6. These numbers are quite comparable
with 7 to 8 young per litter in case of R. norvegicus (Perry 1945) and 6
young per litter in case of R. rattus (Watson 1951). In all cases, the
females gave birth to the young at wan This finding is in line with
that of Snell (1941). |

Gestation period: Mating was not observed because it might be occurr-
ing at night or for extremely short intervals if it occurred during the day.
Also no chemical pregnancy tests were carried out to determine the gesta-
tion period. However, the data presented in Table 3 indicate that the
minimum period elapsing between the dates. of production of two con-
secutive litters was 20 days. This means that the gestation period was
20 days or even shorter than this. This is comparable with the figure
(21 days) given by Clegg & Clegg (1963) for rats in general and 20 to 26
days in R. norvegicus and 21 to 30 days in R. rattus reported PY Burton

(1962).

Maturity : Out of the 20 field collected young the 6 females that were
used for the study of breeding habits, produced their first litter after 158,
127,.111, 335, 108 and 116 days respectively and considering that the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 481

gestation period is about 20 days, the probable time taken to attain
sexual maturity in these six cases works out to 138, 107, 91, 315, 88 and
96 days, respectively. Thus, in case of young born in the months of
March to May the time taken to attain maturity varied from 3 to 43
months with the result that irrespective of the month of their birth all
the 6 females born in the March to May breeding season produced their
first litter during August the same year. However, there was one excep-
tion wherein the female. produced its first litter only after 334 days or
11 months (Table 1). The two females born in the laboratory during
August and paired in October produced their first litter in the following
Aprili.e. after a period of 215 and 220 days or approximately 7 months

(Table 2).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Dr. A. S. Atwal, Professor and Head
of Department of Zoology-Entomology, for his keen interest in this study,
and to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for financing the
Project—* Co-ordinated Scheme for Research on the study of habits and
methods of control of field rats ’, under which this work was carried out.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA.

January 3, 1967.

-O. S. BINDRA
PREM SAGAR

REFERENCES

Burton, M. (1962): Systematic Dic-
tionary of mammals of the World.
Museum Press Limited. London, 307 pp.

CLEGG, P. C. & CLEGG, A. C. (1963) :
Biology of an Mammal. Heinemann.
London, 437 p

DEORAS, ]e ae (1964) : Rats and their
control, a chapter in Entomology in
India. Entomo. Soc. India, New Delhi,
529 pp.
Perry, J. S. (1945) : The reproduction
of the wild brown rat. Proc. zool. Soc.

SINGH, B. (1961) : Studies on the bio-
logy, habits and control of the field rat
(Tatera indica). Unpublished Thesis,
Punjab University, Chandigarh.

SNELL, GEORGE, D. (Ed. by) (1941):

Biology of the laboratory mouse.
Dover Publications Inc. New York,
497 pp.

Watson, J. S. (1951) : The rat problem
in Cyprus—A report of investigations
made in carob growing areas. Colonial
Res. P. Publ. (London), 9 : 1-66.

London 115 : 19-46.

4. NEW RECORDS OF MAMMALS FROM RAJASTHAN,
INDIA

Since the publication of the recent authoritative literature on the
distribution of Indian Mammals by Pocock (1939, 1941), and Ellerman &
Morrison-Scott (1951), several new records of mammals have been made
by Prakash (1956, 1957, 1959, 1961, 1963a, 19635, 1964) and Agrawal
(1967) from Rajasthan. The recent mammalian collections made in
Rajasthan by various parties of the Rajasthan Desert Survey of the
Zoological Survey of India include examples of two species of mammals,

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

which are yet unreported from that State. While the detailed taxonomic
discussion on this material will be considered in a later paper, we have
thought it worthwhile to publish the new mammalian records hereunder.

Pipistrellus mimus mimus Wroughton. The Indian Pygmy Pipistrelle
(Chiroptera : Vespertilionidae).

Material examined: 10 33 (2 subad.), 6 992 (2 subad.) and 2 unsexed from
Nagaur District (Gudha, Lihora, Nawa) ; April and August, 1958.

According to Wroughton (1918) and Ellerman & Morrison-Scott
(1951), it occurs over a wide territory from Ceylon to Kathiawar in the
south, and in the north from Kumaon to western Burma, and Annam
in the east. The present material appears to constitute the first report of

this subspecies from Rajasthan.

Herpestes edwardsi nyula Hodgson.
(Carnivora : Viverridae).

Material examined : 1 2 from Marwar District (Pali) ; December, 1956.

According to Pocock (1941) and Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951)
Herpestes edwardsi ferrugineus Blanford occurs in Rajasthan which is its
eastern limit. Westward it occurs up to Iraq through parts of north-
western India, Sind, Baluchistan and Iran. The present specimen of
H. e. nyula which has so far been known from Kutch to Bengal south of
the river Ganga and Nepal to Assam north of that river (Pocock, 1941,
Ellerman & Morrison-Scott, 1951), constitutes the first authentic record
of this subspecies from Rajasthan.

Examples of H. e. ferrugineus in the collection of the Zoological Survey
of India are from the northern, north-western and western parts of
Rajasthan, while nyula is known from the south-eastern region.

The Indian Grey Mongoose

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,
CALCUTTA=13.
February 22, 1968.

BISWAMOY BISWAS
R. K. GHOSE

REFERENCES

AGRAWAL, V. C. (1967) : New mammal
records from Rajasthan. Labdev J.
Sci. & Tech., India, 5 : 342-344.

ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT,
T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic
and Indian mammals. London (British
Museum).

Pocock, R. I. (1939, 1941) : The fauna
of British India. Mammalia, 1, 2.
London.

PRAKASH, I. (1956) : A list of mammals
of Rajasthan desert. J. Bengal nat. Hist.
Soc. 28: 1-17.

———— (1957): Additions to the
list of mammals of Rajasthan desert.
ibid. 28: 169-170.

-—_—— (1959) :_ Checklist of, the
mammals of Rajasthan desert. Univ.
Rajasthan Studies, Biol. Sci. 4: 30-56.
(1961): New mammal re-

cords and zoo-geography of mammals in
the Rajasthan desert. Proc. Indian Sci.
Congr., 47 (3) [1960]: 488-489.
(1963a): Taxonomic and
biological observations on the bats of the
Rajasthan desert. Rec. Indian Mus..
59 [1961] : 149-170.
— (19635): Taxonomical and
ecological account of the mammals of
Rajasthan desert: Ann. Arid. Zone,
Jodhpur, 1: 142-162.
———— (1964): Taxonomical and
ecological account of the mammals of
Rajasthan desert. ibid. 2: 150-161.
WROUGHTON, R. C. (1918) : Summary
of the results from the Indian Mammal
Survey of the Bombay Natural History
Society. Part 1. J. Bombay nat. Hist,
Soc, 25; 17-58,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 483

5. ON THE FOOD HABITS OF CORMORANTS IN THE
BREEDING SEASON

Every year a good number of Cormorants (Phalacrocorax sp..,)
Night Herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), and Anhingas (Anhinga
melanogaster) assemble in the trees within the Calcutta Zoological
Gardens for nidification. Night Herons seem to be permanent residents
while cormorants and anhinga frequent the garden only during breed-
ing season. The cormorants begin to assemble in the beginning of May.
The population attains a peak during the breeding months from June to
September. By the end of October most birds leave although some are
Seen even in early December. We had the opportunity of examining the
nest loads of dry fish and stomach contents of young birds when a few
branches had to be cut down, thus bringing down hundreds of nest and
young ones.

On the basis of this examination it is evident that the birds consume
a lot of fish which forms their main food during the season. The follow-
ing fishes could be identified.

1. . Tilapia (67% of total)
2. Major carps (27% of total)
3. Ophicephalus (6% of total)

Very small fishes were found in the crops of very young birds. The
biggest fish brought were in the weight range 23-32 gm.

The highest values of weight are given below :—

Tilapia 31 gm.
Labeo rohita ee.
Ophicephalus 32 ,,

These data show that Tilapia forms the major item of consumption
during breeding season perhaps because this species is plentiful and is
a surface-dweller. It is well known that tilapia breed at a very rapid rate
so that ultimately we have a very large number of very small fish which
are not of marketable size. Various schemes have been suggested for
Weeding out its excessive number. In nature cormorants may act as
such balancing agents.

We are deeply grateful to Sri R. K. Lahiri, Superintendent, Calcutta
Zoo Gardens for his sincere co-operation.

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT, A. R. SENGUPTA
BRAHMANANDA KESHAB CHANDRA COLLEGE,

BoN-HOOGHLY,

CALCUTTA-35.

INDIAN STATISTICAL INSTITUTE,
CaALcuTTA-35. R. L, BRAHMACHARY

September 10, 1967.

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

6. GREYHEADED LAPWING VANELLUS CINEREUS
(BLYTH) : NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN

I saw three Greyheaded Lapwings along with Wood Sandpiper, and
Redwattled Lapwing at the water’s edge within the Ghana Sanctuary,
Bharatpur (27° 13’N., 77° 32’E.) on 20 January 1968. The known winter
range of this migrant, in the Indian region, is Kashmir, Bihar, Assam,
East Pakistan and the Andamans. )

The birds were seen at 4.30 p.m. in bright light, through field glasses
at close quarters. All the features including the colour of the irides
could be clearly noted. The pectoral band was considerably dark in one
individual, and in another it was very faint.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, B. ROBERT GRUBH |
BOMBAY. dat

March 23, 1968.

[Winter visitor. Quite common in Assam, Manipur, and East
Pakistan ; also in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Occurs in N. Bihar, and
stragglers recorded in Kashmir, Dehra Dun, and the Andaman Islands.
A large proportion of our visitors are young birds without the pectoral
band (Salim Ali & Ripley, HANDBOOK)—Eds, ]

7. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKSHAFTED
LITTLE TERN (STERNA ALBIFRONS SAUNDERSI
HUME) NEAR BOMBAY

In 1964 [Races of Sterna albifrons Pallas in India and Pakistan
(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 440-446)], Humayun Abdulali had refer-
red to the absence of records of the Blackshafted Little Tern Sterna
albifrons saundersi Hume, south of the Gulf of Kutch.
~ On 10 April 1967, I saw several Little Terns in Dharamtar Creek,
Kolaba District, a few miles south of Bombay, and the two specimens
obtained are of this race, presumably on their way towards their breed-
ing grounds around Karachi.

All three races sinensis (breeding), albifrons and saundersi have n now
been recorded from our area.

St. Xavier’s HicH SCHOOL, ~ A, NAVARRO, s.J.
BOMBAY.
January 9, 1968,

i ik i a ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 485

“8. PARENTAL INSTINCTS IN KOEL EUDYNAM YS
SCOLOPACEA (LINNAEUS)

On 25 July 1965 at about 4.45 p.m. I located a crow’s nest on a neem
tree on the outskirts of Rajpipla thickly overgrown with trees. The
river Karjan was about a furlong from the tree with the nest. To have
a better view of he nest I climbed on a higher branch of a nearby banyan
tree.

The nest was occupied by an adult crow (Corvus splendens) which
perched on the edge of the nest, facing me and thus obscuring my
view of the nest’s interior. Another adult crow was perched on a
nearby branch. This evidently was the parent pair. :

- At 5.15 p.m. the bird away from the nest gave a low Caa....rr....
aww and flew off in the direction of the river. After a minute or two the
bird on the nest also flew off in the same direction, perhaps to quench
their thirst in the river.

In about a couple of minutes I heard a flutter of wings above my head

and saw a female koel (Eudynamys scolopacea). It had something in its
beak, probably an insect. I paid no further attention to her presence.
- [saw through my binoculars that the crow’s nest held four nestlings
of which one was slightly larger and already had some feathers. As I
watched the nest the koel approached it very cautiously, and was soon
on its edge. The insect still held in its beak was now identified as a
grasshopper. The nestlings reacted to her approach with outstretched
necks and wide open beaks.

The koel cautiously scanned the surroundings for the sudden approach
of the rightful owners of the nest and being satisfied of its safety fed the
largest nestling and started pecking at the other nestlings. It also started
pushing them to the edge of the nest, with perhaps the intention of throw-
ing them out of the nest. The frightened nestlings started calling, rls
Koel nestling was also pushing the crow nestlings off the nest.

The cries of the nestlings brought the furious parents and the koel
busy attacking the crow nestlings was caught redhanded. The crows
pounced upon the koel and all three went tumbling down the branches
and somehow, the koel managed to escape and fled from the scene with

one of the crows in hot pursuit, while the other returned to the nest and

Started inspecting the nestlings. After being satisfied it settled down in
the nest, preening its feathers and setting them right after the rough fight.
After a while, the other crow returned, evidently after a fruitless pursuit.
I kept watch on the same nest for three more days, but De unusual
occurred,

My observations indicate that the koel may have a certain amount of
instinctive desire to feed its young,

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

I also feel that the adult koel’s efforts to throw off the crow nestlings
was an extension of the instinct in koel nestlings to do away with other
nestlings and eggs in their nest. This conclusion has added support
as it has been observed that when a koel lays its eggs in the host nest, she
also removes other eggs from the nest. It has been observed and re-
corded that koel do feed their offsprings that have left their nest.

This incident also definitely shows that the koel shows some interest
in parental care, and is not completely devoid of the instinct of parental

Cane:
Several problems require answers. Does the koel recognise its young

after the long period of incubation? Whether the young was her own
or the nest was a completely different one and the koel acted merely in-
stinctively ? Did the koel keep track of the nest in which she laid her
egg so that she could recognise her young after hatching? Whether the
male has any trace of parental instinct ? |

I am sure, these questions will encourage readers to be on the look-
out for crows and the koel.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the University Grants Commission for awarding a
research grant which made this work possible. I am also indebted to
Dr Salim Ali, for his suggestions. Thanks are also due to the Secre-
tary, Adiwasi Kelavani Mandal, Rajpipla, for offering all possible help.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY,

M.R. ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE, DHRUV DIXIT
RAJPIPLA. |

July 23, 1967.

REFERENCES

LamBaA, B. S. (1963): The nidification Lownpbes, D. G. (1952): Does the
of some common Indian Birds—Part 1. adult cuckoo ever assist in feeding its
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 (1) : 121-133. offspring? ibid., 50 (4) : 945.

9. BLACKCAPPED KINGFISHER HALCYON PILEATA
(BODDAERT) AT BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

During the Bombay Natural History Society’s Bird Migration Study
Project (1967-68) at Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur (27° 13’N., 77°
32’E.) a Blackcapped Kingfisher was caught in our net on 9 Feb. 1968.
This specimen was preserved and bears Reg. No. 22931 of the Society’s
bird collection, Another bird was seen in the same area later,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 487

This bird is usually seen along the coasts and has not been recorded
so far inland in western India though in the east it is known from Monghyr
(Bihar) on the Ganges and eastern Assam.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, B. R. GRUBH

BOMBAY. J. D. PANDAY
March 23, 1968. P. B. SHEKAR

10. CROWS AND COMPANIONSHIP

(With a text-figure)

On the evening of 29 December 1965, I and my friend Rojer Finzel
of the American Peace Corps stationed at Rajpipla were sitting on the
terrace of my house when we saw an unusual sight, a crow (Corvus
splendens) with a broken_upper beak as in the text-figure.

Brokes,
“Pperbeak

ee
=o
.

Beh
rem

oe Ae

We were wondering as to how it would feed itself. After watching
it for a while I decided to take its photograph, and -went!into the house
but on returning with the camera I was disappointed to notice that the
crow had flown off.

On the morning of 31 December at about 7.30 a.m. I saw the bird
again. It was trying to feed itself by bending its head to one side and
scooping the food with the lower beak. It failed several times in its
efforts to secure the food but in the end managed to place it on the lower
beak and tilting its head upwards as birds do to drink water, swallowed
the food with slow jerky movements.

When it was trying again to pick up another bit a couple of crows
nearby came and started feeding it. This led me to the hasty conclusion

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

that the bird was young but more careful observation confirmed that it
was an adult. This indicates a sympathy towards a crippled member of
the flock. However, a more plausible explanation could be that this
bird lost its upper beak as a nestling and the pair that had fed it as a
nestling continued to feed it considering its helplessness.

I shall be very much interested in any similar incident recorded.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, :
M.R. ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE, DHRUV DIXIT
RAJPIPLA. |

July 23, 1967.

11. THE WAXWING, BOMBYCILLA GARRULUS
(LINNAEUS), IN NEPAL

The Waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus (Linnaeus), has been reported in
southern Asia from Quetta and Bannu in extreme western Pakistan
(Ripley 1961 : 319). Recently I undertook a study trip with members
of the Natural History Society of Woodstock School, Mussoorie, U.P.
to the Gosainkund Lekh region. north of Kathmandu. On the morn-
ing of 16 December 1967, Mr. Robert Waltner, Staff Advisor to the
Society, reported seeing a solitary ‘ waxwing-like’ bird near our camp
at Thare Pate Puchari. Later the same day I found a flock of four wax-
wings perched in the top of a bare tree at c. 3660 m. (12,000 feet) ele-
vation ; two were collected.

These birds were in association with Whitewinged Grosbeaks,
Mycerobas carnipes (Hodgson), and Blackthroated Thrushes, Turdus
rujicollis Pallas, in a mixed forest of Juniperus, Rhododendron, Magnolia
and Abies. The only note heard was the familiar high ‘ zeeee zeeeee’
given when the birds. were about to fly. The ventriculi of the two birds
contained whole juniper berries (probably of Juniperus recurva, see
Stainton, 1964 : Appendix E). Measurements of the specimens were :
RLF 2131 : 2, wing 116 mm.; RLF 2132: 9, wing 114 mm.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr. R. L. Fleming, Sr., helped greatly in making arrangements for.
our trip. I also wish to express my thanks to the officials of the Foreign
Office and Forest Department of His Majesty’s Government for per-
mission to trek and collect in Nepal.

OFFICE OF ECOLOGY,

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ROBERT L. FLEMING Jr.
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20560.

December 23, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 489

REFERENCES

Ripetey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of STAINTON, J. D. A. (1964) : Notes on
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Journeys in East Nepal, 1964. Mimeo-
Bombay. graphed.

12. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF ISABELLINE CHAT
OENANTHE ISABELLINA (TEMMINCK)

On 5 November 1967 we obtained, in open scrub by the side of
Matoba Tank near Yewat, Dhond Taluka, Poona, a bird which by
appearance and behaviour seemed to be a Desert Wheatear (Oenanthe
deserti), except that when once it settled under a ‘Tarwad’ (Cassia auri-
culata) bush its upright stance suggested a pipit rather than a chat. Upon
closer examination it proves to be a female Isabelline Chat, Oenanthe
isabellina (Temminck).

O. isabellina is accepted as a common migrant through the north-
west. Butler (1880) in A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF THE SOUTHERN
- PORTION OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, says: ‘ Rare. Occurs as a strag-
gler about Nagar. I have no other record of its occurrence within the
region’. Blanford (1890) accepts it as far south as Ahmednagar
(Nagar), slightly north of the present locality, but this is omitted in sub-
sequent literature, the southern limit being given as a line from North
Gujarat, east through Sehore (Bhopal) to Banares, in Ripley’s SyNopsis.
This also (correctly) ignores a female deserti collected by Salim Ali
at Bhyander, Thana District, Bombay, and listed (BNHS Reg. No. 2587)
under O. isabellina.

In the hand, the heavier bill, the longer tarsus (29 mm.), the white
(and not buff) upper-tail coverts, and the generally bulkier appearance
clearly separate isabellina from female deserti and some of these differ-
ences may be noticeable in the field. The male deserti is of course quite
different.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
Bomsay-1. 7 R. J. PPMENTO
November 13, 1967.

1 BLANFORD, W. T. & OATES, E. W.: The Fauna of British India. Birds 2 : 77.

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 @

13. GREYWINGED BLACKBIRD TURDUS BOULBOUL
(LATHAM) AT BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

We saw a male Greywinged Blackbird in the Ghana Bird Sanctuary,
Bharatpur (27° 13’N., 77° 32’E.) in the afternoon of 25 February 1968.
The bird, which settled on a low tree, was not shy and could be approach-
ed as near as 25 feet. Its black plumage with prominent grey patch
running from part of the wing coverts to the inner secondaries, and the
finely barred abdomen, together with reddish orange bill and yellow eye
lids leave no doubt as to its identity. It was seen on three successive
days in the same area.

This species has not been recorded south of the Punjab Salt Range
where it is noted as ‘ occasionally straggling in winter’ by Ripley (1961).

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, B. R. GRUBH
HORNBILL HOUSE, P. B. SHEKAR
BOMBAY. J. D. PANDAY

March 23, 1968.
REFERENCE

Ripcey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of Bombay Natural History Society,
the Birds of India and Pakistan: 532, Bombay.

14. THE GREEN ALGA, SPIROGYRA SP. IN THE DIET
OF THE WHITEBACKED MUNIA, LONCHURA
STRIATA (LINN.)

On the morning of 9-1x-1967, while crossing a rice field in process of
conversion into a housing site in the eastern outskirts of Ernakulam, my
path lay over uneven ground thrown into a series of hollows and dep-
ressions which were filled up during the recent rains. As I neared one
of them in which the water had nearly dried up, a small party of white-
backed munias suddenly flew down from their perch on the nearest tele-
graph wire and were seen to peck at the green algae which had formed on
its exposed moist bed. From where I stood hardly 6 feet away, I could
clearly see a green strand of the alga in the beak of the bird nearest to
me, slowly being swallowed. The other birds hopped about on the
sandy bottom, pecking at the green mass and seemingly enjoying them-
selves. However, before I could continue with my observation, the
sound of approaching footsteps disturbed the birds and sent them scurry-
ing from their meal.

The green alga struck me as rather an unusual item in the diet of this
munia, which along with others of its tribe, is known to feed chiefly on
seeds and grains. Whether or not this choice of food is commoner than

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 41

just accidental, only further observations willshow. Perhaps some of the
readers of your esteemed Journal may have had a similar experience ?
The algal slime found in the depressions was identified as Spirogyra sp.
with an admixture of diatoms by Prof. S. Iyer, Head of the Department
of Botany, The Maharaja’s College, Ernakulam, to whom my. grateful
thanks are due.

* BELLE-VUE ’ |

DEWAN’S RoabD, N. G. PILLAI
ERNAKULAM.

November 13, 1967.

15. OCCURRENCE OF THE SNAKE 7YPHLOPS DIARDI
SCHLEGEL IN THE DUN VALLEY

I collected two specimens of Typhlops diardi Schlegel from (Reg.
No. V229) Dharmawala Forest Block, Timli Forest Range, Dehra Dun
Forest Division, Dehra Dun District. on 9 March, 1963, and a female
(Reg. No. V 230) from a drain near Garhi Cantonment, Dehra Dun, on
10 June, 1964. The species has not been recorded earlier from the
Western Himalayas.

The specimens show some variation in the lepidosis from that given
by Smith (1935) FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Reptilia and Amphibia, 3 : 52
“eye distinct, usually in the ocular shield, the lower edge of which is
wedged in between 3rd and 4th labial’. The eyes are distinct in the
ocular shield and the lower edge of the ocular is not wedged in between
3 and 4 supralabials, but the ocular touches the 4th supralabial.

The female specimen contained 9 fully developed eggs of 4-7 mm.
size. It appears that the egg laying season commences in tne in the
Dun Valley.
~ Smith (op. cit.) gives the range of T. a diardi as ‘ Bengal, Assam,
Burma and French Indo-China north of lat. 16°’. The present record
of the species from Dun Valley considerably extends the western range
of the species.

NORTHERN REGIONAL STATION, | | i ‘|
ZOOLOGICAL SuRvVEY OF INDIA, , |. ...... R.K. BHATNAGAR
DEHRA DUN.
May 26, 1966.

14

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

16. UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF TWO MALE RAT
SNAKES, PTYAS MUCOSUS re

On 8 May, 1966 we saw two Rat Snakes, Ptyas mucosus (Linn.)
twined around each other, on a grassy patch of land at Rajpur. Though
a crowd had gathered around them the snakes remained twined with
the fore-body raised approximately 2 to 3 feet above ground and sway-
ing to and fro. When first observed, we thought that the snakes were
mating, but the everted hemipenis disproved this assumption. Later
the snakes were shot by one of us (A.K.B.) but by the time we could
bring a collection bag the watching crowd had started a fire to ward off
the supposedly bad omen! However, the specimens were saved and
later deposited in the Northern Regional Station of the Zoological Sur-
vey of India, Dehra Dun.

Neither Smith (1935) nor Wall (1906) have reported such unusual
behaviour in the species. However, Abdulali (1941) who has observed
similar behaviour, states ‘ the chances are that the males were -fighting
but no attempt was made to bite each other. It might be interesting to
examine other pairs of snakes apparently in coitus’. Though the snakes
we saw were swaying their bodies and occasionally hissing, yet no
attempt was made to bite or to tighten the coils around each other.
This behaviour is certainly unusual and apparently rarely seen, otherwise
there would certainly have been numerous reports in the Journal.

I/C 14 SuRVEY PARTY,

4, CONVENT ROAD, DEHRA DuN. A. K. BHATTACHARYA
NORTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. K. BHATNAGAR

* RUSHMI’, 13-SUBHASH ROAD,

DEHRA Dun.

June 2, 1966.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1941): Rat-snakes WALL, F. (1906): A popular treatise
fighting. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. on Common Indian Snakes. Part IJII.
42 : 666. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 259-

SmiTH, M. oN (1935): Fauna of British 273.
India : Reptilia Se 59:

[The exact significance of this behaviour known as ‘ combat dance’
is not clear. It is thought that it may be due to sexual or territorial
rivalry. This behaviour, though well known among some rattle-snakes
(Crotalidae) and an Australian elaphid, has been recorded only for the
rat snake among Indian snakes.—EDs.]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 493

17. A NOTE ON THE FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS
OF TOR MAHSEER, TOR TOR (HAMILTON) FROM
RIVER NARMADA!

Tor tor (Hamilton), popularly known as Tor Mahseer is one of the
game fishes of India. This species ranks first in the commercial catches
of River Narmada near Hoshangabad and constitutes about 28:0% in
the total landings and 47:0% in the carp fishery. It attains a maximum
length of 4 feet (Hora 1940 and MacDonald 1948), but the largest speci-
men recorded from River Narmada at Hoshangabad measured 2 feet
and 10 inches. As, in recent years, the culture of Mahseer fry in con-
fined waters has been attempted for sport fishing and cultural purposes,
knowledge of the natural food of Mahseer is essential. Though Hora
(1940), Codrington (1946) and MacDonald (1948), among others have
contributed on the bionomics and natural history of Tor Mahseer,
detailed information on its food and feeding habits are so far lacking.
Detailed observations on the food of this fish were therefore made at
the Narmada Tapti Unit of the Central Inland Fisheries Research In-
stitute at Hoshangabad. A preliminary statement of there observations
is given in the present note.

The gut contents of 577 specimens (size range : 200-790 mm.) of this
fish were analysed by eye estimation and occurrence method.

The fish mainly subsists on macrovegetation (48°5 %), algae (14° 5 YA):
molluscs (10°5 %) and insects (8°3%). The macrovegetation comprises
a variety of submerged plants like Vallisneria including its seeds (8°7 %),
various kinds of grass (6°9%), Naias (2°5%), Ceratophyllum (1:2%),
Hydrilla (0°4°%), unidentified plants (1:6 %), twigs (2°4%), roots (0°3%)
and digested plant matter (24:°5°%). These items form the bulk of gut
contents throughout the year. The algal food is formed by the filamen-
tous and branched algae like Spirogyra (8°9 °%), Chara (2°5°%), Pithophora
(08%), Mougeotia (0°6%), Zygnema (0°5°%) and unidentified semi-
digested algae (1'2%). The molluscs are represented by Corbicula
striatella (7:7°%), Indonaia caerulea (0'2°%) and Parreysia favidens (0°1°%)
among pelecypods (8:0°%) and Viviparus bengalensis (2:0%) and Mela-
noides (Tarebia) lineatus (0°5°%) among gastropods (2°5%). The aquatic
insects which comprise mostly bottom dwelling insect larvae are rep-
resented by orders Trichoptera, mostly caddisworms (3°7%) ; Diptera,
mostly Chironomus larvae (2°1%) ; Ephemeroptera, only nymphs (0°6 %) ;
Odonata, Dragonfly nymphs (0°4°%) ; Hemiptera, adult water bugs and

a

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Central Inland F ehdnes Betearcd
Institute, Barrackpore (via Calcutta).

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

water boatmen (0°4%) ; and Coleoptera, both adults and larvae (0° yale
The digested insect matter made up 1.0% in the gut contents.

Besides these principal food components, the other items which are
incidentally taken by the fish while feeding at bottom are fish remains
consisting of bones and scales (0:2 °/), miscellaneous animal matter com-
prising crabs, crustacean appendages and centipedes (0°2%), debris con-
sisting of cloth, paper, stone and charcoal pieces (7°9%) and sand and
mud (7'8%). Smaller quantities of sand are also contributed by the
crushed cases of caddisworms. The presence of fully and semi-digested
plum fruit, (2°1°%) in some of the guts is attributed to totes of fish by
the fishermen to lure them to fishing grounds.

It feeds voraciously from November to June (av. gastrosomatic
index : 4:23). The feeding intensity of this fish is poor from July to
October (av. gastrosomatic index : 1°78) which coincides with its breed-
ing season. |

The composition of the diet of Tor Mahseer clearly indicates
that it is a marginal bottom feeder and is mainly herbivorous (macro-
vegetation and algae : 63:0 %) and carnivorous to alesser degree (molluscs
and insects: 18°8%) in feeding habits. Hora & Mukerji (1936) also
stated that Tor Mahseer [Tor tor (Hamilton) Barbus tor (Hamilton)]
feeds ‘ preferably on filamentous algae and water plants ’.

The protrusible and suctorial mouth of the fish and the presence
of large quantities of sand, mud and debris (15°7%) in the guts are
suggestive of bottom feeding habits. The marginal shallow portions of
river bed where the water current is feeble are densely covered with sub-
merged rooted vegetation and algae which invariably harbour insects,
molluscs and other biota. While ‘ grazing’ at the river bottom, the fish
ingests macrovegetation and algae, along withinsects and molluscs dwell-
ing among them, and other bottom biota. :

On the basis of herbivorous feeding habits of ‘ Katli’, Barbus (Lis-
sochilus) hexagonolepis, Saha & Sen (1956) have indicated its utility in the
biological control of submerged aquatic vegetation in ponds. Since Tor
Mahseer feeds extensively on underwater rooted vegetation and algae
in its natural habitat, it is regarded as a true herbivore and could be used
for the biological control of submerged weeds. Being a native species,
the possibilities of using Tor Mahseer for successful biological control
of weeds in ponds are worth exploring in India and intensive studies may
be undertaken to evaluate its suitability as an effective weed control agent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
| The authors are extremely grateful to Dr. B. Ss. Bhimachar and Dr..V.
G. Jhingran for their encouragement during thé course of this. study and

an
Less

Narmaba-Tapti UNIT,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

495

to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for the identifi-

cation of molluscs from River Narmada.
a

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES |

RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
HOSHANGABAD (M.P.)
February 25, 1964.

V. R. DESAI
S. J. KARAMCHANDANI

REFERENCES

CODRINGTON, K. De. B. (1946):
Notes on the Indian. Mahseers J. -
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 : 336-344.

HordA, S. L. (1940) : The Game fishes
of India Pt. IX—The Mahseers or -
large-scaled Barbels of India. ibid 41 :
518-525.

— & MoukeruI, D. D. (1936):
Fish of the eastern Doon, United Pro-
vinces Rec. Indian Mus. 38: 133-146.

Darjeeling District

cumventing the Mahseer and _ other
‘sporting -fish in India and Burma.

~ Bombay.

SAHA, K. C. & Sen, D. P. (1956):
Biological control -of submerged aquatic
vegetation in pond fisheries by culture
of ‘Katli? [Barbus (Lissochilus) hexa-
gonolepis|, a hill stream fish’ of
(West Bengal).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 726-729.

MacDonatp, A. S. J. (1948): Cir-

18. A CASE OF ALBINISM IN HETEROPNEUSTES
, FOSSILIS (BLOCH)

An immature albino specimen of Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) was
obtained from a pond at Joysagar Fish Farm, Assam in the month of
April, 1965. The entire body of the fish was white with a bluish patch
on either side of the body behind pectoral fin. The colour of the eyes,
even in living condition of the specimen was also white. Each eye had
a slightly dark ring at the periphery caused probably by the colour of the
internal tissue; The albino measured 131 mm. in length and weighed
14:6 gm. Abnormality neither in external nor internal organs of the
albino was observed.

Albinism in fish is uncommon and has been described only in a few
cat fishes and in an eel. Hora (1926) has recorded partial albinism in

Magur, Clarias batrachus (Linn.). Other instances of albinism are
recorded by Dean (1923) in Clarias angularis and Silurus sp. and by
Aitkin (1937) in Ietalurus punctatus. Jones & Pantulu (1952) have
‘described albinism in the-freshwater eel, Anguila bengalensis. Gupta &
Bhowmic (1958) recorded an albino Arius jella Day. The occurence of

albinism in Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) forms another record of this
phenomenon among cat fish so far recorded in India.

RESEARCH OFFICER,
FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,
JOYSAGAR, ASSAM. :
November 15, 1966,

M, C, BARUAH

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

REFERENCES

AITKIN, W. W. (1937); Albinism in JONES, S. & PANTULU, V. R. (1952):
Ictalurus punctatus. Copeia: 64. A remarkable case of albinism in Anguila
DEAN, B. (1923): A bibliography of bengalensis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
fishes. American Museum of Natural 51 (1) : 285-286.
History, New York: 393. GupTA, P. D. & BHOowmic, R. M.
Hora, S. L. (1926): An albino Magur, (1958): An interesting case of Albinism
Clarias batrachus (Linn.). Jour. proc. in Arius jella Day, from India. Sci. and
Asiatic. Soc. Bengal. 22: 131. cult. 24 (6) : 283.

19. ON THE INTRODUCTION OF PHASLA JAL, A GILL
NET, FOR CATCHING HILSA IN THE GANGA AND
YAMUNA NEAR ALLAHABAD

(With a text-figure)

A detailed account of the fishing nets and traps employed in a section
of the middle reaches of the Ganga River System, during 1963 has been
given by Saxena (1966). At that time he reported, that gill net was not
used in this stretch for catching Hilsa, although major carps and cat-
fishes were being caught with gill nets, such as Tiar and Gochail. Jones
(1959 a & b) while describing fishing gears used for the capture of Hilsa,
has also not recorded this gear. The net described here has been recently
introduced in the Ganga and Yamuna near Allahabad reportedly during
1964. Lightness, convenience for operation, better yield with less effort
are the advantages of this net. Probably because of these, the net has
gained popularity in this region within a very short period, in spite of
the high initial cost owing to nylon being used in its fabrication. The
cost of the net comes to approximately fifty rupees.

Made of nylon twine of varying thickness, a single piece of the net
commonly known as Phasla Jal, has 280-300 meshes across and 40-50
meshes in depth. The head rope, usually 1-2 mm. in thickness and
made of either nylon or cotton, measures 15°62 m. in length. Floats,
made of several thin reeds joined together and measuring 13°5 cm. in
length and 4 mm. in diameter, are tied to the head rope at intervals of
38°5 cm. leaving about 10 meshes free in between every two floats.
Usually one mesh is left free along the length of the float (Figs. 1 and
2). Two to three such pieces are usually joined together in operation.
The most common mesh sizes encountered are 8°5 cm., 9°0 cm. and
10°5 cm. (stretched). Sometimes pieces of different mesh sizes are also
combined together for catching different size groups. The net is quite
often dyed blue probably as a camouflage. A notable feature of the
net is the complete absence of the bottom rope and sinkers.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 497

~ Two men and a small boat (dongi) are required to operate this net.
The net is payed out across the river where the current is sluggish. Ascen-

—> 8 a 35 cM iw HEAD Rope
wf. YY NV AVAVATANAVAYATATG'
: |

Fig. 1. A single piece of Phasla Jal.

Fig. 2. Showing arrangement of floats and meshes.
tne or descending Hilsa trying to pass through the body of the net get
gilled. Often they get enmeshed in the net due to its loose lower margin.
The enmeshed fish are taken out immediately, so that the effective catch-
ing area of the net is not reduced for subsequent catches. Phasla is
operated throughout the year except during the monsoon months, when
fast currents prevent its operation. The net is operated both in the
Ganga and Yamuna where the required depth and current occur during
the greater part of the year. The net is usually operated during night.

Phasla Jal of bigger mesh-size (19:0-20:00 cm.) and made of thicker

nylon fibre is used for catching major carps and catfishes. Phasla Jal
resembles the Tiar of Ganga, Rangoon-vala of ae, SESE of
Madras and Amyaw-paik of Burma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Shri H. P. C. Shetty, Senior Research
Officer for his kind help in the preparation of this note.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES
RESEARCH INSTITUTE, R. K. SAXENA
30, PANNALAL ROAD, RAVISH CHANDRA
ALLAHABAD-2.
September 21, 1967,

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

REFERENCES

SAXENA, R. K. (1966) : eee Indo- _ (Hamilton)] in theindian region. J.
Pacif. Fish. Coun. 11 (2): -71. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 250-75;
JONES, (1959) : Dames methods 423-48.
for the Padiie Shad [Hilsa ilisha

20. FOOD HABITS OF THE BULL FROG
RANA TIGERINA (DAUD.)

A good deal of literature is available on the natural food of the Indian
Bull Frog, Rana tigerina (Daud). The reported observations could be
conveniently put under two heads, direct observations while feeding and
those based on examination of gut contents. Aitken (1895), Gostling
(1895), Whiffin (1895), Sundera Raj (1915), Davidson (1916), Zutshi
(1926), McCann (1933), Rao & Cherian (1940), Dharmakumarsinhji
(1940), and Bhaduri (1945) have made direct observations while Chibber
(1911), Agharkar (1912), Mullan (1912), Mahendra (1929), Iswar Prakash
(1953), and Wadekar (1963), studied the gut contents. The direct obser-
vations give us knowledge of the food, the feeding mechanism, defence
of the prey, etc., but considering the food factor direct observations are
usually isolated cases of unusual rather than normal food, whereas the
records of the gut contents show the overall picture of the general diet.

The present data is based on the gut-contents of frogs made avail-
able for dissections to students. The data is based on material collected
from 100 selected frogs received during the period of 14th July 1961 to
29th August 1961. After killing with chloroform, the frogs were
weighed, sexed and frogs with enlarged belly were dissected out to collect
the stomach contents. Frogs showing even little stomach contents were
taken into account.

The major contents of the stomach of R. tigerina are tabulated below.
The species appears to be polyphagous.

DISCUSSION

Out of the 100 frogs dissected for their stomach contents 64 were
females and 36 males. Frogs with their stomach contents weighed bet-
ween 80 and 313 gm. with an average weight of 144 gm. It was ascer-
tained that the frogs were locally collected from the Greater Aaa
area.

It appears from the above data that land crabs, insects and juvenile
frogs are the major food items. Land crabs are regarded as one of the
major pests of paddy (Kadam ef a/. 1960) and are known at some stages ©
of their life to feed on rice seedling both before and after transplanting.
They also cause damage by forming holes in the embankments of fields.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES } 499

Material y,

|
|
|
|
|
|

Invertebrates

4. Earthworm

ii. Land slug

iii. Snail

iv. Land Crab (cither
complete or in
parts) and a
marine crab

v. Prawn | |

INSECTS ..
vi. Beetle

Orthopterous insects

Plant bug
Caterpillar _

Rat-tailed maggot

Beetle larvae -

OTHER ARTHROPODA
Centipede

Spider
Vertebrates .
vii. Fish

viii. Frog

ix. Tortoise
_ x, Lizard
xi. Snake
xii. Shrew
xiii. Rat

Plant

|
Frequency
(0) , >

. Occurrence/
100

52

1]

LS

Number of
animals recovered Species
in good condition |
Many oe
14 Vaginula sp.
6 Ariophanta sp.. and
Planorbis sp.

5 complete and many
parts —_ especially
the chelae

Paratelphusa mce-
Canni and Gecar-
cinucus —_jacque-
montii

exoskeleton

3 entire of elytra Oryctes rhinoceros,

only Cerambicid bee-

) tle, Cybister sp.
(water beetle)

6 entire and many Periplanata

ameri-
parts cana, — Grylotalpa
sp. Cricket (Gryl-
lidae)
26 —
a) wa4
17 Larva of Eristaljs
tenax
1 zoe
3 Scolopendra sp.
1 i 2
2 heads and dorsal —
spine
11 mostly in the —
form of loose ske-
leton
1 skull —
1 | Calotes versicolor
3 Natrix stolatus
1 with skin DP Suncus murinus:

1 young with skin

ee

leaves, grass blades ek
petioles etc.

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

Crabs are taken by adult bull-frogs in the months of July-August.
Wadekar (1963) has no record of crabs as food of R. tigerina.

The general diet consists of a variety of insects and their larvae. In
one instance a frog had taken as many as 20 plant bugs.

A marine crab, prawns and marine fish heads recorded here are not
natural food. Frogs may have eaten these when thrown out as kitchen
refuse.

Seventeen out of 100 frogs had taken vertebrate animals. The three
small snakes were possibly recently hatched young.

Vegetable-matter in the form of leaves, grass blades, algae etc., were
found in 23 frogs.. Other material noted were rice husk, match sticks,
charcoal pieces, marble, a legume and a spiny fruit, bidi-stubs, some
animal faeces, and stones of various shapes and sizes, This material is
taken while grabbing the food perhaps with jaws rather than by the use
of the tongue. McCann (1933) states that anything not edible is at once
ejected. This is notin conformity with the present observation. In cases
Where the material is undigestible and large enough to obstruct its pass-
age through the pylorus, it may be vomitted out later by reverse peris-
talsis but no discrimination seems to be made by the ete Boe edible
and non-edible during feeding.

This frog is in great demand from educational institutions within the
country for studying it as a type animal, and its legs are exported. In
1961 about 35-40 tons of frog legs were exported from India (Indian Trade
Journal 1962). In Kerala where processing of frog legs is done on a
large scale, the earnings for 1960-1963 is given as Rs. 51.66 lakhs for
8.85 lakh Kg. frog-legs (Rukmini Devi 1964). The situation demands
that the natural breeding be supplemented by rearing this frog in cap-
tivity.

Food of juvenile frogs consists largely of eS (Jameson & Rose
1956) and that of tadpoles mainly the different species of algae (McCann
1933, Kamat 1962). Knowledge of the specific food habits during tad-
pole, juvenile and adult stages of the bull frog may help as a primary
step in frog breeding in captivity.

~ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Observations were made in the Biology Dept. of Ruparel College,
Matunga, Bombay-16. My thanks are due to Dr. P. S. Gharse and
Dr. (Mrs.) M. P. Rangnekar for encouragement.

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, a
M.V. COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, AwK, JOSHEE
ANDHERI, BOMBAY-69. 7

June 5, 1967,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

AGHARKAR, S. P. (1912) : The diet of a
Bull-frog (Rana eer J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 21 (2):

AITKEN, E. H. (1896) : ee of the
Bull-frog. ibid., 21 (2):

ANONYMOUS (1962): iad °r rade Jour.
(Dept. Commercial Intelligence and
Statistics) 19th May 1962.

ARUNDALE, RUKMINI Devi (1964):
aie and views. Animal Citizen 1 (4):

Buapuri, J. L. (1945): The Indian
Bull-frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) a menace
to fishery. Sci. and Culture 11 (4):
205-206.

Curpser, H. M. (1911) : The food of a
Bull-frog. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
20 (3) : 865.

‘Davipson, N. (1916): Food of the
as (Rana tigrina). ibid. 25 (1):
152.

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, R. K. (1940):
Frog eating a snake. ibid. 42: 200.

GOSTLING, D. (1895) : The food of the
Bull-frog. ibid. 10 (1): 150.

IsHWAR PRAKASH (1953): Addition
to recorded food items of the Bull-frog
(Rana tigrina). ibid. 51 (3): 750.

JAMESON, D. L. & Rose, M. M. (1956) :

KapamM, M. V., BHAT & PATEL, G. A.
(1960) : ‘Crop pests and how to fight
them ’, Dir. Pub. Govt. of Maharashtra,
Bombay.

Kamat, N. D. (1962) : On the intestinal
contents of tadpoles and algae of small
ponds. Curr. Sci. 31: 300-301.

MAHENDRA, B. C. (1929) : Do frogs
eat snakes? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

33 (3) : 724.
MCCANN, C. (1933) : Notes on Indian
Batrachians. ibid. 36: 161.

MUuLLAN, J. P. (1912) : The food of a
Gepepel (Rana tigrina). ibid. 21 (4):

1

Rao, Y. R. & CHERIAN, M. C. (1940) :
Control of the rice grass-hopper, I.
Indian Farming 1 a 433-436.

SUNDERA RAJ, (1915): Bull- pie
and rat snake. ie “Bombay nat. Hist,
Soc. 23 (4) : 789.

WADEKAR, U. L. (1963): The diet of
the Indian Bull-frog (Rana _tigerina
Daud.). ibid. 60 (1) : 263-268.

WHIFFIN, J. D. rae peas of the
Bull-frog. Eee 9 (3):

ZUTSHI, B i906): “in Bull-frog
(Rana tigrina Daud swallowing a rat.
ibid. 31 (1) : 228

Food habits in juvenile frogs. Copeia
1956 (4) : 261.

21. NOTES ON ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS : HYPERITD
AMPHIPODS PHRONIMA COLLETTI BOVALLIUS AND
PHRONIMA SEDENTARIA (FORSKAL) INHABITING
EMPTY ‘ TESTS’ OF PELAGIC TUNICATES

During the 35th cruise of the USSR Research Vessel Vityaz in the
eastern sector of the Indian Ocean in 1962 some interesting animal rela-
tionships of two species of phronimid amphipods, Phronima colletti
Bovallius and P. sedentaria (Forskal) inhabiting the empty ‘tests’ of
pelagic tunicates Salpa sp. and Doliolum sp. respectively were observed,
which are reported here.

1. Phronima colletti Bovallius. 10 young forms measuring 1-5 mm.
in total length attached to the wall of the empty test of Salpa sp. measur-
ing 9 mm. in length, were collected at Vityaz Station no. 5224 on 10-ix-1962
(02° 00’ N., 91° 33’ E., depth 0-200 m.). These phronimids were attached
in a single group and composed of individuals of the same instar. The
characteristic shape of the carpus in the fifth peraeopod is distinctly dis-
cernible (vide Stephenson, 1924).

2. Phronima sedentaria (Forskal). An adult female measuring
30 mm. was obtained within the empty test of Doliolum sp. measuring

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

31 mm. collected at Vityaz Station no, 5185 on 27-vii-62 (24° 34’ S.,
108° 20’ E., depth 0-200 m.). |

In: the literature there are records of adults and juveniles of P. seden-
taria (Forskal) inhabiting the empty mantles of pelagic tunicates (Chev-
reux & Fage 1925, Mogk 1927, Barnard 1932, 1937, and Nagabhushanam
1960). However, there appears to be no record of the young forms of
P. colletti Bovallius inhabiting the empty mantles of tunicates. More-
over, the duration of stay of the young instars and the size attained within
the mantle-cavity by the species of the genus Phronima other than P. seden-
taria (Forsk.), is not known. Therefore it is considered worthwhile
recording, this interesting relationship, and the measurements of the
adult and juveniles obtained. More information on the stages at which
the juveniles desert the mantle in the different species of the genus
Phronima would be worth recording.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. DANIEL
CALCUTTA-16. K. V. SURYA RAO
July 7, 1967.

REFERENCES

BARNARD, K. H. (1932) : Amphipoda. NAGABHUSHANAM, A. K._ (1960):
‘ Discovery’ Reports 5: 1-174. Observations on some pelagic tunicates

——__—— (19 37): Amphipoda. ‘John in coastal waters of the Bay of Bengal.
Murray Exp.’ Sci. Rep., 4 (6): 131-201. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India, 2 (2): 2.

CHEVREUX, E. & Face, L. (1925): STEPHENSON, K. (1924): Hyperiidea-
Amphipodes. Faune de France 9 : 1-488. Amphipoda (Pt. 2. Paraphronimidae,

Mock, H. (1927): Die: Phronomiden Hyperiidae, Dairellidae, Phronomidae,
der Deutschen Sudpolar Expedition, Anchylomeridae)—Dan. Ocean | Exp.
1901-1903. Deutsch. Sudpol. Exp. 19. 1908-1910 to Mediterranean and. adjacent
Zool. 11: 125-144. Seas, 2 D. 4: 71-149.

22. NOTE ON MASTIGOCHIRUS QUADRILOBATUS
MIERS, AN ANOMURAN (CRUSTACEA : DECAPODA)
NEW TO INDIA

Mastigochirus quadrilobatus Miers is an anomuran which has not
been reported from India so far. During the course of our study on
the systematics of the anomuran fauna of Waltair- coast, 10 specimens
of M. quadrilobatus were collected from Lawson’s Bay area, Waltair.
In this paper a short account of the diagnostic features of M. qa
Jobatus is given. |

Mastigochirus quadrilobatus Miers 1879

Diagnosis. Frontal margin with two submedian lobes flanked by
a lateral lobe which is round and projects slightly beyond the median

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 503

lobes. Lateral margin with submarginal series of short transverse. seti-
ferous pits. Antennules and antenna short, third maxilliped rather
slender. First pair of legs very long and very slender with the last cou
especially greatly elongated and multiarticulate. .

Measurement. Carapace length les sma
__. Distribution. Philippines.

- Our thanks are due to Dr. Janet Haig of California for her sugges-
tions and to Prof. P. N. Ganapati for kindly giving facilities.

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, R. SAROJINI
AURANGABAD. R. NAGABHUSHANAM
March 16, 1968.

23. FORMS OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS L.

I was interested to learn from J. P. Donahue’s ‘ An Annotated List of
the Butterflies of Delhi’ (1967, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 64: 40) that
an example of f. alcippoides Moore had been caught there fairly recently
and that he considered it only a matter of time before f. dorippus Klug
turned up also. In my twenty-four years collecting in India—in the
Punjab, the United Provinces and Bengal—I never saw an example” of
either form. I did, however, have the good fortune to rear an example
of the far rarer f. amplifascia Talb. from a chance found larva in, Calcutta,
Talbot recorded only five known specimens of this form, not including
mine, and, for those who are unacquainted with it, it can be described
briefly as having the white spots of the pre-apical band extended inwards
along the interspaces to the discocellular.
Although there are constant differences between the Waren: Asiatic
and Australian races of chrysippus in the pre-apical markings of the
forewing and in the extent of the white in the hindwing of ff. alcippus
Cr. and alcippoides Moore, | consider that there are basically four forms,
- namely :
chrysippus L., with black and white pre-apical marking in the fore-
wing and en hindwing.

dorippus Klug, with no black and white pre-apical marking in the
forewing and brown hindwing.

alcippus Cr., with black and white pre-apical marking in the fore-
wing and white hindwing.

albinus Lanz., with no black and white pre-apical marking in the
forewing and white hindwing,

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

and the varying proportions of these four forms in the various parts of
the species’ enormous range has always intrigued me.

In Asia chrysippus is the predominant form, with dorippus and alcip-
poides rare, although I believe dorippus is commoner at Aden. In
Australia, I believe, only the chrysippus-like form occurs.

In Africa, chrysippus is the predominant, if not the only, form in the
extreme north (Egypt) and south (South Africa). In Rhodesia, formerly
Southern Rhodesia, both dorippus and alcippus occur rarely. In the
inter-tropical zone there is a most interesting gradation. On the east
coast dorippus is the predominant form, with chrysippus and albinus
occurring rarely, I have never seen alcippus. Going inland and west-
ward first chrysippus becomes more common in comparison with dorip-
pus and then alcippus begins to appear. Going still further west, dorip-
pus and albinus slowly fade out until in Uganda chrysippus and alcippus
are the main forms. Then chrysippus decreases until on the West Coast
alcippus is the prevalent, if not the only, form occurring.

As chrysippus is a protected species in all its forms, the varying pro-
portions can hardly be due to differences in selective predation, and are,
presumably, caused by reaction to climatic differences.

I have been unable to work out the local genetics with any degree of
certainty due to the very heavy losses from parasitisation by a Tachinid
that presumably lays its eggs in the tormentum on the underside of the
leaf of the food-plant. The three imagines that emerged from a small
number of ova laid by a chrysippus female were all dorippus, as was the
sole imago from a brood from an albinus female. This would seem to
indicate that dorippus is dominant to chrysippus, and probably to albinus,
results in conformity with the proportions in nature. But if the brown
hindwing gene is dominant to the white, why should alcippus be the —
prevalent form on the West Coast of Africa, and why should dorippus
be so rare in Asia?

I have since discovered that feeding larvae with Calotropis flowers
and not with leaves prevents the Tachinid infestation.

MompaSA. 7 D. G. SEVASTOPULO
November 17, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | | 505

24. STUDIES ON SOME PASSALIDS (COLEOPTERA)
OF KERALA~—I. BIOLOGY OF PLEURARIUS —
BRACHYPHYLLUS STOLICZKA?* —

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

The Passalidae are a small family of rare beetles, of about 800 known
species found in the tropical regions of America, Indo-Australia, and
Ethiopia. Some species have attained a certain degree of social orga-
nisation, which is very rare among Coleoptera. The grubs and adults
are capable of stridulation, a feature associated with its social habits.
Many species are incapable of flight even though their wings are fully
developed. Almost all passalids are lignicolous and are e borers of felled
timber.

Apart from some general information on passalids, no detailed study
is available on the life history of any particular member of this interest-
ing family. Hence investigations on the biology and bionomics of three
“species of passalids commonly found in the high ranges of Kerala; namely
Pleurarius brachyphyllus Stol., Basilianus indicus Kuwert., and Basilianus
neelgherriensis Perch., were undertaken. The present paper reports the
data on P. brachyphyllus. These studies were conducted at Vattayar, a
hill station in the Kottayam District of Kerala, SOULE at 3500 ue above
sea-level.

_ MATERIALS AND METHODS.

Specimens were collected from felled logs or fallen timber which were
suspected to contain the beetles. Infested wood could be detected by
the presence on them of small entry holes plugged with faecal pellets and
wood powder. For studying the life history, the eggs were reared in the
laboratory in small metal containers. Wood powder premasticated
by the adults was supplied, moistened, to the grubs as food. Such wood
powder was collected from the galleries of the beetle in infested timber in
the field. The containers were cleaned and fresh wood powder supplied
frequently. The pupa was left undisturbed, especially during the early
pupal period, to avoid injury. The rearing vessels were closed light-
proof to simulate conditions in the field where the insect bred within dark
galleries inside timber.

‘ 1 Part of thesis submitted to the University of Kerala, for the award of the ni ve
egree.

$506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)
BIOLOGY

Mating and Oviposition: Mating lasts from 2 to 6 hours. The mating
pairs were seen moving about, the female beetle carrying its partner on
its back or dragging it behind. For oviposition the female goes to the
deeper tunnels and lays a single egg at a time. In the laboratory the
female burrows deep into the wood dust for laying eggs. The number of
eggs laid by a female varies from 5 to 9, laid at intervals of 6 to 8 days.
In the field the eggs were found buried in the wood powder on the floor
of the tunnels. Maximum number of eggs were collected from the field
during the rainy season (June to August).

Egg: (Fig. 1) The egg is spherical or ovate and 4mm. in diameter.
The chorion is leathery, dark brown to black in colour and the surface
honeycomb patterned. A high degree of moisture is necessary for the
eggs to survive and develop. Eggs kept in dry wood dust shrivel up.
Under laboratory conditions the egg requires 28 to 34 days for hatch-
ing. (Vide Table). At the time of hatching a U -shaped slit appears
on the chorion and the grub forces its way out through this.

Grub: The newly hatched grub is 8 mm. long and is milky white.
After a few hours it starts feeding on the wood powder produced by the
adult. It does not feed on artificially made wood powder. The first
instar grub attains a length of 29 mm. and a thoracic width of 4°6 mm.
(Fig. 3). The arrangement and distribution of the long hairs on the body
of passalid grubs are of taxonomic importance. In P. brachyphyllus
there are, two long brown hairs behind each antennal base, three long
hairs on the prothoracic depression, a pair of hairs on the meso and meta
terga, a pair of lateral hairs on the first 2 abdominal segments, a pair of
lateral and a pair of dorsal hairs on the third to ninth abdominal terga and
14 circum-anal hairs in a whorl on the tenth segment and a pair on the
ninth sternum. |

Two elongated, oval brown dorsal spots are present, on the meta
tergum of the first instar grub. As in the case of other passalid grubs,
here also the third pair of legs (Fig. 7) are stumpy, conical, and the border
lined with 5 sub-marginal black teeth, which help in stridulation.

There are three larval instars. The duration of the first instar He
nearly 50 to 60 days.

All the long hairs, except those behind the antennal base and circum-
anal region, are clavate and short in the second and third instar grubs
(Fig. 6). The meta tergal ‘ dorsal spots’ are absent in these stages. The
second instar grub (Fig. 4) attains a length of 35 to 37 mm. The dura- |
tions of second and third instars are 54 to 65 days and 80 to 90 days reés-
pectively. The third instar grub (Fig. 5) measures 48 to 52 mm. long
and 10 mm. broad across thorax. As it nears pupation the grub turns
pale and becomes white at the time of pupation. Erie

yay)
m
ii

J. BomBAY NAT Hist Soc. 65 (2)
Joseph : Pleurarius brachyphyllus Stoliczka

For captions, see overleaf.

P. brachyphyllus Stol.

1. Eggx6.; 2. adult headx6; 3. I instar grubx1°5; 4. II instar grubx1°5;
5. Ill instar grubx1'2; 6. filifom and clavate hairs of II instar grub; 7. Third leg
of the grub X20 ; 8. pupa ventral view x 1°5 ; 9. pupa dorsal view x1°5; 10. Maxilla
of the adultx 12; 11. labrum of adult x12; 12. Adult beetle x 12.

Abbreviations

Ant: antenna. Ap.s.: apical spine. Can. Canthus. Car: Cardo. C. tr : Central
tubercle. Dr. dep : dorsal depression. Dr.s: Dorsal spot. E: Eye. Fr. r: Frontal
ridge. Gal: galea. In. tr: Inner tubercle. Lac: lacinia. Mx. p: Maxillary palp.

O. tr: Outer tubercle. Pa. r: Parietal ridge. S. ap. s : Sub-apical spine. S.oc.r.; Sub-
Occipital ridge. Sti: stipes.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 507

TABLE

DURATION IN DAYS OF DIFFERENT STAGES OF
P. brachyphyllus REARED IN THE LABORATORY

j |
SI. No. | Egg | I instar | IL instar | IIL instar Pupa
|
1 32 51 65 82 28
Z 30 50 62 86 26
3 28 61 54. 9] 31
4 29 47 58 8] BI)
5 32) 50 56 83 27
6 34 54 61 94 29
vi 31 60 59 $1 30
8 33 55 58 79 32
9 30 56 59 94 27
10 32 59 Wie 88 25
11 28 55 60 82 28
12 29 35 62 85 30
Average 30°7 54°3 59°3 85°5 28°7

Pupa: (Figs. 8 & 9) Pupation takes place within a loose case of
agglutinated wood powder. Pupa is 40 to 45 mm. long and 15 mm.
broad across thorax. The general colour of the pupa is white at first,
then straw white and later pinkish brown. The pupal period lasts 25
to 32 days. )

Adult : (Fig. 12) The newly emerged beetle is soft and reddish brown
With velvety yellow hairs. In about 40 days it becomes hard and deep
black. Stoliczka (1873) and Gravely (1914) described the adult of
P. brachyphyllus. Features not covered by them are given here.

Shiny black, hard, and with yellow velvety hairs on the plueral side
and legs. Female measures 40 to 45 mm. long and 18 mm. broad. In
the same colony males are 3 to 6 mm. smaller than females. An interest-
ing feature of this beetle is the presence of slight cephalic asymmetry ;
the left outer tubercle is slightly larger than the right (Fig. 2) the left
antero-lateral corner of the labrum is longer than the right, (Fig. 11) and
the left mandible slightly bigger than the right. Lacinia (Fig. 10) in
P. brachyphyllus has one apical spine and one sub-apical spine ; in all
other species examined only the apical spine is present.

In the forests of Kerala this beetle has been collected from almost all
species of felled soft timber. It first bores a few inches transversely and
then constructs long tunnels along the long axis of the timber. A fully
colonised trunk shows the presence of a number of longitudinal tunnels
inter-connected by transverse tunnels. The masticated wood powder
produced while tunnelling serves as food for grubs. The beetles reared
in the laboratory survived up to one year. asad

15

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)
DISTRIBUTION

P. brachyphyllus is confined to India, having been previously recorded
from Puduthottam, Anamalai, Nilgiris and Kerala forest area, between
altitudes 1500 and 4500 ft. above sea-level.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. C. C. John, former Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Kerala, for guidance. Thanks are also due to Dr. M. R.
G. K. Nair, Professor of Entomology, Agricultural College and
Research Institute, Vellayani, Kerala for his interest in the work, and
for the help rendered in the preparation of this paper.

LECTURER IN ENTOMOLOGY,

MEDICAL COLLEGE, A. JOSEPH
TRIVANDRUM.

October 5, 1967.

REFERENCES

GRAVELY, F. H. (1914) : An account of STOLICZKA, F. (1873) : A contribution
the Oriental Passalidae based primarily towards a monograph of Indian Passali-
on the collection of the Indian Museum. dae. Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, 42 (2):
Mem. Indian Mus. 3 (4) : 177-353. 149-162.

25. NOTES ON THE TAXONOMY AND OTHER ASPECTS
OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF APHIDS IN INDIA

Current work on the taxonomy, biology and food plants of aphids in
various parts of the world, has led to changes in the names of many of
the species. In view of this, the names of some of the aphids have to be
revised. Attention is here drawn to names that can be used for the
- Indian forms of these aphids. Notes are also added on the food plants
and other aspects of these aphids.

1. Therioaphis trifolii (Monell) 1862.
Pterocallidium maculatum Buckton sec. David 1957-58 a.
The lucerne aphid has been studied intensively in recent years especially
as a new introduction into north America. Hille Ris Lambers & van
den Bosch (1964) reviewed the taxonomic studies of various workers.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 509

They concluded that the length of the body hairs and antennae, the number
of rhinaria on antennal segment III, the sclerotic pattern on the abdomen,
and production of sexual forms are variable. Hence the aphid on
lucerne called Therioaphis trifolii (Monell) or spotted alfalfa aphid, and
the one on clover named Pterocallidium maculatum (Buckton) or yellow
clover aphid, are the same and should be named Therioaphis trifolii
(Monell).

This aphid occurs on lucerne, Medicago sativa, all over India except
in the extreme south (Madras and Kerala). It evidently prefers colder
regions or seasons for its normal life.

2. Meéelanaphis donacis (Passerini) 1882.
Longiuniguis donacis (Passerini) sec. David 1957-58b.

In a study of the generic characters of Melanaphis van der Goot and
Longiuniguis van der Goot, Hille Ris Lambers (1966-67) states that the
former produces wax when alive but is otherwise indistinguishable from
the latter. Since this species produces wax on the body, it has to be in
Melanaphis van der Goot.

In India this species is known only from the south where it lives on
_ Arundo donax on the hills as well as the plains.

3. Melanaphis (Longiuniguis) sacchari (Zehntner) 1898.
Longiuniguis sacchari (Zehntner).

As mentioned for the previous species, Hille Ris Lambers states that
Longiuniguis van der Goot can at best be considered a subgenus of
Melanaphis van der Goot since this species does not produce wax. Hence
the common sorghum and sugarcane aphid has to be called Melanaphis
(Longiuniguis) sacchari (Zehntner).

4. Méelanaphis (Longiuniguis) indosacchari (David) 1956b. New
combination.
Longiuniguis indosacchari David.

This is a dark brown aphid which feeds on sugarcane leaves. It has
been found to be widespread in south India.

5. Schizaphis rotundiventris (Signoret) 1867.
Toxoptera cyperi van der Goot 1917, new synonymy.
Toxoptera piricola Matsumura 1917.

Toxoptera punjabipyri Das 1918.

Since Das (1918) described Toxoptera punjabipyri on Pyrus sp., this
aphid has not so far been met with on this plant in India. In Japan,
however, this species is commonly known and the Indian name has been
considered a synonym of piricola Matsumura (Tao 1963). An allied
form, Toxoptera cyperi van der Goot, has been found to be widespread in
India. It is now known that this aphid has Pyrus sp. as its primary host

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

and Carex sp. or Cyperus sp. as secondary hosts. Eastop (1966) men-
tions that this species has forms with long or short femoral hairs and
that rotundiventris Signoret may be the oldest name in the complex.
Hille Ris Lambers, in private correspondence, informed the author, that
in spite of small differences, the aphid on Pyrus sp. and Cyperaceae may
be the same. If this view is accepted, cyperi van der Goot, piricola
Matsumura, and punjabipyri Das will become synonyms of rotundiventris
Signoret.

Das (1918) recorded this aphid on Pyrus sp. in the Punjab and on
Cyperus sp. from Punjab to Bengal. David (1957-58a) noted it on
Cyperus rotundus in south India. The present record is on Pyrus com-
munis (pear) in Amritsar, the Punjab (coll. O. S. Bindra, 6.11.67).

6. Macrosiphoniella pseudoartemisiae Shinji 1933.

Many species of Macrosiphoniella del Guercio occur commonly on
species of Artemisia all over India. In recent collections this aphid was
noted in Kashmir (Verma 1965). Present records are from Dehra Dun
(22.1X.66, coll. S. K. David) in the central regions of Himalayas, and
Kalimpong (12.X.66, coll. K. Narayanan) in the eastern Himalayas.

The important characters of this species are that the tibiae are pale
jn the middle, no scleroites at the base of dorsal hairs, antennal hairs
short, about 3 the basal breadth of antennal segment IJJ, which segment
in apterae have about 10 rhinaria in a line, and the last rostral segment
is about 2 of the second joint of the hind tarsus.

7. Macrosiphoniella yomogifoliae Shinji 1922. )

This is another species of Macrosiphoniella del Guercio occurring in
India on Artemisia. There appears to be no previous record of this
species in India since the one recorded under this name in south India
(David 1957-58b) has since been discovered to be another species. This
species is now recorded in Dehra Dun (23.1X.66, coll. S. K. David) on
Artemisia vulgaris. |

The important characters of this species are that the tibiae are com- __

pletely black, there are no scleroites at the base of dorsal hairs, antennal
segment III is wholly black, hairs on it-about equal to the breadth of the
segment, the apterae have about 10 rhinaria on it in a jumbled fashion,
and the last rostral segment is about 14 the second joint of the hind
tarsus. 7

8. Dactynotus (Uromelan) minutus (ven der Goot) 1918.
Dactynotus (Uromelan) dravidiana David 1956b, new synonymy.

_ Dactynotus (Uromelan) dravidiana David was described from speci-
mens collected on Vernonia cineria in Coimbatore in south India. Mac-
rosiphum minutus van der Goot was described from Ceylon on Vernonia
sp. Dr. D. Hille Ris Lambers has informed the senior author that since

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 311

the description of the latter agreed with the former and as the food plant
is Vernonia in both, he and Dr. V. F. Eastop were of the opinion that it
may be a synonym of the latter. Hence the south Indian species should
be named Dactynotus (Uromelan) minutus (van der Goot). So far this
species is known only from south India and Ceylon.

9. Myzus ornatus Laing 1932.

This is an aphid which has attained some importance since it is able
to transmit several virus diseases of plants. Though Bérner (1952) and
Heinze (1961) synonymised it with portulaccae Macchiati, their con-
clusion has not been accepted by other workers.

This aphid was recorded in the Nilgiris in south India (David 1956a)
and in western Himalayas (David 1958a). Present records are from
Salvia in Kodaikanal in south India (24.XII.66, coll. S. G. Rajasingh),
on grass in Simla in the central region of Himalayas (27.11.67, coll.
K. Narayanan) and on a weed in Srinagar in Kashmir in the north-western
Himalayas (22.11.67, coll. K. Narayanan).

10. Myzus (Nectarosiphon) persicae (Sulzer) 1776.

This is a well known aphid from its ability to transmit many virus
diseases of various plants. The alate forms of this aphid have a charac-
teristic dark path on the dorsum of the abdomen. Ina recent collection
of this species taken on potato in the Nilgiris, all the three alate forms
lacked this sclerotic patch. Dr.D. Hille Ris Lambers, in private corres-
pondence, informed the senior author that this condition occurs occa-
sionally and is suspected to be due to an early infection of an entomo-
genous fungus.

11. Micromyzodium filicium David 1958b.

There has been no mention of this species since it was first described.
It appears to be endemic to Nilgiris in south India where it lives on a
large number of plants in conservatories. Present collections include
the following additional food plants in Ootacamund. Adiantum tinc-
tum, Lastrea sp., Pityrogramme peruviana, Pteris critica and Strepto-
carpus sp. It occurs all through the year.

12. Phorodon (Diphorodon) cannabis Passerini 1860.
Phorodon cannabis Passerini.

Das (1918) pointed out that this species differs from other species of
Phorodon Passerini in the presence of capitate hairs on the head, antennae
and dorsum, the corrugated pattern on the abdominal tergites and slightly
swollen cornicles. Bérner (1939) separated this species under the sub-
genus Diphorodon, ar

512. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

This aphid is known in India from the north-west region on Bhang,
Cannabis sativa, on which it is monophagous. The present record is
from Bhunga, the Punjab (20.xi.65, coll. D. R. C. Bakheita).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. D. Hille Ris Lambers for his guidance
in this study. Thanks are due to the Professor of Zoology-Entomology,
Punjab Agricultural University, Chandigarh, for some of the aphids sent
in for study, and to Dr. Louise M. Russell of the United States National
Museum for critical comments on the paper. This research has been
financed in part by a grant made by the United States Department of

Agriculture under P.L. 480.

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE,
MADRAS.
June 20, 1967.

S. KANAKARAJ DAVID
S. G. RAJASINGH
K. NARAYANAN

REFERENCES

BOrnER, C. (1952) : Europae Centralis
Aphides. Mitt. Thuring. Bot. Gesellsh.
Beiheft 3: 1-488. ‘

Das, BISHAMBER (1918): The Aphi-
didae of Lahore. Mem. Indian Mus.
6 : 135-274.

Davip, S. K. (1956a): Additions to
the aphid fauna of India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 479-482.

——— (1956b): Notes on south
Indian Aphids. I. Descriptions of new

species. Indian J. Entom. 18:1: 1-9.
(1957-58a) : Notes on South
Indian Aphids. III. Lachninae to

Aphidinae. ibid. 19: 171-180.

——__—— (1957-58) : Notes on South
Indian Aphids. IV. Aphidinae con-
tinued. ibid. 19: 289-299.

— (1958a): Aphids capable of

infesting potato in India and their rela-

Honship to the crop. South Indian Hort.
: 67-71.

(19585): A new genus and
three new species of aphids from India.
Indian J. Entom. 20: 175-180.

Eastop, V. F. (1966): A taxonomic
study of Australian Aphidoidea
Comers) Australian J. Zool. 14: 399-
592.

Goor, P. VAN DER (1917) : Zur kenntnis
der Blatlause Javas. a la Faune Indes
Neerland. 1. Fasc. 3: 1-301.

— (1918) : Aphididae of Ceylon.
Spolia Zeylanica 11 : 40: 70-75.

HEINZE, K. (1961): Systematik der
Mittleeuropaischen Myzinae. Beit. zur.
Entom. Band 11: NR 1/2: 24-96.

HILLE Ris Lampers, D. (1966-67):
New and little known members of the
aphid fauna of Italy (Homop. Aphid.)

Estrato dal Boll. di Bachicoltura serie
Ils V2, 1-32,

———— & VAN DEN Bosc, R. (1964) :
On the genus TJherioaphis Walker 1870
with descriptions of new species. Zool.
Verhand. 68.

LaInG, F. (1932): A new aphid pest
of violets. Entomologist 68 : 52-56.

MATSUMURA, S. (1917) : A list of Aphi-
didae of Japan with descriptions of new
species and genera. J. Coll. Agric.
Tohoku Imp. Univ. Sapporo 7: 351-414.

MoneELL, J. (1882): Notes on Aphi-
didae. Canad. Entom. 14: 13-16.

PASSERINI, G. (1860): Aphididae
Italicae hucuque observatae Arch. Zool.
Anat. Fifiol. Modena, 2 : 129-212.

SHINJI, G. (1922): New species of
Japanese aphididae. Dobuts. Zasshi

34 : 531-534.

———— (1933): New species of
Japanese aphididae. ibid. 45: 237-302.

SIGNORET, V. (1867): Notice sur on
Homoptere peu connu. Ann. Soc. Ent.
France. 1867 : 371-380.

Suutzer, J. H. (1776): Abgekurzte
Geschichte des Insekten. Wéinter-thur.
Aphiden. : 98-105.

TAo, C.C. (1963) : Revision of Chinese
Macrosiphinae (Aphid. Homop.) Pi.
Pro. Bull. Taiwan, 5: 162-205.

VeRMA, K. D. (1965) : First record of
two species and males of Lipaphis pseudo-
brassicae Davis and Protrama penecaeca
Strovan (Homop. Aphid.) Indian J.
Entom. 28 : 277.

ZEHNTNER, L. (1898-1901) : De plan-
tenluizen van het Suikerriet. Arch.
Java Suiker Industrie VIII: IX.

a “s
Le

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

26. ON A NEW FLAGELLATE, TRICHOMITUS
HYDERABADENSIS SP.NOV. FROM THE FROG,
RANA TIGERINA (DAUD.)

(With five text-figures)

Numerous interesting flagellates were collected during a survey of
the intestinal flagellates of amphibians of the Hyderabad region, carried
out by the author during the period 1960-63. One of these, belonging
to the genus Trichomitus Swezy, 1915 (Order Trichomonadida, Kirby,
1947; Family Trichomonadidae Chalmers & Pekkola, 1918 emend.
Honigberg, 1963 ; Subfamily Trichomonadinae Chalmers & Pekkola,
1918 emend. Honigberg 1963) is described in this communication.

The slides used in the study were stained with Heidenhain’s Iron
Haematoxylin after fixation in Schaudinn’s fluid or with Giemsa’s stain
after fixation in methanol. The drawings were made with a camera
lucida, at a magnification of about x 2000.

Trichomitus hyderabadensis sp. nov.

The parasite is fusiform in shape, having a broad and rounded ante-
rior end and a somewhat narrower tapering posterior end (Figs. 1, 4, 5).
The maximum breadth of the body is attained near the junction of the
anterior and mid-third of the body (Figs. 2, 5).

The blepharoplast is a large and conspicuous granule situated about
1-2 « behind the anterior extremity. It gives origin to the mastigont
elements comprising of three anterior flagella, a posterior flagellum, two
accessory filaments, a costa and an axostyle (Figs. 1, 5).

The three anterior flagella are of the same diameter but are unequal
in length, the longest measuring a little more than the body length
(Figs. 1, 2, 4,5). While a majority of the parasites examined had only
three anterior flagella, there were a few organisms in which there was a
fourth anterior flagellum which was much shorter than the others (Fig. 3).
The posterior flagellum, running along the outer border of the undulating

membrane and becoming free posteriorly, has a long trailing portion

reaching up to about one-and-a-half times the length of the body (Figs.
1-3). In addition to the posterior flagellum, the undulating membrane
is bordered by an accessory filament, which is of the same thickness as
the flagellum (Figs. 1, 5) and runs up to the posterior end of the mem-

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

brane. Besides, there is an additional filament running between the
costa and the accessory filament (Figs. 1, 5). This secondary filament
is slightly thinner and shorter than the accessory filament. The undulat-
ing membrane extends almost up to the posterior end of the body and is
thrown into four to seven folds. The folds: show a gradual transition
from the anterior to the posterior end, being short and shallow to begin
with but large and deep posteriorly (Figs. 1, 3).

PLATE.

Trichomitus hyderabadensis sp. nov. _-

The costa is slightly thicker than the flagellum and runs a somewhat
curved course, extending up to the posterior end of the undulating mem-
brane (Figs: 2, 5). It is almost equidistant from the axostyle as well as
the undulating membrane. |

The axostyle is well developed and has its anterior portion expanded
to form a spoon-shaped capitulum (Figs. 1, 2, 3), while the remaining
portion is uniform in. diameter throughout its course inside the body
(Figs. 4,5). At the posterior end it emerges out of the body and tapers
to a pointed tip (Figs. 2, 3). The axostylar spike shows a range of
2°06-7°20 in length, with an average of 4°55 «. The axostyle does not
possess either a swelling or periaxostylar chromatic granules at the point
of its emergence from the posterior end of the body. :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 15

try

The nucleus, situated lateral to the spoon-shaped capitulum, is large
and ovoidal and has a central endosome.

Neither a pelta nor a cytostome could be observed in the organism.

The dimensions of the parasite are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1

DIMENSIONS OF Trichomitus hyderabadensis

CRD DE OB ELIS SE OIE EN TBE LEE LLL)

Minimum Maximum Average

Particulars , :
CP ne mei Cer Ons)

Length of body (excluding spike) .. 12°85 22:11 ». 16°45
Maximum width of body - 5°14 13°88 8°56
Length of anterior flagellum I e: 9°25 20°05 15:09
Length of anterior flagellum IT ie 13°37 221i 18°46
Length of anterior flagellum III a 16°97 26°73 20°81
Length of free posterior flagellum .. 12°34 25°19 17°54
Size of nucleus we 2°06 x 4‘11x 3°13 x

1°54 ‘i 3°60 2°44

DISCUSSION

Flagellates of this genus have been recorded from. many amphibia
by several workers. Honigberg (1953) gives a comprehensive account
of the structure, synonymy and host-list of the common form, Tricho-
mitus batrachorum (Perty). The present parasite is distinguished from
that species by the absence of the pelta, by the fusiform as contrasted
with the ovoidal shape and by its fairly large size. According to
Honigberg (1953), the strain of 7. batrachorum from Rana measures
8:5 -14:5%4:5-13:°0u (average 11°57:5«) and the strain from Bufo
measures 8°5 - 21:0 4'5 - 200m (average 12°5x9'0u). As against this,
the present organism measures 12°85 - 22°1]u«5:14- 13°88 (average
16°45 x 8°564).

Among other species of the genus, T. ul/meri Gabel (1954b) comes
nearest to the present form in not having a pelta, a cytostome or para-
costal granules, but is much smaller in size and has an extremely long
trailing flagellum, about two-and-a-half times the length of the body.
In the absence of the pelta, the new organism also resembles 7. rotunda
Hibler et a/. (1960), but differs in its jorger size and in the presence of
unequal anterior flagella.

A comparison of the body dimensions of the new species with other
species reported so far (Table 2) shows it to be distinctly larger than any
of them.

The type specimens are deposited in the Protozoology Section of the
Zoology Museum, Marathwada University, Aurangabad,

516

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

TABLE 2

COMPARATIVE DIMENSIONS OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS Trichomitus

Species

T. batrachorum (Perty) Honigberg, 1953

T. wenyoni Wenrich & Nie, 1949
T. marmotae (Crouch) Gabel, 1954
T. ulmeri Gabel, 1954

T. rotunda Hibler et al. 1960

T. hyderabadensis sp. nov.

Length Breadth
8°50-14°50 4°50-13:00
(11°50) (7°50)
4:00-8°80 3°00-5°50
(5°80) (3°64)
5°20-10°50 3°30-7°10 &
(7°53) 5°11)
4:00-9:00 1:00-4:00 #
(5°78) (3°18)
6°83-11°40 & 4°56-7°41 &
12°85-22°11 & 5°14-13°88
(16°45) (8°56)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Dr. S.S. Qadri, Reader in Zoology, Osmania
University, Hyderabad, for his guidance and advice, and to Dr. S. Mehdi
Ali, Professor of Zoology, Marathwada University, Aurangabad, for pro-
viding laboratory facilities and for his keen interest in this work.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY,
AURANGABAD.

September 6, 1967.

R. KRISHNAMURTHY

REFERENCES

GABEL. J. R. (1954a) : The morphology
and taxonomy of the intestinal protozoa
of the American wood chuck, Marmota
pOreE Linnaeus. J. Morph. 94: 473-
549.

(19545) : A new protozoan,
Paratrichomonas ulmeri (Mastigophora),
from the American wood chuck, Mar-
mota monax Linnaeus. J. Tennessee
Acad. Sci. 29: 260-265.

Hrscer, C. P. et al. (1960) : The mor-
phology and incidence of the tricho-
monads of swine, Tritrichomonas suis
(Gruby and Delafond), Tritrichomonas

rotunda n. sp., and Trichomonas buttreyi

n. sp. J. Protozool. 7: 159-171.
HONIGBERG, B. M. (1953): Structure,

taxonomic status and Host list of Tritri-

chomonas __batrachorum (Perty). J.
Parasit. 39: 191-208.
(1963): Evolutionary and

systematic relationships in the flagellate
order Trichomonadida Kirby.
J. Protozool. 10 (1) : 20-63.

WENRICH, D. H. & Nig, D. (1949):
The morphology of Trichomonas wenyoni
(Protozoa, Mastigophora). J. Morph.
85 : 519-531,

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (2)
Sastry - Dioscorea orbiculata

wiper
wer ae: 4

sf Se

Me
2

ARKS Del

D. orbiculata Hook. f. 3 plant. a. Habit. b. Dendroid & stellate hairs
(highly enlarged). c. Fl. bud. d. Sepal. e. Petal. f. Stamen. Inset map
at top indicates the present distribution.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 517

27. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DIOSCOREA
ORBICULATA HOOK. F. IN INDIA

(With a plate)

A rare Dioscorea collected from Palin in Subansiri District was found
to be D. orbiculata Hook. f., as per literature references cited here.

D. orbiculata Hook. f., is so far known to occur only in Sumatra
(Asahan), Malay Peninsula (Puket to Johore) and Perak (see inset map),
The present discovery of this species in Subansiri, offers a new distri-
butional locality outside the Malaysian region, suggesting the phyto-
geographic affinities of these areas. Even though the intervening area
gives a discontinuous distribution for this species, it is likely that further
exploration will bring out the presence of this species in these areas.

Incidentally, it may be noted that Deka 16932 from Jeypore in Lakhim-
pur Dist., Assam, with distinctly stellate-dendroid pubescent flower buds
with oblong anthers, appears more likely to be this species rather than
D. pyrifolia Kunth var. ferruginea Prain et Burk. (Panigrahi & Naik
Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8 (1) : 89, t. 1, 1966).

Dioscorea orbiculata Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6 : 292, 1892; Prain &
Burk. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calc. 14 : 411, t. 145, 1938 ; Burk. in FI.
Mal. 4 : 334, 1951.

Stems, wiry, twining to the right, brown tomentose when young,
becoming glabrescent except at nodes; tomentum stellato-dendroid
hairy. Leaves opposite or alternate, orbicular-ovate to ovate-cordate,
acuminate, c. 13°5<8°5 cm., 7-nerved, glabrous above, deciduously floc-
cose tomentose except in the nerve axils beneath ; petiole up to 9 cm.
long, pulvinate, densely hairy. Male Fl. spikes whorled on long leafless
inflorescences or in leaf axils, up to 4 cm. long, 20-25-flowered,
densely dendroid hairy. F/. buds globose, c. 2 mm. in diameter, stellate
and dendroid hairy ; bracts ovate-acuminate, c. 1 mm. long, stellate
hairy, base auriculate partly girdling the axis ; sepals 3, broadly ovate,
cupular, c. 1°5 mm., brown stellate hairy outside, apex obtuse, petals 3,
oblong-ovate, c. 1 mm. long, apex bluntly acute ; stamens 6, filaments
0-5 mm., anthers 1 mm., oblong ; pistillode short, conical.

On humid densely forested hill slope of the Khru River, c. 1400 m.
alt., near Palin. Rare.

INDIA: N.E.F.A.: Subansiri Dist.: Palin vicinity, 15-5-1966, A. R. K,
Sastry 45292, fl. (ASSAM).

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist,
Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong, for critical sugges-
tions.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, .
EASTERN CIRCLE, A. R. K. SASTRY
SHILLONG.

November 15, 1967.

28. SOME INFRASPECIFIC TAXA OF THE PANICUM
COLORATUM L. COMPLEX

Panicum coloratum L. is a complex taxon comprising several distinct
forms having chromosome numbers 2n= 18, 36, 32 and 54 (Joshi, Patil &
Manchanda 1959 ; Patil, Vohra & Joshi 1961), which are poorly under-
stood taxonomically and phylogenetically. The author (Jauhar 1963)
studied 8 tetraploid (2n=36) and two hexaploid (2n=54) forms of this
grass in considerable detail from the standpoints of morphology (both
vegetative and floral), foliar epidermal patterns, chromosome behaviour
during meiosis and pollen characters with a view to utilize this information
for assessing precisely their taxonomic status and understanding evolu-
tionary trends in them. From these studies it was convincingly shown
that P. coloratum constitutes a heterogeneous assemblage, the range of
variation present in it transgressing specific limits. In view of this, the
10 types of P. coloratum were classified into six distinct groups which are
remarkably uniform within themselves and strikingly different from one
another. The hexaploid group was elevated to a specific rank and named
as Panicum nehruense Jauhar et Joshi (Jauhar & Joshi 1966).

From among the tetraploid types one was named as Panicum simpli-
ciflorum Jauhar et Joshi (Jauhar & Joshi 1965) primarily on the basis
of its typically simple, raceme-type panicle because it lacks some of the
key characters of Panicum coloratum (see Jauhar 1967). The remaining
four groups with J/21n=36 chromosomes have been retained under
P. coloratum and given infraspecific ranks ; they have been designated
as varieties. |

Some salient diagnostic features of the four varieties are described
below :

P. coloratum var. subglabrum Jauhar var. nov.

Gramen perenne, moderate altum, caespitosum, erectum, tetra-
ploideum (2n=4x=36), rarius superne ramosum. Culmi 104-120 cm.
alti, 5-8-nodi ; nodi et partes inferiores internodorum paulum pilosi et
debiliter tincti pigmento brunneo, Folia et foliorum vaginae sparse

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 519

pubescentes ; folium secundum 18-30 cm. longum, 0°5-0°8 cm. latum>
Ligula fimbriata, ciliolata, ad 1 mm. longa. Panicula effusa et bene
ramosa, 15-23 cm. longa, 12-16cm. lata. Spiculae acutae, flaccidae, ad
glumas tinctae colore pallide purpureo, 3:0-3°3 mm. longae. Gluma
inferior ad. 1:5 mm. longa, l-nervia, rarius nervis 1-2 inconspicuis addi-
tivis praesentibus. Nervi in glumis et in inferiore lemmata (i.e. in flore
staminato) alte conspicui. Lemma superius nitens, semi-coriaceum.

Oriundus ex Australia, typus, P.P. Jauhar 1, positus in herbario sec-
tionis botanicae in Instituto Indico Agriculturae ad New Delhi ; isotypi
ponendi in herbario ad Dehra Dun, et ad Calcuttam.

Panicum coloratum L. var. subglabrum Jauhar, var. nov.

Medium tall, moderately caespitose, erect-growing, tetraploid
(2n=4x= 36), perennial grass rarely branched above. Culms 104-120 cm.
tall, 5-8 noded. Nodes and lower parts of internodes slightly hairy and
feebly tinged with light brown pigment. Leaves and leaf-sheaths sparsely
pubescent ; second leaf 18-30 cm. long and 0°5-0°8 cm. broad. Ligule
fimbriate, ciliolate, up to 1 mm. long.

Panicle effuse and well-branched 15-23 cm. long and 12-16 cm. broad.
Spikelets acute, flaccid, suffused with light purple pigment at the glumes,
3:0-3°3 mm. long. Lower glume up to 1°5 mm. long, 1-nerved, rarely
1 or 2 additional, faint nerves also present. Nerves on the glumes and
lower lemma (lemma of the staminate floret) highly conspicuous. Upper
lemma, glossy, semi-coriaceous.

The type was originally obtained from Australia. Type. P. P. Jauhar
1, deposited in Herbarium Botany Division, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi ; isotypes, to be deposited in Herbaria at
Dehra Dun and at Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum var. subcompositum Jauhar var. nov.

Gramen perenne, nanum, foliosum, molle, tetraploideum (2n=4x= 36)
habitu erecto patenti, rarius ramoso supra. Culmi 90-105 cm. longinodis
5-8 ornati ; spatia internodalia glabra, sulcata. Folia brevia, lineari-
lanceolata, fereacuminata, glabrescentia, pilis nonnullis interdum ramosis
ad marginem in parte basali laminae ; margines repandi, nervi medii
vix conspicui ; folium secundum 14-20 cm. longum, 7-12 mm. latum.
Vaginae foliorum puberulae vel sparse hirsutulae. Panicula brevis,
compacta vel semicompacta, 12-17 cm. longa, et 8-10 cm. lata. Spiculae
propinquae, 2°8-3°2 mm. longae, acutae; gluma inferior ad 1:3 mm.
longa, univervia, apiculata, marginibus apicalibus serratis; g/uma
superior et lemma inferius (i.e. in flore staminato) 6-8 nervia, marginibus

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

apicalibus conspicue serratis. Palea inferior (i.e. in flore staminato)
binervia, cuspidata, marginibus conspicue serratis. Lemma superius
semi-coriaceum, interdum inconspicue nervosum.

Typus, P.P. Jauhar 3, primo ex Jodhpur obtentus, positus in herbario
sectionis botanicae Instituti Invest. Agric. ad New Delhi ; isotypi depo-
nendus in Herb. ad Dehra Dun et ad Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum L, var. subcompositum Jauhar var. nov.

A dwarf, leafy, tender, tetraploid (2n=4x=36), perennial grass with
erect open growth habit, rarely branched above. Culms 90-105°0 cm.
tall, terete, 5-8-noded; internodes glabrous, sulcate. Leaves short,
linear-lanceolate, almost acuminately pointed, glabrescent, a few
branched hairs scattered on the basal portion of the lamina margin ;
leaf-margins repand ; mid-rib less conspicuous ; second leaf 14-20 cm.
long and 7-12 mm. broad. Leaf-sheaths puberulous or sparsely hirsu-
tulose.

Panicle short, compact to semi-compact, 12-17 cm. long and 8-10 mm.
broad. Spikelets closely spaced, 2°8-3°2 mm. long, acute. Lower
glume up to 1°3 mm. long, I-nerved, apiculate, apical margins serrated.
Upper glume and lower lemma (lemma of the staminate floret 6-8 nerved),
apical margins and tip conspicuously serrated. Lower palea (palea of
the staminate floret) 2-nerved, cuspidate, margins conspicuously serrated.
Upper lemma semi-coriaceous, sometimes inconspicuously nerved.

The type was originally obtained from Jodhpur. Type, P. P. Jauhar
3, deposited in Herbarium Botany Division, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi; isotypes to be desposited in Herbaria
at Dehra Dun and at Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum var. glaucum Jauhar var. nov.

Gramen perenne, procerum, glaucum, robustum, macrophyllum,
tetraploideum (2n=4x=36), habitu erecto-patenti. Culmi 120-140 cm.
longi, nodis 6-9, rarius ramosi supra. Nodi eminentes et glabri. Folia
coriacea, glabra, glauca nervo medio valide conspicuo ; folium secundum
23-35 cm. longum, 7-11 mm. latum. Ligula 1:4-1:6 mm. longa, ciliolata.

Panicula 22-32 cm. longa, 16-21 cm. lata, alte effusa et ramosa.
Spiculae 3:3-3°6 mm. longae, subacutae vel acutae, venetae colore.
Gluma inferior ad 1:6 mm. longa, nervo uno conspicuo ; nervis in glumis
et inferiore lemmate conspicuis ; g/uma superior et lemma inferius 8-11-
nervia, fere cuspidata ; Jemma superius coriaceum, leve, nitens. Stig-
mata alte plumosa, colore alte chermesino. Antherae aurantiacae.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sat

Typus, P. P. Jauhar 4, initio ex Jodhpur obtentus, positus in herbario
sectionis botanicae Instituti Investigationis Agricolae ad New Delhi ;
isotypi deponentur in herbario ad Dehra Dun et ad Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum L. var. glaucum Jauhar var. nov.

A procerus, glaucous, robust, macrophylous, tetraploid (2n=4x= 36)
perennial with erect, open, growth habit. Culms 120-140 cm. tall, 6-9
noded, rarely branched above. Nodes prominent and glabrous. Leaves
coriaceous, glaucous, glabrous, mid-rib very conspicuous ; second leaf
23-35 cm. long and 7-11 mm. broad. Ligule 1-4-1°6 mm. long, ciliolate.

Panicle 22-32 cm. long, 16-21 cm. broad, highly effuse and branched.
Spikelets 3:3-3°6 mm. long, sub-acute to acute, sea-green in colour.
Lower glume up to 1°6 mm. long with one conspicuous nerve. Nerves
on the glumes and lower lemma conspicuous. Upper glume, as the lower
lemma, 8-11 nerved, almost cuspidate. Upper lemma coriaceous, smooth
and glossy. Stigmas highly plumose, deep carmine in colour. Anthers
orange-chrome in colour.

The type was originally obtained from Jodhpur. Type, P. P. Jauhar
4, deposited in Herbarium Botany Division, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi; isotypes to be deposited in Herbaria
at Dehra Dun and at Calcutta.

Panicum coloratum var. glabrum Jauhar var. nov.

Gramen perenne, gracile, alte caespitosum, glabrum, dense fasci-
culatum, tetraploideum (21“=4x=36). Culmi 80-100 cm. alti, 6-13
nodi. Folia angusta, glabra, acuminata; nervo medio inconspicuo ;
folium secundum 12-18 cm. longum, 0°3-0°6 cm. latum ; foliorum vaginae
glabrae. Ligula 1:2-1°4 mm. longa, fimbriata. Panicula semieffusa,
11-19 cm. longa, 10-14 cm. lata. Spiculae 2°6-3°0 mm. longae, acumina-
tae, flaccidae. Glumae et lemma inferius fortiter nervosa, apicibus
minutim serrulatis. Lemma inferius multo longius palea inferiore.
Lemma superius leve, nitens, semicoriaceum. Stigmata plumosa,
* Aster ’-purpurea.

Typus, oriundus e page Toddapur prope Delhi et probabiliter ex
_ Australia in Indiam ad latus anno 1958, positus in sectione botanica
Instituti Indici Agriculturae ad New Delhi sub numero P. P. Jauhar 7.

Panicum coloratum L. var. glabrum Jauhar var. nov.

| A slender, highly caespitose, glabrous, densely tufted, tetraploid
(2n=4x=36), perennial. Culms 80-100 m. tall, 6-13 noded. Leaves

522, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

narrow, glabrous, acuminately pointed ; mid-rib inconspicuous ; second
leaf 12-18 cm. long and 0°3-0°6 cm. broad. Leaf-sheaths Be
Ligule 1:2-1:4 mm. long, fimbriate.

Panicle semi-effuse, 11-19 cm. long and 10-14 cm. broad. Spikelets
2°6-3°0 mm. long, acuminate, flaccid. Glumes and lower lemma
strongly nerved, with minutely serrulated apices. Lower lemma much
longer than the lower palea. Upper lemma smooth, glossy, semi-
coriaceous. Stigma plumose, aster-purple.

The type was originally collected from Todapur Village (Delhi)
and probably belongs to the collections obtained from Australia in 1958.
Type, P. P. Jauhar 7, deposited in Herbarium Botany Division, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his sincere gratitude to Dr. A. B. Joshi and
Dr. M. S. Swaminathan, for their valuable advice during the course of —
this study. His grateful thanks are also due to Prof. H. Santapau for
his valuable suggestions regarding the nomenclature of the taxa studied
and for rendering the diagnoses into Latin.

DIVISION OF GENETICS, Y,
INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, _ P. P. JAUHAR

New DELHI.
November 18, 1967.

REFERENCES

JAUHAR, P. P. (1963): Cytotaxonomic complex. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62
investigations in the genus Panicum L. (2) : 320-322.

Ph.D. Thesis, Postgraduate School, —_——— & ———— (1966): A new
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, species of Panicum L. Bull. bot. Surv.
New Delhi. India 8 (1) : 97-99.

———— (1967) : A comparative study JosoH1, A. B., Pati, B. D.v“&
of the morphological characters and epi- MANCHANDA, P. L. (1959) : Chromo-.
dermal patterns of Panicum —simplici- some numbers in some grasses. Curr.
florum Jauhar et Joshi and of P. colo- Sci. 28 : 454-455. .
ratum L. N.Z. Jl. Bot. (in press). PaTiL, B. D., VoHRA, S. K. & JOSHI,
Lh ey Josu1, A. B. (1965): A. B. (1961) : Chromosome numbers in
A new species of Panicum coloratum L. some plants. Curr. Sci. 30: 393-394.

29. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL,
GUJARAT STATE

The flora of Pavagadh by Chavan & Oza (1965) lists 500 angiosperms |
as occurring either at the foot of the hill or on the hillitself. Subsequently —
Shah & Inamdar (1965) published a fresh list of 26 plants, either not —
reported earlier or with new observations. Chavan, Bedi & Sabnis |
(1966) recorded a few more plants. =} |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 523

All these additional lists were of plants occurring near to the tracks
leading to the top of the hill. The fact that even short trips of one or two
days duration could add so many plants not reported in the flora of
Pavagadh, prompted the authors to undertake a programme of explora-
tion of the more inaccessible parts of the hill. The authors during their
recent trip collected the following plants, which are not reported by
earlier workers.

TILIACEAE

1. Triumfetta pilosa Roth.

Not common ; noted near Machi and on way to Bhadra Kali temple.
Flowers yellow. (BEDI 4506, 4507).

MIMOSACEAE

2. Mimosa pudica Linn.

A Few specimens noted on the slopes near Machi Holiday Camp.
(BEDI 4516).

COMPOSITAE

3. Glossocardia linearifolia Cass.

Often seen growing in open grassy places near Bhadra Kali temple
and steep rocky slopes near it. Plants are much stunted. (BEDI 4464).

ASCLEPIADACEAE

4. Ceropegia candelabrum Linn.

A twining perennial herb, with lemon-sized tubers. Flowers in
lateral, umbellate cymes. Not common ; seems to be restricted in distri-
bution. Collected from a very steep rocky slope near Machi; often
noted twining round Euphorbia neriifolia which are the common plants
on the steep slopes (BEDI 4546).

GENTIANACEAE

5. Canscora concanensis C. B. Clarke

A small (5-10 cm.) annual, erect herb. Calyx strongly four-winged.
Not common ; noted on open grassy places on Machi plateau and near
an old palace on way to Bhadra Kali temple. (BEDI 4536, 4537).

16

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)
CONVOLVULACEAE

6. Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) Sweet

It appears that this species has been recently introduced and is grow-
ing very well near Holiday Camp Canteen, producing flowers and fruits.
(BEDI 4481).

MARTYNIACEAE

7. Martynia annua Linn.

A Mexican plant becoming naturalised at various places. Fairly
common near the foot of Pavagadh hill, especially near the S.T. bus stop.
(BEDI 4436)

8. Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Wills.) Pax & Hoffm.

A large unarmed shrub. Often noted growing on steep hill slopes
(BEDI 4642)

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

9. Aristolochia indica Linn.

Restricted in distribution ; twining on Carissa congesta, by the side
of fort walls near Machi. (BEDI 4567, 4568).

DIOSCOREACEAE

10. Dioscorea daemona Roxb.

Not common ; seen near the origin of river Vishwamitri. (BEDI
4476, 4477).

HYPOXYDACEAE

11. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

A few plants noted under the shade of Carvia callosa along the banks
of Vishwamitri. (BEDI 4418).

12. Ophioglosum nudicaule Linn.

A few specimens noted on the fort walls on way to Bhadra Kali
temple. (BEDI 4570).

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, S. J. BEDI
FACULTY OF SCIENCE, S. D. SABNIS
M. S. UNIVERSITY OF BARODA, R. P. BHATT
BARODA,

January 10, 1968.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 525

30. OCCURRENCE OF AEGINETIA INDICA L. var.
3 ALBA SANTAPAU

In the note on * Aeginetia indica L. var. alba Santapau: A New Record

for Northern India’, (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 (2): 471-472), I
had stated that ‘As soon as the plant shows signs of multiplication,
herbarium specimens will be collected for record’.

Additional information is now being provided that sufficiently large
number of plants of the white-flowered variety have now been seen in the
New Forest area and specimens collected on 17-9-1967 for record. These
have been incorporated in the Dehra Dun Herbarium (F.R.I.) under
Reg. Nos. 5412/143048, 143049, 143050, 143051.

In addition, colour photographs have also been taken to show the
colour differences between the typical purple-flowered species and the
white-flowered variety.

New Forest P.O.,
DEHRA DUN. K. M. VAID
December 14, 1967.

An Appeal

Salim Ali—Loke Ornithological Research Fund

The amount at the credit of the Salim Ali—Loke Ornithological
Research Fund, established in 1965 with an initial donation of
Rs 10,000, now stands at Rs 36,374:60. There is still far to go
before the Fund becomes operative, as the rules governing it provide
that no grant or award may be made till the corpus reaches Rs 1,00,000
and, thereafter, the corpus shall not be allowed to fall below
this sum. The provision is necessary to ensure continuing encourage-
ment of research and to assure research workers that where
observations are necessary over a prolonged period financial aid will
be forthcoming throughout the period. There is much work to be
done in India, and the Bombay Natural History Society is anxious
to be in a position, as early as possible, to assist such research.

We appeal to our readers and wellwishers to contribute freely
themselves, and tc bring our appeal to the notice of other persons
and institutions likely te contribute. We are grateful to the donors
who have already come forward with their generous contributions,
and hope that they will attempt to persuade others. persons and
institutions, to help the Saciety to reach its goal.

Donations should be made to the Bombay Natural History
Society for credit to the Salim Ali—Loke Ornithological Research
Fund, and should be addressed to: The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat
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Intending donors are informed that the Bombay Natural History
Society is an institution established for a charitable purpose within the
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1961 (43 of 1961) and donations to it will qualify for rebate of tax
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Announcement

Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship

As one of the methods of utilising the funds at their disposal in
a manner appropriate to the many-faceted personality of the late
Jawaharlal Nehru, the Trustees of the Jawaharla! Nehru Memorial
Fund have decided to establish a number of Fellowships to encourage
and assist original work of an outstanding character ‘in every discipline
—the sciences as well as the humanities’. The broad outlines of the
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No time limit has been prescribed; applications may be filed at
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2. The bio-data of the applicant,

3. His experience in the field of specialisation chosen, and

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The Fellowships are open to scholars in every discipline—the
Sciences as well as the humanities—and also to categories of people
who are capable of creative activity but are not normally covered
by existing schemes, such as writers, journalists, artists and civil
servants. The only criterion is that they should possess proven

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (2)

capacity for outstanding work, and a real desire to pursue a creative
project such as writing a book, monograph, paper, or to explore new
possibilities in their chosen field, or to bring their previous training
and experience up-to-date. As Jawaharlal Nehru said, ‘Man today,
as never before in human history, has to live with change as a
permanent partner in his activities and his institutions’. This applies
even to the most brilliant scholars who frequently need periods, which
they can devote entirely to the enrichment of their intellectual capital
particularly in view of the speed with which every discipline is
developing in this nuclear age. The absence of adequate facilities in
our country for such periodical intellectual “capital formation’ is certain
to condemn us to perpetual dependence on more advanced countries.
While it will not be desirable to lay down any age restrictions, efforts
will be made to ensure an adequate number of men and women in
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Selection

Great importance is attached to the selection of the first Fellows,
as they will set the standard for the future. The Jawaharlal Nehru
Fellows will be nominated by a Selection Committee consisting of
distinguished persons in different fields appointed every two years by
the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund. The strength of the Selection
Committee will not exceed seven, including the Secretary of the Fund
who will be an ex-officio member. The Selection Committee will
evolve its own mode of procedure. and will try to ensure that the
widest possible spectrum of creative talent is involved in_ these
Fellowships.

The Fellows

The number of Fellows at a given time shall not exceed twenty-
five, but in view of the necessity to maintain the highest standards of
excellence the Selection Committee need not feel compelled to reach
the maximum number. The duration of the Fellowships will vary
between one and two vears according to the requirements of each
individual case. |

ANNOUNCEMENT 529
The Stipend

The Fellows will be paid a stipend equivalent to one and a half
times the emoluments drawn by them at the time of selection, subject
te a ceiling of Rs. 3,000/- per month. For non-salaried persons the
Selection Committee will have discretion to fix the stipend within the
ceiling. The Fellows, will be provided secretarial assistance if
necessary and can also undertake travelling to pursue their work.
Their actual expenses on these two items and other contingencies will
be met by the Fund subject to a maximum of Rs. 10,000/- per annum
for each Fellow.

General

The present scheme of Fellowships represents the core of an idea
which is expected to develop and receive elaboration subsequently.
It should not be regarded as closed and final, and the intention is
that there should be enough flexibility to adapt it to changing national
requirements. Such a scheme, in which money is spent in furthering
the creative activity of talented Indian rather than on brick and
mortar, is well suited to the memory of a man whose love for his
country was unique and abiding.

Notes and News

Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan

Volume 1 of the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,
the ten-volume work on which Dr. Sdlim Ali and Dr. Dillon Ripley
have been engaged for many years past, is announced for publication
by the Oxford University Press in August, price Rs. 90. This first
volume contains a number of general introductory articles and
describes 224 forms. There are 18 coloured plates, 47 distribution
maps, one physical map and many figures in the text.

THE HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN is more than
a revision of E. C. Stuart Baker’s FAUNA volumes. Modelled on the
HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS by Witherby and others, it aims to
describe the 1200 species of birds which, in nearly 2100 forms, are
at the time of compilation to be seen in the Indo-Pakistan sub-
continent. Complete life-histories are not attempted and the HAND-
BOOK confines itself to recording concisely what is known of the
distribution, habits, breeding biology, diet, voice, etc. of the birds in
the subcontinent. In this first volume more than half the birds are
illustrated in colour, and with the help of these colour plates and
the systematic keys that have been provided, the bird-watcher and
the scientific ornithologist shovld be able to identify most of the
birds they see and all those that they handle. Distribution maps are
given for many of the migratory and spatially restricted forms.

Under the auspices of the Bombay Natural History Society, and
with generous assistance fron: the Government of India and friends
in the United States, work on this project has been in progress for
many years. Volume 2 (Megapodes to Crab Plover) is in the press.
Volume 3 (Stone Curlews to Owls) has been written, and later volumes
are in active preparation.

Fauna Preservation Society of London: Subscription in India

Arrangements have now been made for members of the Fauna
Preservation Society who live in India and are unable to send money
abroad to pay their annual subscriptions into a special FPS account
in Bombay which has been opened on the Society’s behalf by the
Bombay Natural History Society. These accumulated subscriptions
of Indian members will be used to pay for wildlife conservation
projects in India, and Indian members will have the satisfaction of

NOTES AND NEWS : 531

knowing that their subscriptions will directly benefit the wildlife of
their own country.

Please send subscriptions to the Honorary Secretary, Bombay
Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 1-B.R., clearly marked FAUNA PRESERVATION SOCIETY. |

/

XV International Ornithological Congress

Under the patronage of His Royal Highness
The Prince.of The Netherlands

SECOND ANNOUNCEMENT

The dates for the Congress have been determined as follows:

The Hague 30 August—5 September 1970 (inclusive).

Congress Fee: Full Members Dutch Guilders 150,--
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5

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The Congress will meet in the new buildings of the Netherlands
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where each night coffee sheps and bars will be open. Accommodation

17

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will be arranged in hotels in the vicinity or on caravan or camping
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Along with the application form a list of hotels with prices will
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Application forms with full details can be obtained from (note
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XV International Ornithological Congress,
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2 August, 1968 Pror. Dr. K. H. Voous,
Secretary-General

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CONTENTS

THE ECOLOGY OF THE LION-TAILED Macaque [Macaca silenus (Linnazus)]—
A Prot Stupy. By Yukimaru Sugiyama coh a

Hedychium longipedunculatum, A NEW SPECIES OF ZINGIBERACEAE FROM SUBANSIRI
DIsTRICT, NORTH East FRONTIER AGENCY. By A. R. K. Sastry and D. M.
Verma aye ve as ; ae Kis

A REPORT ON WILD Lire SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA. November-Decem- —

ber 1966. By J. Juan Spillett
NEPAL BiRDs ; SUPPLEMENT TO Biswas’ List. By R.L. Fleming .. ss

THE SCIAENIDAE OF THE COASTAL WATERS OF VISAKHAPATNAM. By S. Dutt and
V. Thankam :

NOTES ON THE THYSANOPTERA COLLECTED DURING WESTERN AND SOUTHERN
INDIA SURVEY, 1962, WITH A REVIEW OF THE THYSANOPTERA COMPLEX OF
THE Hosts. By K. V. Lakshminarayana

THE YELLOW-WATILED LAPWING, Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), A TROPICAL
DRY-SEASON NESTER. III. Two further season’s breeding. By S. D. Jayakar
and H. Spurway *: “S 2

FLORA OF THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI-GARHWAL STATE.
By A.C. Dey, M. R. Uniyal and V. Shankar

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF Triops mavliensis (TIWARI), NOTOSTRACA (CRUSTACEA),
IN THE OKHAMANDAL REGION OF SAURASHTRA (INDIA). By S. V. Shanbhag
and N. B. Inamdar ae ; Bu ce

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
History Socrery—2 Anseriformes. By Humayun Abdulali..

THE Nitciri WILD LIFE ASSOCIATION AND STATUS OF WILD LIFE IN THE NILGIRIS.
By E. R. C. Davidar -

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN AGE AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PEARL
Oyster, Pinctada vulgaris (Schumacher), OF THE GULF OF KutcH. By K.R.
Narayanan and M. S. Michael Ks

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS. By T. V. Subrahmanyam. .

—

REVIEWS ..
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
AN APPEAL
ANNOUNCEMENT

Nores AND News... e

ee ee

335

348

369

384

Se ey ae ee ee A rd

408

a Oe

418

431

444
453
462
471
526
527
530

a pee oe arte ee ee eg, Ree ee

Journal of the

ombay Natural History Society _

Vol. 65, No. 3

Editors
H. SANTAPAU, 3.J.,
ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

DECEMBER 1968

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VOLUME 65, NO. 3—DECEMBER 1968
Date of publication: 28-5-1969

CONTENTS

THE BirDs OF SIND: A Review. By D. A. Holmes and J. O. Wright. (With a
map) tk be

Pseudodissochaeta : A ‘New Gutes OF Reto tice By M. P. Nayar.
(With a map and four text-figures)

FEEDING HABITS OF THE FISH Megalops cyprinoides HeonssoNee IN THE (oon
BACKWATERS, MADRAS. By Thavamani J. Pandian. (With three text-
figures)

Eco-TOxICOLOGY AND onion! OF INDIAN DEStRT Saat) Mreriones ndiphanae
(JERDON). By Ishwar Prakash :

ON A NEW SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONE FROM Mieanase tet ioe By Decark
Parulekar. (With four text-figures) :

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA (Ploceus AoateR eins
HUME) IN THE KUMAON TERAI. By V.C. Ambedkar. (With a plate)

MorE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE. By B. F. ape
(With two plates)

OCCURRENCE OF Spindasis Apes (Mooney. Cana cE eon Gaon, ON
THE WESTERN GHATS. By A.E. Bean, ssJE. (With eight plates and two text-
figures)

A REPORT ON WILD cee SomvEre IN SOUTH A AND WEST adn By J. Jian Spillet!
(With four plates and two maps) mh

Two NEW SPECIES OF Iseilema ANDERSS. FROM INDIA. By Murty R. ppaleri
and U. Satyavathi. (With a plate)

SOME WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM THE INDIAN Shine ania, By Pinies
Harrison and Jeffery Harrison. (With four plates) :

Two NEW PHyYTOSEID MITES FROM EASTERN INDIA (ACARINA: Puy TOsHiDAe).
By S. K. Bhattacharyya. (With six text-figures)

SAND DUNE FLORA OF WESTERN RAJASTHAN. By K.C. Kanodia ioe R. K. Gon

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS INTHE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
History SocieTy—3, Falconiformes. By Humayun Abdulali . .

A NEW BEGONIA FROM EAST NEPAL. By C.R. Rao. (With a plate)

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS. By T. V. Si Geahinatiyandk
(With fourteen text-figures) .

Rhododendron santapaui sp. Nov. FROM Sia eh Distwicr, N. E. FE. A., Tapia!
By A. R. K. Sastry, S. K. Kataki, Peter Cox, Patricia Cox, and P. Hutchi-
son. (With two plates)

REVIEWS :

1. The Bird Faunas of Africa and its Islands. (S.A.)
2. Khumbu Himal. (S. A.) i 4:
3. Flowering Shrubs. (D.E. R.)
4. Figs of Hongkong. (P. V. B.) i sie
5. Handbook of Rock Gardening on the Hills. (D.E. R.)
6. Introduction to Agricultural Botany in India. (P. V.B.) ..
7. Salinity and Aridity—New Approaches to Old Problems. (P. V. B.)
8. Of Predation and Life. (G.S.R.) i
9. The Territorial Imperative. (D. W. P.)

10. Tracks. (D.E.R.) ;

11. Mimicry. (D.E.R.)

12. Galapagos. (Z. F.) re

13. Pesticides and Pollution. (Z. F.)

533

Spi

569

581

590

596

608

618

633

664

670

677
681

696
724

726

744

748
749
751
UZ
753
753
754
(>
757
758
759
760
762

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Taxonomic status of Rousettus seminudus (Gray) : (Chiroptera: Ptero-
pidae). By Y.P. Sinha (p. 764). .2. Notes on Barking Deer, Muntiacus muntjak
(Zimmermann). By Charles McCann (p. 767). 3. The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemitragus
hylocrius Ogilby. (With two plates). By John Willet (p. 769). 4. The Great
Indian Rorqual Balaenoptera musculus (Linn.) near Pasni (Mekran Coast), West
Pakistan. By M.S. U. Siddiqi (p. 772). 5. Rednecked Grebe Podiceps grisei-
gena (Boddaert) again sighted in West Pakistan. By C. D. W. Savage (p. 773).
6. Cotton Teal Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin) and Water Snake. By
A. A.A. Fyzee (p. 773). 7. Extension of Range of the Large Indian Kite Milvus
migrans lineatus (Gray). By Humayun AbdulaliandJ. G. Nair(p. 774).
8. The chick of the Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin). (With a plate).
By Humayun Abdulali (p. 774). 9. A further note on the distribution of Cuculus
canorus Linnaeus. By George F. Neavoll (p. 775). 10. Occurrence of the Euro-
pean Bee-eater Merops apiaster Linnaeus, at Mettur Dam, Salem District,
Madras. By Monisha Basu Roy (p. 776). 11. Territory in the House Crow,
Corvus splendens Vieillot. By B. S. Lamba (p. 777). 12. The Brown
Flycatcher, Muscicapa latirostris Raffles in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji
(p. 778). 13. New wintering locality of the Spotted Bush Warbler
Bradypterus thoracicus (Blyth). By J. R. S. Holmes, M.B.o.u. (p. 779).
14. Dust bathing by Common Baya (Ploceus philippinus). By (Mtrs.)
Usha Ganguli (p. 780). 15. Some new bird records for Delhi. By Peter
Jackson (p. 780). 16. Some new bird records for Nepal. By Biswamoy Biswas
(p. 782). 17. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors (p. 784). 18. Oxyurich-
thys jaarmani Weber (Gobiidae : Pisces), A rare Gobioid from Indian Waters.
(With a text-figure). By P. K. Talwar (p. 794). 19. Observations on the food
of young Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton) around Nabadwip, in the Hooghly Estuary.
By D.D. Halder (p. 796). 20. On the mechanism of escape by a moth from acci-
dental drowning. By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 798). 21. Etiella
zinckenella Treitschke (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae) as a Pod Borer of Lentil in
the Punjab. By G. S. Sandhu and G. C. Verma (p. 799). 22. Gregariousness
and Mimicry during the cocoon stage by the Butterfly Eurema hecabe (L.). By
D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. (p. 800). 23. Insects attracted to light in the Dangs,
South Gujarat. By N. T. Nadkerny and E. M. Shull (p. 800). 24. Persistent
vitality in Bee-hole Borer Moth Duomitus leuconotus Wilk. By D. E. Reuben
(p. 801). 25. Preference of castor varieties for feeding and oviposition by the
Leafhopper Empoasca flavescens (F.) (Homoptera, Jassidae). By D. G. Sevasto-
pulo, F.R.E.S. (p. 802). 26. Observations on a mode of food-capture by Dragon-
flies. By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 803). 27. Dicraeia stylosa Wight
(Podostemaceae)—A new record for Bombay. By B. Venkatareddi (p. 803). |
28. Observations on the host range in Loranthus longiflorus Desv. By
R. Sampathkumar and J. Kunchithapatham (p. 804). 29. Nomenclature notes
on the genus Sonerila Roxb. (Melastomataceae). By M. P. Nayar (p. 805).
30. Anthriscus scandicina (Weber) Mans. (Apiaceae) : A new record for India.
By C. R. Babu (p. 807). 31. Anew name in Campanula Linn. (Campanulaceae). |
By C. R. Babu (p. 808). 32. Gnetum ula Brongn. from Rayalaseema, Andhra
Pradesh—A new record. By K. V. M. Rao and K. R. Rao (p. 809). Ye |

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR
1967-68 das of Be “a a ..) OLE

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY .. 816

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING AY re . on) OLE

JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1968 DECEMBER Vol. 65 No. 3

The Birds of Sind: A Review

BY

D. A. HOLMES AND J. O. WRIGHT

(With a map)

It is 45 years since a comprehensive account of the birds of the former
province of Sind (West Pakistan) was published. Since then, the environ-
ment of the alluvial plains of Sind has been considerably altered by a very
extensive spread of irrigation canals, agricultural development and increase
in population. These changes are still occurring.

An up-to-date review of the avifauna of the alluvial plains is presented,
to indicate changes in status that have resulted from the new environment.
The review is based on amateur observations by the authors, who were resi-
dent in the province for three years. Most noticeable of the changes is the
decline of many of the larger, ‘ wetland ’ species, which is likely to continue.
In contrast, it can be assumed that the population of many passerines has
increased, while a few species, such as the Koel and Common Indian Nightjar,
have extended their range.

The former province of Sind in West Pakistan has an area of
53,000 sq. miles. About half of this forms part of the great sandy waste
of the Thar Desert. The western margins are mountainous, rising to
over 7000 feet, while the Arabian Sea and a wide tidal zone form the
southern boundary. This review is concerned mainly with the great
alluvial plains of the River Indus, which comprise over 20,000 square
miles of Sind. The climate is arid and hot, and the plains are barely
penetrated by the monsoon. Within this area average annual rainfall
ranges from 3 inches in the north to 8 inches in the south. In the north,
summer temperatures often exceed 120°F., while frost is sometimes
experienced in winter. Temperatures in the south are moderated by
the SW winds which blow throughout the summer months. Thus the

[1]

534. JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

plains have a desert climate, and their fertility is dependent upon irri-
gation from the Indus.

In the middle of the last century, only about 800 square miles, or
4 per cent, of the plains received sufficient irrigation water to permit
cultivation. By 1921 this area had increased about four-fold. The
first barrage across the Indus was built at Sukkur in 1932, and two more
have been added since, so that virtually all the plains are now within
irrigation command, a 25-fold increase. It can truly be said that the
face of Sind has been changed, and mostly within the last 35 years. In
fact, however, less than 15,000 square miles is under cultivation, for
- while new land is being reclaimed, other land is lost through water-
logging and salinity. Nevertheless huge expanses of formerly mono-
tonous scrubby desert have been replaced by a lush fertility that would
have appeared inconceivable 40 years ago. The main crops grown are
rice and cotton in summer, and wheat in winter. Accompanying these
developments, the population has nearly doubled, from 34 million in
1931 to 6 million in 1961, and 80 per cent of this is rural. At the same
time the network of roads has expanded proportionally, so that all
parts of the plains are now readily accessible.

It is 45 years since a comprehensive review of the birds of Sind was
published (Ticehurst 1922-1924), and this pre-dates the great develop-
ments that have occurred. A number of workers, notably Eates
(1937 et seq.), have contributed short notes to show some of the changes
in the avifauna that were occurring, but time is now ripe for a fresh
attempt at a review to be made. The authors were stationed in Sind
for three years, from 1963 to 1965, and in the course of carrying out soils
and agricultural surveys travelled extensively over the alluvial plains
(although not penetrating far into the surrounding regions of sand and
rock desert, and tidal mudflats). Ornithology was, however, only a
spare time activity, and specimens were not collected, so that inevitably
there are gaps in the field identification of some of the more difficult
groups. The work of Ticehurst still remains the standard reference to
the Sind avifauna, but it is hoped that the review below illustrates the
more important changes in distribution that have occurred in some
groups.

Without statistical evidence, it is of course impossible to review
changes in population quantitatively. For example, the statement that
a particular species is ‘common and widely distributed in cultivated
areas ’, in both 1922 and 1965, assuming this statement to have the same
general meaning, would totally fail to reveal the increase in population
that must have occurred. Many of the endemic species that are adapted
to or tolerant of a well-populated, agricultural environment must have
increased, although the extent cannot be assessed. At the same time,
many winter visitors, whether they have increased in numbers or not,

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THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW $35

are dispersed over a much greater area, and thus may give a false impres-
sion of reduced numbers.

However, special attention must be paid to those groups that are
dwindling, in some cases drastically. The larger *‘ wetland’ birds are
those most affected, for example the storks and ibises, and these are
perhaps the wilder birds that would be expected to suffer most from the
enormously increased disturbance by man. Readers of Ticehurst’s
notes will be struck by the impression he gives of sheer numbers, in
some species that are now nearly extinct in Sind. We should stress,
however, that we rarely penetrated the wild ‘no-man’s zone’ between
land and sea that forms the southern boundary of the province, and there
is evidence that this remains the last stronghold in Sind of some rem-
- nant populations.

As a result of the changes in the water regime, wetland habitats
may have actually increased, and changed in distribution. Within the
canal areas, there are over 900 square miles of swampy and flooded
land, although over half of this is only seasonally wet. This figure does
not include the great Sind lakes, such as Manchar and Kalri, and the
wide area between the flood protection bunds of the Indus, a large pro-
portion of which is flooded each summer. The rise in water-tables has
meant that many natural depressions, often formerly used for rice crops,
are now swampy, or have become jheels. Such jheels are especially
common in the plains south of Hyderabad (e.g. Muradani Dhand, in
Tatta District) and in some districts in the north, west of the Indus
(e.g. Habibkot, near Sukkur). In addition, pools of waste irrigation
water, often very saline, as well as the rice fields in late summer and the
partially dry beds of seasonal canals in winter, form ideal habitats for
waders. The larger lakes are mostly distributed around the margins
of the plain : Haleji, Hadeiro, Jhol and Kalri are a notable group near
Tatta. Haleji and Kalri are now fresh-water storage lakes, but the
seepage zones outside their containing bunds often have shallow saline
pools that are more like the waters of Hadeiro and Jhol. Manchar Lake
near Sehwan is well known, but its area has diminished since floods
have been controlled. In the east, there are several lakes, some of them
deep, lying between the sandhills at the edge of the Thar Desert, but we
could only visit one or two of them. With future development, the
acreages of surface fresh-water storage areas is likely to be increased,
but artificial drainage may drastically diminish the natural jheels and
swampy areas.

The list that follows is placed in the order of Ripley (1961). The
notes are concerned mostly with distribution and status with particular
reference to the alluvial plains, and bracketed negative records are in-
cluded where appropriate. Place-names are shown in the sketch map.

[3]

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus). Great Crested Grebe

Ticehurst saw this bird on the coast, but never inland in Sind, and
mentions only one inland record, at Manchar Lake in January in the
last century. Ripley does not name West Pakistan in its wintering range.
Our only records are inland, at Hadeiro, in the summer of 1965. There
was a party of 4 on May 23, which had increased to 10 on June 27.

[Podiceps caspicus (Hablizl). Blacknecked Grebe

We never saw this Grebe, but Ticehurst saw them at Manchar Lake,
and Roberts (1967) reports seeing several at Kandhkot in February 1965.]

Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas). Little Grebe

Common and generally distributed resident. Seen on the nest near
Hyderabad in early July.

Pelecanus sp. Pelicans

Pelicans were only observed in the extreme south of Sind, where
flocks of up to 150 occur on some lakes (e.g. Muradani), and along the
coast. Both the White (P. onocrotalus) and Dalmatian (P. philippensis)
occur, but were not always specifically identified. They are winter
visitors, extreme dates being October 10 and February 28 (compare
Ticehurst ; November 30 and March 5), except for a party of 25, believed
to be White Pelicans, present at Hadeiro as late as May 23 in 1965. 7

Phalacrocorax sp. Cormorants

All three species of cormorants occurring in India are very common
in Lower Sind, and outside the breeding season, numbers on lakes where
there is extensive flooded tamarisk, such as the Kalri seepage zone, run
into thousands. The Indian Shag (P. fuscicollis)-and Little Cormorant —
(P. niger) are often difficult to distinguish at a distance, and like Ticehurst
we cannot be sure of the distribution of the Shag in Upper Sind, where
the Little Cormorant is probably more widespread than the other two
species. ;

Anhinga rufa (Daudin). Darter

Common and widely distributed in small numbers, and not neces-
sarily confined to the larger jheels as stated by Ticehurst, for we have
met it in pools in inundated forests etc. ,

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus. Grey Heron

Ardea purpurea Linnaeus. Purple Heron
Both species are common residents, but the Purple Heron, which

is usually seen in two’s or three’s near reed beds, is the more widely
distributed bird.

[4]

THE BIRDS OF SIND; A REVIEW 537

Butorides striatus (Linnaeus). Little Green Heron

Due to its secretive crepuscular habits, this heron was seen infre-
quently but it must be a common bird of the seasonally inundated
swamps and forests along the river, where most of our records were
obtained. On rare occasions, however, they can be seen at the open
water edge in broad daylight. In the field, this bird never struck either
of us as having the green gloss to the plumage from which it is named.
In late June, a nest with 2 eggs was found in a back-water near Sukkur,
in a dense acacia bush overhanging the water.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes). Pond Heron

Very widely distributed, favouring small ponds and wet thickets, but
also occurring commonly in the mangrove swamps at Karachi. Small
breeding colonies were found near Sukkur in late May and June, in
canal-side Dalbergia trees, and in a Cattle Egret colony.

Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus). Cattle Egret

A very common bird of the irrigated tracts, generally in parties or
small flocks. Ticehurst found it far commoner in Upper Sind than
further south, but this is no longer true following the spread of irrigation
supplies to Lower Sind.

In the breeding season they are rarely seen far from their breeding
colonies. One such colony of several hundred nests was located in the
riverain forests just above Sukkur on May 25, 1964, with up to 5 or 6
nests in some trees, and some of these already contained well-grown
nestlings. Several sitting birds were noted without the buff nuptial
plumes. The breeding season would appear to be earlier here than over
northern India generally, and may depend on the Indus inundation
rather than on the monsoon which barely reaches Sind. In the heat
of the day, parents were seen to fly to and fro from the river, apparently
bringing water in the down of their breasts to the nests or chicks.

Egretta alba (Linnaeus). Large Egret

Widely although thinly distributed, and usually seen singly, or in
two’s or three’s. A few also frequent the tidal mudflats and mangroves.

[Egretta intermedia (Wagler). Smaller Egret

We have probably overlooked this egret, as Roberts reports having
seen it quite commonly at Kandhkot.]

Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus). Little Egret
Generally distributed but probably not as numerous as the Cattle
Egret. A few nests were found in the Cattle Egret colony in May, and
others were seen later in early July.
[5]

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Egretta gularis (Bosc). Indian Reef Heron

A very common bird along the coast, where the majority are dark
phase birds (although white phase birds are apt to be mistaken for other
egrets). Ticehurst notes that they only occasionally stray a little way
inland, but we saw two’s or three’s with surprising regularity in wet,
saline districts in Lower Sind, and on three occasions at Hyderabad.
Two were seen at Sehwan in August, nearly 200 miles up the river, but
Roberts has seen over two dozen captive birds with the fishermen on
nearby Manchar Lake.

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus), Night Heron

Common and widely distributed in waterlogged districts, especially
in the south. Muradani in February contained at least 500 birds in the
flooded tamarisk, the majority being immature. Being crepuscular,
they can be easily overlooked, but their harsh croaks in the dusk reveal
the birds flighting overhead to their feeding grounds.

[Ixobrychus minutus (Linnaeus). Little Bittern

According to Ticehurst, who only once saw it himself, the Little
Bittern is a permanent but uncommon and local resident. We never
saw it, although constantly looking for it, but Roberts saw a female at
Manchar Lake in December 1966.]

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin). Chestnut Bittern

This is the most widely distributed of the small bitterns, occurring
quite commonly in reed beds, but also occasionally in wet thickets beside
canals etc., and is probably resident. Like the other bitterns, it is over-
looked unless dusk or dawn watches are kept over reed beds, although
the patient observer hidden in the reeds even by day is sometimes re-
warded. A short view of a bird in flight, the most usual view, is generally
sufficient for identification, for the upper parts appear a uniform chestnut-
brown (richer in the male), without streaking, and with no black on the
wing. Underparts are paler, with a dark mid-ventral streak in the male.

Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin). Yellow Bittern

This bittern is more confined to reed beds than the previous bird,
although these need not be large. All our records are between May
and August, so it is possibly a summer visitor. Even from a short view
in flight, the uniform tawny-buff plumage with black primaries is quite
distinctive. !

Dupetor flavicollis (Latham). Black Bittern

The Black Bittern is more local than the previous two forms; we
found them to be quite common at Jamraohead and around Sujawal,
but have only scattered records elsewhere. Ticehurst himself never

[6]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 539

saw it, but presumed from earlier records that it was a resident bird,
although our records are all between May and August. It appears rather
larger than Ixobrychus, and being apparently all black, it can readily be
mistaken in the late dusk, for other black water birds flying over the
reeds. A closer view reveals yellow sides to the throat.

._ Botaurus stellaris (Linnaeus). Bittern
A winter visitor to reed beds, seen occasionally near Sukkur, and
once at Jati, in December and February.

Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant). Painted Stork

Our only record is of two at Manchar Lake in August 1965.
Although it may still be quite common in the tidal zone it has decreased
drastically, as Ticehurst found it ‘common wherever there are jheels of
any size’ in Central and Lower Sind, ‘ usually in small flocks of a dozen
or so’. They formerly bred in the East Nara District.

[Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert). Openbill Stork

We never found the Openbill Stork, although Ticehurst considered
it to be a ‘ fairly common bird in the “‘ watery ” parts of Sind... . round
the edges of most jheels of any size’, breeding in the East Nara District.]

[Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert). Whitenecked Stork
The only record for Sind is of one at Sukkur in 1879. Neither
Ticehurst nor we recorded it.]

Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus). White Stork

Ticehurst considered that the White Stork was a rather uncommon
winter visitor. It is certainly scarce now, although one or two are
occasionally seen in winter in Lower Sind (we also saw 2 at Sujawal as
late as May 9). However, the presence of a flock of over 300 in a jheel
near Ladiun in November suggests that they may still visit the delta
zone quite commonly.

Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus). Black Stork

The decline of the Black Stork seems to have been in progress early
in the century, as Hume in the last century met vast numbers along the
Indus, whereas Ticehurst only saw it occasionally. We have only three
records, all of single birds in November and February.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham). Blacknecked Stork

A very sparse resident along the sand banks of the Indus; we have
also seen it along the coast, and a family party of one adult and three
“immatures at Manchar Lake in August (our most northerly record).

[7 |

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Ticehurst considered it to be not uncommon in the better-watered parts
of Central and Lower Sind.

[Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin). Adjutant
Like the Black Stork, the Adjutant had already declined prior to
Ticehurst’s time, for neither he nor we have seen it in Sind. ]

Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham). White Ibis

Ticehurst states that this “is pretty common on the inland waters,
and on some jheels large flocks are to be met with’. It bred in the
East Nara District. It is now apparently confined to the delta, where it is
still said to breed. Apart from 2 birds south of Badin, our only record is
of a flock of about 200 on a jheel near Ladiun in November 1965.

Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck). Black Ibis

A solitary bird seen along a tree-lined canal near Sukkur in September
1964 is poor comparison to Ticehurst’s statement that ‘the Black Ibis
is very common in the better-watered parts, and large flocks may be
met with around most jheels ’. Occasional birds may still breed in the
delta, although we failed to see it at Ladiun.

Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus). Glossy Ibis

This ibis does at least seem to be still maintaining its distribution in
Lower Sind, where flocks of 300 or 400 are occasionally met with feeding
in irrigated fields or around undisturbed jheels. Small parties were
seen regularly in the seepage zone of Kalri Lake. Our most northerly
records are from Manchar Lake. Nevertheless numbers have declined
very considerably since Ticehurst’s time.

Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus. Spoonbill

The Spoonbill is still quite common in Lower Sind, and parties of
20 or 30 were seen throughout the summer at Kalri or Hadeiro, with
numbers increasing to over 100 on some lakes in winter. Still this does
not bear comparison with the ‘serried ranks’ and ‘ vast concourse’
described by Ticehurst, constituting ‘ one of the ornithological sights
of Sind.’ We never saw the spoonbill north of Hyderabad.

Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas. Flamingo

Flamingos can be seen at most seasons in Lower Sind (we have no
records north of Hyderabad), notably at Kalri Lake and adjacent jheels,
or in small parties scattered along the desolate coastline adjoining the
Rann of Kutch. There is no better or easier place to watch them than
from the high bund of Kalri Lake, as they roost or feed desultorily in the
seepage zone below you,

[8]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 541

During 1965, we kept a tally of numbers at the three lakes of Kalri,
Jhol and Hadeiro, and from about a hundred at Kalri Lake in February,
numbers rose steadily to an estimate of some 2,500 at the three lakes on
May 30. Numbers then dropped slowly, to less than a hundred in
August, when they may have been shifting back to their assumed origin
in the Rann of Kutch to breed. Less than 50 per cent of these birds were
in adult plumage, although the proportion of adult birds increased as the
numbers dwindled. There is a possibility that some flamingos in winter
are visitors from a more northerly breeding ground.

[We never identified the Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicondias minor)
amongst these flocks. |

[Anser spp. Geese

There is no doubt that wintering geese have declined very con-
siderably, and perhaps quite recently, and when questioned local wild-
fowlers will comment on this. We ourselves never saw any, but Greylag
(A. anser) are said to be still common in some years on the coast. A

wildfowl survey of the sub-continent is currently being undertaken by
—C.D.W. Savage, under the auspices of the Wildfowl Trust (1965).]

[Cygnus spp. Swans

_ Stragglers of all three species have been recorded from Sind, although
we have no records or reports of any.]

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield). Lesser Whistling Teal

This duck was considered by Ticehurst to be a permanent resident,
but apart from flocks of 50 to 100 in Tatta District in November, all
our records were between May and September. Some may well be over-
looked in the packs of winter wildfowl, and probably a fair number do
over-winter, especially in the south. However, one of their main
summer strongholds is the great stretch of inundated riverain forests
that extend along the length of the Indus, and as these forests are only
flooded in summer, the bird is here a summer visitor, (although it is
scarce in Upper Sind). They arrive in the second half of May, and for a
few weeks can be seen each evening in fair numbers, before they become
dispersed over their summer territories.

[We never identified the Large Whistling Teal (D. picia?) amongst
these parties, although a few might be expected. |

-Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas). Ruddy Sheld-duck

This is now a scarce winter visitor, and certainly rarer than formerly
as Ticehurst considered it ‘much commoner in Upper than in Lower
Sind ’,

[9]

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus). Common Sheld-duck

This is also scarce, and we only saw them a few times on Kalri Lake,
in very small numbers. However, they are reported to be not uncommon
in Lower Sind in some winters.

Anas angustirostris Ménétries. Marbled Teal

According to Ticehurst, this was formerly a pretty common duck
on shallow-water jheels in Central Sind, and some may have bred
occasionally at Manchar Lake. J.O.W. saw several pairs at a small
jheel at Tando Musti Khan, near Khairpur, in March 1965, and these
may well have been breeding. Local wildfowlers reported that they
were year-round residents, to be found only on this particular jheel.

Anas acuta Linnaeus. Pintail

This is one of the commonest ducks that visit the Sind jheels, as
indeed it was in Ticehurst’s day, numbering over a thousand on many
jheels.

Anas crecca Linnaeus. Common Teal

The Common Teal is nearly as common as the Pintail, and some
wildfowlers suggest that it may be the commonest wildfowl in Upper
Sind.

Anas poecilorhyncha J. R. Forster. Spotbill Duck

The Spotbill is apparently resident in Lower Sind, where flocks of
20-50 birds may be encountered at almost any season, while some jheels
may have 50-100 birds in winter. We never saw it in Upper Sind.

Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus. Mallard

The Mallard is widely distributed, although not very abundant. It
prefers shallow water and fairly dense cover, and totals in the reed beds
and rushes around suitable jheels probably run into several hundred.

Anas strepera Linnaeus. Gadwall

To quote Ticehurst, ‘ taking Sind as a whole the Gadwall is out-and-
out the commonest duck’, in numbers that were ‘incredible’. It now
appears to be rare over most of Sind, although it is a duck that tends to |
be overlooked. This species has probably suffered the most noticeable _
decline of any duck in Sind. ee

Anas penelope Linnaeus. Wigeon hia

Not as common as the Pintail and Teal, but a few jheels in the south
may hold well over 500 Wigeon. In 1965, they remained at Kalri Lake
well into April, and there were 5 drakes at nearby Jhol on May 16,

(10]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 543

Anas querquedula Linnaeus. Garganey

The Garganey is mainly a passage migrant, passing through Sind
from mid-September to mid-November, and again from mid-February
to mid-April. At these seasons they are fairly common. Probably a
few over-winter, and in 1965 a pair was seen at Jhol on May 16.

Anas clypeata Linnaeus. Shoveller

The Shoveller is an abundant winter visitor, and although not as
common as the Pintail and Common Teal, some jheels may hold well
over 500 birds. Two drakes were seen at Khairpur as late as June 1 in
1964, and two remained until the end of May at Jhol in 1965,

Netta rufina (Pallas). Redcrested Pochard

This duck is now generally very scarce, and has clearly decreased
since Ticehurst’s time. However, it may still be quite common in some
years on deeper jheels around Larkana and Kandhkot, and in the desert
fringe east of Sanghar. In 1964, J.O.W. saw two drakes near Sukkur as
late as June 7.

Aythya ferina (Linnaeus). Common Pochard

This is the commonest of the diving duck, and large sheets of water
may hold flocks of up to 500 birds. However, numbers have probably
declined slightly, since Ticehurst records ‘ vast flocks ’.

Aythya nyroca (Gildenstadt). White-eyed Pochard

Although probably overlooked, this pochard has declined drastically,
as Ticehurst found it “ one of the most universally distributed and numeri-
cally abundant species ’, and Salim Ali (1928) thought it to be the com-
_ monest duck at Manchar Lake. Perhaps only in some years, quite large
numbers are still found on some jheels. Several were seen near Sukkur
at the end of May in 1964, with one duck as late as June 7.

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus). Tufted Duck

The Tufted Duck is slightly less common than the Common Pochard,
but favours the same deep, open water. 5 birds were seen at Kalri Lake
on August 1, 1965.

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin). Cotton Teal

Apparently Ticehurst never himself saw this duck in Sind, and it is
certainly rare and local, perhaps confined to Lower Sind. Our only
record is of a party of 8 at Sujawal in May 1965. Sujawal District is
probably the stronghold of several of the endemic wildfowl. C.D.W.
Savage (personal communication) reported them at Haleji Lake in July,
and in some winters it is reported to be quite widely distributed in south-
west Sind,

[11]

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

(Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant). Nukhta

We ourselves never found the Nukhta, but it is reported to be still
a sparse resident along the Indus, and possibly around Sujawal, in Lower
Sind.] |

[Mergus albellus Linnaeus. Smew

Roberts reports that one or two have been recorded lately at Nagler
and near Sanghar, but we never saw it. |

Mergus merganser Linnaeus. Goosander

Our only record of sawbillsis of a female, believed to be of this species,
seen by J.O.W. on the Indus at Sukkur in February 1965.

Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines). Blackwinged Kite

This is one species that may have benefitted from the agricultural
development of Sind, for it was formerly rather uncommon. Itis nowa
widely, although thinly, distributed resident in the cultivated districts.

Milvus migrans (Boddaert). Black Kite

Abundant in towns and villages. Numbers increase in winter, when
the Blackeared race (M. m. lineatus) is also encountered.

Haliastur indus (Boddaert). Brahminy Kite
Widely distributed in small numbers near water, including the canals.

Accipiter badius (Gmelin). Shikra .

Accipiter nisus (Linnaeus). Sparrow-Hawk

The two are treated together, as we could never be certain of their
separation in the field. The Shikra is the resident bird, and young were
heard in the nest near Sukkur at the end of May. The Sparrow-Hawk
is a winter visitor. They are thinly distributed in well-timbered culti-
vated districts.

Buteo rufinus (Cretzschmar). Long-legged Buzzard

There is an urgent need for a comprehensive field-guide to Indian
birds of prey, and the buzzards and eagles especially present considerable
problems to the amateur in the field. The Long-legged Buzzard is the
only buzzard that we have certainly identified, and is quite a common
winter visitor, affecting desert, cultivation and jheels alike, as noted by
Ticehurst.

Butastur teesa (Franklin). White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle

Common resident, especially in well-timbered cultivated districts.
[12]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 545

Nisaetus fasciatus (Vicillot). Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle

According to Ticehurst, this was a common resident of the Indus
inundations and jheels. We have only few records, but may well have
over-looked it, for Roberts suggests that it may be not uncommon.

[We never identified the Booted Hawk-Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) in
Sind. |

[Aquila heliaca Savigny. Imperial Eagle

Roberts has recorded this eagle at Manchar Lake and in the tidal
creeks at Karachi, as well as in the Khirtar Hills, but we never certainly
identified it.]_ |

Aquila rapax (Temminck). Tawny Eagle

The Tawny Eagle is the most widely distributed eagle in Sind, and
certainly the commonest resident, favouring cultivation, including quite
dry areas. Immatures are common in May.

[ The Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) was not identified, but may be
a winter visitor to jheels.|

Aquila clanga Pallas. Greater Spotted Eagle

This is a common winter visitor to jheels, and a few may be resident.
Eates (1937) has described the status of this and other eagles in Sind. At
the end of November, 1963, a small scale migration was apparently in
progress near Jati.

Haliaeetus leucoryphus (Pallas). Pallas’s Fishing Eagle
Thinly distributed on the larger jheels and on the Indus. Nestlings
are present in February.

Torgos calvus (Scopoli). Black or Pondicherry Vulture

[This should not be confused with the Black Vulture (Aegypius
monachus) of Europe, named Cinereous Vulture in Ripley. |]

This vulture, which according to Ticehurst was fairly common in the
canal areas, has now nearly deserted Sind, for our only record is of one
seen by D.A.H. at Jati in December 1963.

Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus). Cinereous Vulture
A winter visitor in small numbers to Karachi.

Gyps fulvus (Hablizl). Griffon Vulture
One or two may generally be seen with Whitebacked Vultures at most
- Carcases and roosts, and it is a common visitor to the Karachi rubbish
tips, although it probably does not breed in the plains.

[13]

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63 (3)

Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin). Indian Whitebacked Vulture
West Pakistan is erroneously omitted from the range of this vulture
in Ripley, (see Waite, 1962) but it is in fact the most widely distributed
vulture in Sind, in the plains and adjacent desert areas. They breed
colonially in winter, perhaps commencing in October, while a few may
still be breeding in June.

Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus). Egyptian Vulture

Very common, especially around towns and villages. Nesting has
been observed, on tombs, in May, but numbers decline in Upper Sind in
summer.

Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus). Bearded Vulture

Found only in the Khirtar Range, where Roberts has seen it in
January as low as 1800 feet. (In the Bolan Pass, on the road to Quetta,
J.O.W. has seen them below 1000 feet in winter.)

Circus sp. Harriers

Harriers are common winter visitors to Sind, from about mid-
September to mid-April. The Marsh Harrier (C. aeruginosus) is the
commonest, frequenting jheels, but the great majority are female or
immature ; very few adult males were seen, although one was present at
Kalri Lake on April 17. The other harriers are less easy to identify, but
the Pale (C. macrourus) and Montagu’s (C. pygargus) would appear to
be commoner than the Hen Harrier (C. cyaneus). [We never saw the
Pied Harrier (C. melanoleucos).]

Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin). Short-toed Eagle

Probably rare and local, and only definitely seen twice, in desert
scrub near Karachi and over a swamp near Jati.

(Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle
Never seen by us, and Ticehurst knew of only two records in Sind.]

Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus). Osprey
A common winter visitor to the Indus, jheels, and the coast, a few
birds remaining until early May.

Falco biarmicus Temminck. Lanner Falcon

A rather sparse resident, in cultivation and desert scrub, and even
sometimes on the outskirts of towns. The only form identified by us
is the Laggar Falcon (F. 6. jugger).

Falco peregrinus Tunstall. Peregrine Falcon
A winter visitor in small numbers, generally to jheels.
(ie

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 547
Falco subbuteo Linnaeus. Hobby

One record only, of a fine male on a low, barren jebel at Hyderabad
on April 23.

[We did not find the Merlin (Falco columbarius) which must be only
a rare visitant. |

Falco chicquera Daudin. Redheaded Merlin

Resident in small numbers in cultivated areas, perhaps commoner
in Upper than Lower Sind.

Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus. Kestrel

A not uncommon winter visitor, favouring desert scrub, sides of
jebels etc. One near Karachi on September 29 is the earliest arrival
date.

[Ammoperdix griseogularis (J. F. Brandt). Seesee Partridge

Not recorded by ourselves, but presumably still occurs in the Khir-
tar hills, together with the Chukor Partridge (Alectoris graeca).|

Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus). Black Partridge

Common and widely distributed in the damp and wooded areas,
but perhaps not as abundant as in Ticehurst’s day.

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin). Grey Partridge

Commoner than the Black Partridge. It prefers drier land, even
desert scrub, although we have flushed them from trees in the forests at
Sukkur when these were flooded.

Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus). Common Quail

We did not find Quail common, although doubtless large numbers
are overlooked unless they are beaten up. Our scattered records are
all from mid-September to mid-April, and as Ticehurst suggests, the
majority are likely to be passage migrants. We heard the calls in Sep-
tember and February, but Ticehurst points out that they can be heard
at any season.

[We have no records of the Rain Quail (C. coromandelica).|

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. Common Peafowl

Originally introduced into Sind, it appears to be common in the
wild state only in S.E. Sind (approximately east of a line from Shah-
dadpur-Hyderabad-Badin).

[We have no record of Bustard-Quails (Turnix sp.).]

Grus grus (Linnaeus). Common Crane

Cranes are now rather uncommon winter visitors, and our records
are all from south of Hyderabad, of small parties around jheels or on
[15]

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

the coast, or on migration in September and March. Probably they
are still common on the coast, but have apparently declined consider-
ably. The only cranes identified have been of this species, but doubt-
less the Demoiselle Crane (Anthropoides virgo) occurs also. [The Sarus
Crane (Grus antigone) and Great White Crane (G. leucogeranus) must
now be only vagrant to Sind.]

Rallus aquaticus Linnaeus. Water Rail

A rare winter visitor, our only record is of several near Sukkur on
November 11, 1964.

Porzana sp. Crakes

Crakes are seen quite commonly in reed beds in winter, but only
rarely with a sufficiently good view for identification. Both the Little
Crake (P. parva) and Spotted Crake (P. porzana) were identified in the
Sukkur area. [Ticehurst also records Baillon’s Crake (P. pusilla) in
Sind. ]

Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant). Whitebreasted Waterhen

A common resident of irrigated districts, especially the wetter areas,
favouring especially the shallow swampy sides of canals, breeding through
the summer.

Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin). Water Cock

The Water Cock or Kora was previously known from a very few
records only, and Ticehurst did not find it. During our first two years,
we had only one unconfirmed record, near Sujawal in Lower Sind, in
June 1963. However, on June 6, 1965, we saw two males in the same
area, and subsequently we found them throughout June and July at |
virtually every swamp we visited in Lower Sind, often in some numbers,
until our field trips ceased in August. The most northerly record was
at the barrage at Hyderabad. Only on one occasion was a solitary
female seen, the rest all being noisy and aggressive males.

It is not possible to define its status from these records, but prob-
ably it is increasing sharply in Lower Sind, as a summer visitor (in num-
bers that vary from year to year). Visits to the same swamps in 1965
prior to June failed to reveal any. However, local people are familiar
with the bird, under the name ‘ tubar ’.

Gallinula chioropus (Linnaeus). Moorhen

Quite a common and generally distributed resident, although Ticehurst
found it rather scarce in Central and Lower Sind.

Porphyrio porphyrio (Linnaeus). Purple Moorhen

Widely distributed and very common in jheels with plentiful reeds
[ 16]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 549

and rushes, especially where lotus lilies are growing. They are readily
flushed with much clattering of wings and reeds, while any sudden noise
will set them off in a raucous clamour. There appears to be some local
movement, perhaps as a result of variations in water levels.

Fulica atra Linnaeus. Coot

An abundant winter visitor to open jheels. We did not see the vast
herds of Coot that Ticehurst recorded, although Kalri Lake has several
thousands in winter. Ticehurst states that they do not breed in Sind,
and his latest date was May 5. However, small numbers certainly over-
summer, and a few may well breed.

[Bustards

Bustards seem to be declining rapidly, and we saw neither bustards
nor the Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indica), which was formerly a rains
visitor. The Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps) was formerly
not uncommon in the east of Sind, and Roberts reports that one was
shot in recent years near the Rajasthan border. However, we had
several reports that the Houbara (Chlamydotis undulata) still arrives in
Sind in small numbers in September. ]

Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). Pheasant-tailed Jacana
Common on shallow jheels with plentiful rushes, lotus etc.
Haematopus ostralegus Linnaeus. Oyster catcher

A winter visitor to Karachi harbour, a few over-summering.

Vanellus leucurus (Lichtenstein). Whitetailed Lapwing

A fairly common winter visitor to marshes and margins of jheels
throughout Sind. Most had left by the end of March.

[Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus). Lapwing or Peewit

Not recorded by us, but according to Roberts it is a common visitor,
at any rate in some years, to Kandhkot in Upper Sind. We have no
knowledge of the Sociable Lapwing (V. gregarius) in Sind. |

Vanellus indicus (Boddaert). Redwattled Lapwing

Widely distributed throughout the irrigated and damper parts of the
province. Young chicks were seen as far apart as late-March and late-
August.

Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert). Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Ticehurst states that this lapwing is virtually unknown in Sind out-
side the drier areas of Lower Sind and the Karachi area, where it is a
2 [17]

‘550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

summer visitor. We have only seen it at Landi, near Karachi, in sum-
mer, in small numbers along the margins of the cultivated Malir valley,
and adjacent desert scrub. It especially favours fallow fields. )

Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus). Grey Plover

A winter visitor in comparatively small numbers, to the coast and
occasionally to jheels inland in Lower Sind. A few over-summer on
the coast in winter dress. |

Pluvialis dominica (P. L. S. Miller). Eastern Golden Plover

Our only records of Golden Plovers are of a party of 8 at Jhol as
late as May 16, 1965, and a few at Hadeiro on May 23. All had left by
May 30. Some of these had attained breeding plumage, and appeared
to be of this form, and not P. apricaria, which is known from only very
few records in Sind. Ticehurst found P. dominica uncommon, and his
latest date was March 12.

Charadrius leschenaultii Lesson. Large Sand Plover

A common winter visitor to the coast, it is less common than
C. mongolus, and was not identified among the parties of the latter bird
inland.

Charadrius hiaticula Linnaeus. Ringed Plover

Our only record of this rare coastal visitor was of a solitary a at
Jhol on May 16, 1965, well seen at close range.

Charadrius dubius Scopoli. Little Ringed Plover

A winter visitor and very common passage migrant, bie some
(C. d. jerdoni) are resident along the Indus sand banks.

Charadrius alexandrinus Linnaeus. Kentish Plover

A common resident, favouring especially the coast, but also the sandy
shores of the Indus and canals, and saline flats surrounding jheels.
Breeding was suspected on the coast in April, and at Jhol in May.

Charadrius mongolus Pallas. Lesser Sand Plover

As stated by Ticehurst, this is one of the commonest, if not the com-
monest, wader wintering on the coast, but, according to him, unknown
in the rest of Sind. In the spring of 1965, there was a sizeable passage
through the more saline jheel margins of Lower Sind. On May 16,
it was the commonest wader at Jhol, mostly in moult, but with a few
in full breeding plumage. On May 28, there was a party of 30 in a
saline mud-flat by the road to the barrage at Hyderabad. Numbers
were declining by May 30, with some 50 at Jhol and 100 at Hadeiro,
and the last seen was one at Hyderabad on June 12. These records —

[18]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 551

were during a period of inland passage of several species of coastal
waders.

Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus). Whimbrel
A visitor to the coast, mostly as a passage migrant, we have seen one
at Kalri Lake as early as July 18.

Numenius arquata (Linnaeus). Curlew ' |

A common winter visitor to the coast, and to jheels near the coast,
where flocks of a hundred or more may be seen, but rather scarce and
local elsewhere in Sind.

Limosa limosa (Linnaeus). Blacktailed Godwit

An abundant winter visitor to jheels, where flocks of hundreds, or
even thousands, are encountered in suitable terrain. Several hundreds
were present at Kalri, Jhol and Hadeiro lakes in the second half of
May, 1965 (with most birds having only limited amounts of the summer
dress showing through). At the end of June, there was still some 150
on these waters, but less than a quarter of that in July ; numbers were
rising again by mid-August.

Limosa lapponica (Linnaeus). Bartailed Godwit

A winter visitor to the coast, but neither Ticehurst nor we saw it
inland. However, Roberts has a record from Kandhkot.

_. Tringa erythropus (Pallas). Spotted Redshank

A common winter visitor. It is strange that Ticehurst found it very
rare in Lower Sind, as it seems now to be just as common as further
north, and occasionally figures as one of the commonest waders at
shallow, reedy jheels. They become scarce later in April, but the few
that stay around, through to late-May, are in fine summer plumage.

Tringa totanus (Linnaeus). Common Redshank

A fairly common winter visitor, widely distributed in rather small
numbers. Apart from a few on the coast, our extreme dates are August |
and May 15.

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein). Marsh Sandpiper

It was not until early March, 1965, that we became aware of this
species, and from then to about mid-April, they were seen commonly,
in parties of 30 or so, and sometimes numbering up to 200 along about
a mile of the nearly dry Pinyari Canal. Odd birds linger through to
June, and the return migration commenced at the end of July. It would
appear to be more of a passage migrant than a winter visitor.

[49]

552. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus). Greenshank .

A common and widely distributed visitor, especially on passage.
They are met with in groups or small parties, although combined num-
bers may be quite high on any one stretch of water. Very few remain
through June, but in 1965 the return passage was heard to commence
on July 20, (during a night thunderstorm).

Tringa ochropus Linnaeus. Green Sandpiper

A very common visitor, with one or two birds to be found round
every patch of stagnant water. Probably a greater number are passage
migrants than winter visitors, and in Lower Sind at least, they are never
as common as the Wood Sandpiper. Very few birds remain through
May, although we were very surprised to find a flock of some 40 at
Habibkot, near Sukkur, on June 26; the return passage is well under
way by mid-July, although they are not widespread until August.

Tringa glareola Linnaeus. Wood Sandpiper

A winter visitor, and very abundant passage migrant ceeuen April
to about the third week of May, and early August to about October,
when the margins of jheels and the rice-fields are alive with their ringing
calls. However, the spring passage was noted to be much less prominent
in Upper Sind. We have no records of birds over-summering, but in
1965 the first arrivals were heard with the Greenshank on July 20.

Tringa terek (Latham). Terek Sandpiper
A common winter visitor to the coast, which we never found inland.

Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus. Common Sandpiper

A widely distributed visitor, in comparatively small numbers, from
the end of July to mid-May, on rivers and open margins of jheels. They
are very common in the mangrove swamps at Karachi, resting on the
mangroves or on boats at high tide.

Arenaria interpres (Linnaeus). Turnstone
A winter visitor to the coast, Ticehurst states that it is unknown
inland in Sind. We did, however, find solitary birds in breeding plum-
age, at Jhol on May 16 and at Hyderabad on May 28, during the period
of inland passage of coastal waders already referred to. :

Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). Fantail Snipe
Very common winter visitor. [We have no records of the Pintail
Snipe (C. stenura), which is recorded by Ticehurst.]

Capella minima (Briinnich). Jack Snipe
Winter visitor, less common than the previous species.
[20]

ae,

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 533

‘Scolopax rusticola Linnaeus. Woodcock
Recorded by Ticehurst as a very rare straggler ; we have no records.

[Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield). Eastern Knot

- We have no records of this winter visitor to the coast, but Roberts
states that it is not uncommon near Karachi, up to late-April.]

Calidris albus (Pallas). Sanderling

A winter visitor to the coast, which we rarely visited, but a few were
seen near Karachi on May 23, in various plumage phases.

Calidris minutus (Leisler). Little Stint

Calidris temminckii (Leisler). Temminck’s Stint

These two stints are treated together, being confusing in the field
unless carefully separated. Both are abundant in winter and on passage
on the muddy edges of pools and jheels. Quite large flocks are en-
countered at times of passage (e.g. 500 on a pool near Hyderabad on
May 15, and already 100 there“on July 27). From the end of March,
stints are beginning to develop summer plumage.

Calidris alpinus (Linnaeus). Dunlin

A common winter visitor to the coast, where odd birds over-summer
(some in summer plumage) ; they are not very common inland, although
we saw small parties in Lower Sind in May (latest date, May 30); on
May 23 at Hadeiro, they were one of the commonest small waders, in
tight, noisy, high-flying flocks of up to 100 birds, mostly in summer
dress. Like many waders, they tend to keep together in these wild little
flocks in April and May.

Calidris testaceus (Pallas). Curlew-Sandpiper

Like the Dunlin, these are met with inland in Lower Sind on passage,
in May (latest date, May 28) and August (earliest date, July 27). These
passage birds are nearly all in summer plumage. A few over-summer
on the coast in winter dress.

[Limicola falcinellus (Pontoppidan). Broadbilled Sandpiper
We have no records of this coastal wintering species. ]

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus). Ruff

Comparatively few over-winter, but on December 15, there was a
party of several hundred at a small pool near Jati. They are more
commonly seen on passage, from mid-August to October, and late-
February to mid-April, generally in small parties, and never in breeding

[21]

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

plumage. Our latest date is April 18, considerably earlier than most
waders, and they are later to arrive in the autumn.

Phalaropus lobatus (Linnaeus). Rednecked Phalarope

According to Ticehurst, a common winter visitor to the seas off
Sind, and regular inland on autumn passage, but he adds that ‘ on spring
passage they naturally do not halt ’, and he only saw one inland at that
season. We saw a few at Hyderabad in September, whereas there was
a sizeable inland passage in May 1965. There were 28 at Hadeiro on
May 23, 20 at Hyderabad on May 28, and up to 80 at Jhol on May 30
(but none at Hadeiro). Many were in breeding dress. They were
very tame, allowing a close approach as they swam in circles in shallow
water.

Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus). Painted Snipe

A rather rare and local bird, our few records are all in May and
June, when several were seen around shallow jheels or in flooded grass
in the riverain areas at Sukkur and Hyderabad. An adult male with
four well-grown chicks was seen on June 5, but none were seen there
after June 12. Roberts has seen it at Manchar, and regularly at Kandh-
kot, in winter.

Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus). Blackwinged Stilt

A very common winter visitor, from August to May, with many also
resident. They are seen in parties or occasionally flocks of a hundred
or more, and are widely dispersed over the small jheels and even village
ponds. A concentration of some 200 in the seepage zone at Kalri Lake
on June 27 suggests that some over-summering birds do not breed, but
most in summer are spread out in their territories. In May, birds were
seen incubating on small mud mounds in a drying-up pool at Hyderabad,
and a family of 4 young chicks was seen there on June 12. The families
are fully grown and becoming dispersed by mid-July. —

Recurvirostra avosetta Linnaeus. Avocet

According to Ticehurst, this is a winter visitor and passage migrant,
and apart from a solitary bird on June 22, his extreme dates are August
28 and May 24. However, since it breeds in the Great Rann of Kutch,
it is perhaps not surprising that we found large flocks in the Tatta area
in the summer of 1965. In fact there were some 620 at Hadeiro on
May 30, and a few on adjacent waters. At the end of June and July,
numbers were down to about 100 at Kalri, Jhol and Hadeiro (but 38
were seen near Larkana on June 25), and only solitary birds were Pre:
sent in August. By contrast, we have few winter records ! | !

[22]

THE BIRDS OF SIND: A REVIEW 555

_ [Dromas ardeola Paykull. Crab Plover
~ Like Ticehurst we did not find this species, although there are records
from the coast. ]

Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus). Stone Curlew.

Apparently a resident bird, we have few records, although they are
readily overlooked and may, in fact, be quite common in the sandy,
tamarisk areas along the Indus. There were apparently two pairs
present on an island just below Sukkur barrage in the summer of 1964,
although we could never establish that they were breeding. The only
other record-is of one in February at Sann, on the Indus below Sehwan.

Esacus magnirostris (Vicillot). Great Stone Plover

As stated by Ticehurst, this is probably a rare resident bird along
the sandy islands of the Indus, and on the coast. We only saw them
twice (3 at Sukkur in June, and 1 at Ghizri Creek, Karachi, in April),
but probably many more would be found if more of the Indus was
readily accessible.

[Cursorius cursor (Latham). Creamcoloured Courser

We never saw this courser, which would appear from Ticehurst’s
notes to be a not uncommon winter visitor. ]

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin). Indian Courser

A fairly common but local resident in Lower Sind, we never found
any in Upper Sind. In the south, their favourite haunts are rather bare,
stoney desert scrub (although, as Ticehurst comments, their distribution
is patchy), or, east of the Indus, on rather sandy fallow or uncultivated
land. They are usually seen singly or in very small parties, and a chick
was seen near Badin in late-May.

Glareola pratincola (Linnaeus). Collared Pratincole

According to Ticehurst, a summer visitor from March to September
in Lower Sind, with breeding colonies around the Tatta lakes and the
eastern Nara. We saw none at the former locality, but they were quite
common in June along Sir Creek (south of Jati), and between Manchar
Lake and Sehwan (although the latter birds had deserted the area by
August 14). They may well have been breeding in these localities,
Wandering birds were also seen in June near Hyderabad and Sujawal.
The Sind birds are presumed to be G. p. pratincola.

Glareola lactea Temminck. Small Indian Pratincole
This bird is common enough along the Indus, although Ticehurst
rarely saw it, but is apparently a summer visitor, as apart from a few at
Hyderabad in October, our records are confined to late March to late-
[23]

556 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

June. In 1964, they were common on the Indus at Sukkur in May and
June, but had vanished by July 1, when the river had risen. Their
behaviour along the Sukkur waterfront at dusk reminded us rather of
bats. At Hyderabad, a colony of about 100 birds was found on the
sand banks below the barrage on March 30, where there had been none
on February 9. At the end of March, a nest with one egg and another
with two chicks were found. By the end of April, they appeared to
have finished breeding, the birds were more dispersed, the river was
rising rapidly, and no juveniles could be found.

(to be continued)

[24]

-Pseudodissochaeta: A new Genus of
Melastomataceae

BY

M. P. NAYAR!

Industrial Section, Indian Museum, Botanical Survey of India,
Calcutta-13

(With a map and four text-figures)

The genus Pseudodissochaeta is proposed for the homogeneous group of
species, namely, Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar, P. subsessilis
(Craib) Nayar, P. /lanceata Nayar and P. septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Nayar,
belonging to the tribe Dissochaeteae of the family Melastomataceae. They
are small trees or shrubs having eight equal or subequal isomorphous stamens
which are dorsally appendiculate and ventrally biauriculate. The genus com-
prises four species extending from N.E. India through Upper Burma, southern
China, North Thailand, N. Vietnam to Hainan. The new combinations are
P. assamica (C. B. Cl.) Nayar, P. subsessilis (Craib) Nayar and P. septentrionalis
(W. W. Smith) Nayar. <A new species P. lanceata Nayar is described from
Hainan.

INTRODUCTION

_ The family Melastomataceae comprises about 220 genera and 5300
species and is mainly confined to the tropical and subtropical regions,
avoiding deserts, and attaining prolific growth in the rain forest regions
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. More than
one half of the world’s genera (about 120) and two-thirds (about 3353)
of the total number of species are confined to the New World. The
melastomataceous flora of Asia consists of 65 genera and about 1300
species. The author has carried out a taxonomic study of several genera
in the Family Melastomataceae. The present paper deals with the
new genus Pseudodissochaeta belonging to the tribe Dissochaeteae Triana
of the family Melastomataceae.

Pseudodissochaeta gen. nov.

_ Pertinet ad Dissochaeteas Triana, affinisque Dissochaetae Blume, a
qua tamen differt habitu erecto, connectivo vix producto, staminibus
ventraliter biauriculatis.

e Present address: Central National Herbarium, Botanic Garden P.O., Howrah-3,

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Frutex erectus. Rami subteretes vel angulati vel quadrangulares,
subglabri vel setosi. Folia opposita, lanceata vel oblongo-lanceata,
ad basin subrotundata vel imaequaliter auriculata, ad apicem acumi-
nata, ad ‘margines minute denticulata vel serrata, supra glabra vel juve-
nilia minute brunneo-puberula, subtus ad nervos furfuracea vel parce
setosa, 5-7 nervia, chartacea vel membranacea, petiolata vel subsessilia.
Inflorescentia terminalis vel axillaris, glabra vel parce furfuracea ; flores
in paniculas terminales vel cymas laterales multifloras vel paucifloras
dispositi. Bracteae parvae, subulatae. Calycis tubus campanulatus,
limbo obscure -4-lobato vel subtruncato. Petala 4,-ovata vel ovato-
oblonga. Stamina 8, aequalia vel subaequalia ; antherae linearifal-
catae vel subulatae, breves vel elongatae, 1-porosae, connectivo ad basin
vix producto, antice 2-auriculato et postice calearato. Ovarium calycis
tubo fixum per septa transversa 8, ‘loculis 8’ usque ad dimidium vel
basin descendentibus. Stylus filiformis, glaber, stigmate punctiformi.
Bacca subglobosa, glabra vel parce furfuracea. Semina plura, ovoidea
vel subcuneata. 7 :

SPECIES TYPICA SEQUENS.

Erect shrub. Branches subterete or angular or subquadrangular,
subglabrous or hairy. Leaves opposite, lance-shaped or oblong-lan-
ceate, base subrotundate or unequally auriculate, apex acuminate, margin
minutely denticulate or serrate, upper surface glabrous and when young
minutely brownish puberulous, under surface along the nerves fur-
furaceous or sparsely setose, 5-7 nerved, chartaceous or membranaceous,
petiolate or subsessile. Inflorescence terminal or axillary, glabrous or
sparsely furfuraceous ; flowers in terminal panicles or lateral cymes,
few or many flowered. Bracts small, subulate. Calyx tube campanu-
late, limb obscurely 4-lobed or subtruncate. Petals 4, ovate or ovate-
oblong. Stamens 8, equal or subequal, anther linear-falcate or subulate,
1-porose, connective basally scarcely produced, dorsally calcarate and
ventrally 2-auriculate. Ovary adherent to the calyx tube by 8 septa,
extra-ovarial chambers 8, all descending to the middle or to the base of
the ovary. Style filiform, glabrous, stigma punctiform. Berry sub-
globose, glabrous or sparsely furfuraceous. Seeds numerous, ovoid or
subcuneate. : |

TYPE SPECIES: Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar..

The genus Pseudodissochaeta is proposed for the homogeneous group
of species i.e. P. assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar, P. subsessilis (Craib) Nayar,
P. lanceata Nayar and P. septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Nayar. They
are erect shrubs belonging to the tribe Dissochaeteae having eight equal
or subequal stamens, hardly produced connectives which are dorsally
calcarate and ventrally biauriculate, and having eight extra-ovarial

Distribution of genus Pseudodissochaeta Nayar

HE | P. lanceata, Nayar
4 P. subsessilis Craib)Nayar|

| P. na | !

[se | P. septentrionalis
(W.W. Synith) Nayar

90° 1G0°
Map. Distribution of genus Pseudodissochaeta Nayar.

A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE 59

chambers descending to the middle or to the base of the ovary. Whereas
the allied genus Dissochaeta Bl. are climbers having 4 equal, or 8 equal
or unequal stamens which are dorsally calcarate and ventrally bisetose.

_ Distribution: North-east India, Upper Burma, South China, North
Thailand, Laos, N. Vietnam and Hainan. (Map)

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Pseudodissochaeta

1. Inflorescence in terminal branched many-flowered panicles ; leaves lanceate
or oblong-lanceate, 10-20 « 2°5-6°5 cm.

2. Connective not produced, branches quadrangular, calyx tube ribbed :

3. Anther 5'5-6 mm. long; flowers 6°5-8 x 3-3°5 mm.; leaves 5-7
nerved, cross-venules distinct and close, leaf mainly glabrous, nerves
on the under surface sparsely setose, leaves shortly petioled, petiole
MOtmorerthan -d MIM. 1ON—. |) cab cis wee oc ele owe ete P. assamica

3. Anther 2°5-3 mm. long; flowers 4°5x2°5 mm. ; leaves 3-5 nerved,
cross-venules distinct and distant, leaf mainly glabrous, nerves on
the under surface softly pubescent, leaves subsessile, petiole not
MOLE ailaaineo eT TONES eas «My siclc ole pikes Sie che eos og: P. subsessilis

2. Connective shortly produced, 0°5 mm. long, branches subterete, calyx
tube not ribbed, leaf distinctly petiolate, petiole 8-10 mm. long. .P. lanceata

1. Inflorescence in terminal and axillary few-flowered cymes, leaf ovate-lanceate
or /) elliptic-lanceate,).G°5-8 X2°5-3°S) CM is le ed eee P. septentrionalis

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

1. Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar comb. nov. (Text-
fig. 1.) Anplectrum assamicum C.B.Cl. in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2:
546, 1879 ; C. B. Clarke in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 25: 23, 1889;
Kanj.: &, Das, ‘Fl. Assam .2: 303, 1938. Type: India, C. B.
Clarke 42323 (Holotype K, isotypes K, E, BM, CAL). Diplectria
_assamica (C.B.Cl.) O. Kuntze, Revis. Gen. Pant 1 : 246, 1891.

Distribution : North-east India and North Burma.

InpiA. Assam: Muneypore, alt. 255 m., 30 Nov. 1885, C. B. Clarke
42323 (K, E, BM, CAL) ; Siboaga Dist., Desai Reserve, alt. 350 m.,
24 Dec. 1912, Kanjilal 2026 (CAL) ; Khasi hills, Herb. Kurz s.n.
(L); Margodda, G. Watt 11906 (E); Akha hills, Jan. 1890,
Dr. King’s Collector 71 (CAL); Upper Dihing Reserves, 8 Jul.
1959, Panigrahi 18812 (ASSAM) ; Naga hills, Griffith [Kew Dist.
No. 2285 (K)]; sine loc. Herb. Nuttal (K). BHUTAN: Herb.

Griffith 2285 (CAL) ; ibid. Herb. Griffith 2018 (K, BM) ; Dupha

hills, 11 Dec, 1874, Lister 71 (CAL); Digboi, Mar. 1935,

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Mrs. D. E. Bernard M.D. 36 (BM). BuRMA. Upper Burma:
Nam Tamai Valley, alt. 1000 m. 27 Aug. 1938, R. Kaulback 95
(BM) ; valley of the Mali Hka, alt, 333 m.-1666 m., 17 Aug. 1937,

ra
Cs
><) av.
y Nes

ae: a2
Dy A OR

Ra

y ee O)
cH 4 2

>. | 3

yee

i)

mM,
fer
= @)
D

i.
INN
mevsr eee:

Yi

IN

hemes
SY AN ty
“LL

Ny)

SA

EE

q SoS 3
* f v Wh 7 ~
ae) ee Cam
4 ie e sss
Vm p pry Le | 5 ;

a =; UN
ay eee SS
fp . roman nee ey
“Re

Fig. 1. Pseudodissochaeta assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar.
A. Habit. B. Petal. C. Stamen—side view. D. Stamen-ventral view.

Kingdon-Ward 12818 (BM) ; Kachin State, Hpuginhku, path side
of Hpuginhku River, Sumprabum sub. div., alt. 1666-2000 m., |
31 Dec. 1961, J. Keenan, U Tan Aung, & W. Tha Hla 3110 (K); |
Kajen hap, alt, 1000 m., Feb, 1912, S. M, Toppin 6199 (CAL).

A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE S61

In 1879 C. B. Clarke (in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 546, 1879) des-
cribed the species Anplectrum assamicum and assigned it to the list of
doubtful species. However, in 1889 C. B. Clarke (in Journ. Linn. Soc.
25: 23, 1889) emended the description and remarked as follows: ‘I
described imperfectly this plant in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India ii p. 546 from
Griffith’s Kew Distribution No. 2285 which has no flowers. As the
genera Anplectrum and Dissochaeta are diagnosed by the appendages
at the base of the anthers I placed the plant in Anplectrum with doubt.
But since I have seen the plant in full flower alive the doubt is rather
increased ; for it will not go either into Anplectrum or Dissochaeta unless
the characters of one of these genera be widened.’ It is seen that the
generic limits of the two genera have not been widened but instead approp-
riately reduced on the basis of the depth of the extra-ovarial chambers
and on the nature of the stamens and staminal appendages. On this
basis Bakhuizen van den Brink jr. (in Meded. Bot. Mus. & Herb. Rijks.
Univ. Utrecht 91: 41,1943) separated the genera Diplectria Reichenb.
and Neodissochaeta Bakh. f. from the genus Dissochaeta Bl. Anplec-
trum assamicum differs from the genus Anplectrum A. Gray (Backeria
Bakh. f.) in the nature of the extra-ovarial chambers and the stamens.
In Backeria the extra-ovarial chambers are confined to the upper one-
fourth of the ovary and the four fertile anthers are ovoid and inappen-
diculate. While in this taxon the extra-ovarial chambers descend to
the base of the ovary and the stamens are fertile and linear-falcate and
the connective dorsally ends in an appendage and ventrally ends in two
auricles. In the nature of the extra-ovarial chambers this taxon is
allied to Dissochaeta Bl\., but differs in the nature of staminal appen-
dages.

2. Pseudodissochaeta subsessilis (Craib) Nayar comb. nov. (Text-
fig. 2.) Allomorphia subsessilis Craib in Kew Bull. 1913 : 69, 1913;
Idem, Fl. Siam Enum. 1: 686, 1931. Type: Siam, Kerr 2427
(Holotype K, isotypes BM, E)

Small tree, about 45 m. high. Branches quadrangular, nodes,
leaf-axils and petioles pilose pubescent. Leaves opposite, subsessile,
14-18°5 x 3-4-2 cm., oblong-lanceate or lanceate, base unequally auri-
culate, apex acuminate, margin minutely denticulate, upper surface
minutely brownish puberulous when young, glabrous later on, lower
surface mainly glabrous, nerves on the lower surface softly brownish
pubescent, 5-nerved, cross-venules distinct, chartaceous ; petiole 1-2 mm.
long. Inflorescence paniculate, terminal, 18-28 cm. long, peduncle
quadrangular, sparsely brownish pubescent ; flowers 4-merous, pedicel
subangular,.0°8-1 mm. long, softly brownish pubescent ; bracteole 1-2 mm.
long. Calyx tube campanulate, 3-35 mm. long, glabrate, 8-ribbed,
shortly 4-dentate. Petals 4, 2°5-3x3 mm. Stamens 8, subequal, fila-

562 =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

ment 2 mm. long, anther 2°5-3 mm. long, connective not produced, —
dorsally ends in a thick short appendage 0°4 mm. long, ventrally ends in

Fig. 2. Pseudodissochaeta subsessilis (Craib) Nayat. a
A. Habit. B. Stamen—side view. . |

two auricles 0°3 mm. long. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube by |
8 septa, extra-ovarial chambers 8, all descending to the middle of the |
ovary. Style 5-7 mm. long, filiform, glabrous, stigma hardly con-
spicuous. Berry subglobose, 6x5 mm., glabrous. Seeds cuneate,
0:5 mm. long, numerous. 4

Distribution: North Thailand and Laos.
THAILAND. Maharat : Doi Wao, alt. 300-900 m., Kerr 2427 (K, E,
BM); Doi Tiv (Nam), alt. 300 m., Kerr 5042 (BM, K); Dai pha
Ngua, near Ban Pa Kuei, alt. 1030 m., Garrett 134 (K, BM);

|

A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE 563

Nan nam Muk, alt. 320 m., Winit 1768 (K) ; Lampang ni Katrid,
Winit 1895 (K). ;
Laos. Wiengeham, Barikhane, alt. 200 m., 28 Mar. 1932, Kerr 20779
(K, BM); 50 miles north of Vientiane, alt. 650 m., Nov. 1956,
L. G. Holliday D. 11 (BM).

‘Craib established the species Allomorphia subsessilis on the basis of
specimen Kerr 2427. The genus Allomorphia Bl. comes under
the tribe Oxysporeae characterised by its capsular fruits. Kerr
2427 are without fruits though they are otherwise good specimens.
While studying the herbarium sheets of Allomorphia subsessilis Craib
at Kew, it was noted that the specimen Winit 1768 has well developed
baccate fruits; whereas the genus A//lomorphia has capsular fruits. How-
ever, Craib (in Fl. Siam Enum. 1 : 686, 1931) assigned the specimen
Winit 1768 to A. subsessilis and it is presumed that he might have over-
looked the presence of baccate fruits. A. subsessilis Craib is transferred
to the newly proposed genus Pseudodissochaeta because of its baccate
fruits, characteristic stamens, the degree of concrescence of the ovary
with the calyx tube and the nature of its habit.

3. Pseudodissochaeta lanceata sp.nov. (Text fig. 3).

Arcte affinis P. assamicae (C.B.Cl.) Nayar, sed ramis subteretibus,
petiolis longioribus, calycis tubo haud costato, connectivo 0°5 mm.
longo differt.

Frutex. Rami juveniles subquadrangulares, subglabri, adulti teretes.
Folia \anceata, 12-20 x 3-6°5 cm., rotundata vel obtusa ad basin, acumi-
nata ad apicem, ad margines serrata, glabra, 5-nervia, venulis transversis
haud conspicuis, membranacea; petioli 8-10 mm. longi. Jnflores-
centia paniculata, 25-35 cm. longa, sparse puberula, pedunculi angulares,
compressiusculi, puberuli ; flores tetrameri; bracteae 0°83 mm. longae,
parvae ; pedicelli 3-4 mm. longi, puberuli. Calycis tubus campanulatus,
5-5°5 mm. longus, sparse puberulus, limbo subtruncato. Petala 4,
ovato-oblonga, 6-73 mm., apice obtusa, alba (teste — collectore).
Stamina 8, aequalia, filamentis 4°5-5 mm. longis, antheris lanceato-
falcatis, 6-7 mm. longis, rostratis, l-poris, connectivo 0°5 mm. longo,
dorso in calcar 0°8-1 mm. longum producto, in parte ventrali in auri-
culas duas 0°8 mm. longas exeunte. Ovarium calycis tubo fixum per
septa transversa 8, loculi 8, usque ad basin ovarii producti. Stylus
filiformis, 9-10°5 mm. longus, glaber, stigmate punctiformi. Fructus
ignotus. |

_ Typus: Hainan, Hong. Herb. No. 406 (K).

Shrub. Branches terete, when young subquadrangular and sub-
glabrous. Leaves lanceate, 12-20 3-6°5 cm., base rounded or obtuse,
apex acuminate, margin serrate, glabrous, 5-nerved, transverse venules
not Sena membranaceous ; petiole 8-10 mm. long. Inflores-

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

cence paniculate, 25-35 cm. long, sparsely puberulous, peduncle angular
and somewhat compressed, puberulous; flowers 4-merous ;. bracts

Seukhonn o

3

\F
A
A

rye nage VA | |

Fig. 3. Pseudodissochaeta lanceata sp. nov.
A. Habit. B. Stamen—side view. C.L.S. of Calyx tube.

0°8 mm. long, small; pedicel 3-4 mm. long, puberulous. Calyx tube
campanulate, 5-5°5 mm. long, sparsely puberulous, limb subtruncate.
Petals 4, ovate-oblong, 6-73 mm. apex obtuse, white (ex collector).
Stamens 8, equal, filament 4°5-5 mm. long, anther lanceate-falcate,
6-7 mm. long, rostrate, 1-porose, connective 0°5 mm. long, dorsally

A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE 565

ends in 0°8-1 mm. long appendage and ventrally ends in two 0°8 mm.
long auricles. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube by 8 septa, extra-
ovarial chambers 8, all descending to the base of the ovary. Style fili-
form, 9-10°5 mm. long, glabrous, stigma punctiform.

Distribution : Hainan.
HAINAN. Hong Ta, July 1893, Hong. Herb. No. 406 (Holotype K)

This species is closely allied to P. assamica (C.B.Cl.) Nayar, but
differs in having subterete branches, unribbed calyx tube, comparatively
long petioled leaves and shortly produced connective (0°5 mm. long).
P.lanceata Nayar is endemic to the island of Hainan, whereas P. assamica
occurs in N.E. India and Upper Burma.

Merril and Chun (in Sunyatsenia 5: 144, 1940) appropriately sug-
gested that ‘ Anplectrum sp.’ enumerated in Lingnam Sc. Journ. 5 : 138,
1928 based on Hong. Herb. No. 406 is apparently a representative of
some other genus.

4. Pseudodissochaeta septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Nayar comb. nov.
(Text-Fig. 4) Oritrephes septentrionalis W. W. Smith in Journ.
As. Soc. Beng. N. S. 7: 69, 1911; Type: Burma, Macgregor
751 (Lectotype E). Medinilla caerulescens Guillaum. in Lecomte,
Fl. Indo-China 2: 921, 1921; Craib, Fl. Siam. Enum. 1: 699,
1931. Medinilla caerulescens Guillaum. var. nuda Craib, Fl. Siam:
Enum. 1: 699, 1931; Type: Siam, . Kerr 5787 (Holotype K,
isotype BM). Anplectrum yunnanense Kranzl. in Viert. Nat. Ges.
moricn 76: 153, 1933) Type; Yunnan, \China,, Henry 11705
(Isotypes K, E). Medinilla septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Li in
Journ. Arn. Arb. 25: 38, 1944.

Shrub about 3 m. in height. Branches terete, glabrous, sparsely
puberulous at the nodes. Leaves ovate-lanceate, 6°5-8 cm. x 2°5-3°5 cm.,
base obtuse or subcuneate, apex acuminate, acumen 1°2-1°8 cm. long,
margin distantly serrate, glabrous on the upper and lower surface,
5-nerved, 3 prominent nerves and 2 faint marginal nerves, membran-
aceous ; petiole 5-7 mm. long. Inflorescence in terminal or axillary cymes,
3-4°5 cm. long, main axis slightly compressed, glabrous excepting at
the nodes ; bracts minute, 0°2 mm. long ; pedicel 1-2 cm. long. Calyx
tube campanulate, 5-6 mm. long, sparsely ciliate, deciduous, bristles
1°5 mm. long, otherwise glabrous, 8-ribbed, limb undulate. Petals 4,
oblong, 5-5°53°5-4 mm. Stamens 8, subequal, filament 6-6°5 mm.
long, anther linear-falcate, 7-8 mm. long, apex acuminate-attenuate,
l-porose, connective shortly produced 0°4 mm. long, dorsally ends in
a triangular appendage, 0°6 mm. long and ventrally ends in two small
auricles, 0°5 mm. long. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube by 8

3 f

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

5 a =| Be ea fn
ANAWMMO

Fig. 4. Pseudodissochaeta septentrionalis (W. W. Smith) Nayar.
A. Habit. B. Stamen—side view. C. L.S. of Calyx tube.

A NEW GENU§ OF MELASTOMATACEAE 567

septa, extra-ovarial chambers 8, all descending to the base of the ovary.
Style 9-11 mm. long, filiform, glabrous, stigma punctiform. Berry
globose-ovoid, 6-7 4-5 mm., glabrous. Seeds minute, 0°6 mm. long,
numerous.

Distribution ; Upper Burma, S. China, N. Thailand and N. Vietnam.

BurMa. S. Shanan, Macgregor 751 (E). CHINA... Yunnan ; Szemao,
alt. 1666 m., Henry 11705 (K, E); Szemao & Mengtze, alt.
1666 m., Henry 11705 A (K, E) ; ibid. alt. 1333 m., Henry 11705 B
(K, E); ibid. Henry 11705 C (K, E, BM); hills around Lung
fan, alt. 2000 m., Forrest 27163 (E, K); 5s. /. alt. 2000 m., Aug.
1885, Forrest 26642 (E). THAILAND: Rachasima: Korat, Kao
Lem, alt. c. 1000 m., 11 Jan. 1925, Kerr 9932 (K, BM); ibid.
Put 3569 (K) ; Udawan: Dan sai, Pu Lom lo, alt. c. 1200 m.,
Kerr 5787 (K, BM) ; Maharat : Nan Do Pu Ka, alt. c. 1300 m.,
25 Feb. 1921, Kerr 4913 (K, BM); Chiengamai: Doi Nang ka,
Put 3401 & 3761 (K). N. VieETNAM. Tonkin: Sai Wong Mo
Shan, Long Wgong village, Tsang 30462 (K); ibid. Lung wan
village, Tsang 30024 (K); ibid. near Chut Phai, Tsang 29118 &
29163 (K) ; Chuk Phai, Tsang 27021 (K) ; N.E. of Mon cay, Pac-
sa and vicinity, Tsang 26929 (K).

W. W. Smith (1911) included Oritrephes _ septentrionalis, in
Oritrephes Ridley, a Malayan genus of the tribe Oxysporeae characterised
by their capsular fruits. The species has baccate fruits and should
belong to the tribe Dissochaeteae. Guillaumin’s (1921) Medinilla caer-
ulescens was later found to be conspecific with Smith’s Oritrephes
septentrionalis and Kranzlin (1931) proposed a new binomial Anplectrum
yunnanense for the same taxon. The fact that different botanists inde-
pendently assigned the same taxon to the following genera i.e. Oritrephes,
Medinilla and Anplectrum, indicates the difficulty in determining its
taxonomic position. Though Li (in Journ. Arn. Arb. 25 : 38, 1944)
followed Guillaumin in assigning this taxon to Medinilla, it is interesting
to note his comments: ‘it is somewhat anomalous in the genus.’

In the genus Medinilla the extra-ovarial chambers descend to the
middle of the ovary, whereas in this taxon the extra-ovarial chambers
descend to the middle or to the base of the ovary. However the nature
of its habit, and its characteristic staminal appendages indicate that it
should appropriately find its place in the new genus Pseudodissochaeta
Nayar.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to Sir George Taylor, Director, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, for all facilities during my stay at Kew from
1961-67. I am indebted to the authorities of the following Herbaria
for their hospitality during my visits and for the loan of herbarium
specimens: The Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh ;
Rijksherbarium, Leiden ; The British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London.
My thanks are also due to the Director of the Botanical Survey of India,
Rev. Fr. Dr. H. Santapau for his encouragement.

Feeding habits of the fish Megalops
cyprinoides Broussonet, in the
Cooum backwaters, Madras

BY

THAVAMANI J. PANDIAN!

Zoological Research Laboratory, University of Madras,
Madras

(With three text-figures)

The feeding of the fish, Megalops cyprinoides seems to be concentrated on
a few key species so that within the community only the populations of these
species suffer predation. Changes in feeding succession in relation to size
are related not only to food preferences but also to availability of food.
Feeding intensity, as assessed from the stomach contents, was more or less
uniform throughout the year. It varied between 0°7 and 0°8% body weight.
Because of the uniform temperature conditions prevailing in the tropics,
temperature effects on feeding intensity seems to be less pronounced. A
single peak observed during the monsoon months is attributed to a greater
abundance of food in the environment. In some months, the fish stops
feeding during the day time and probably temperature fluctuations may
have some bearing on the feeding periodicity.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that the fishes feed intensively during spring and
summer in temperate waters (Allen 1940). This fact has been related
to the abundance of food supply by Hardy et al. (1936) and later by
Ricker (1937) to the combined effect of food supply ana temperature. In
tropical waters of India, however, temperature is uniformly higher than
the maxima in higher latitudes and the seasonal differences are less
marked ; rather uniform organic productivity prevails throughout the
year (Ramamoorthy 1953 ; Bogorov 1960). To what extent such rela-
tive uniformity in food supply and temperature conditions influence
the intensity of feeding has received very little attention. The present
paper reports on the feeding habits ofa tropical fish, with special reference
to the factors influencing the feeding intensity.

1 Present address: Zoology Department, University of Bangalore, Bangalore,

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Megalops cyprinoides Broussonet (Elopidae) was collected from the
River Cooum, Madras, which is a shallow canal of 50 metre width and
2 metre depth, receiving in its course sewage effluents. It reaches the
sea close to the University Laboratory. Most of the year it is separated
from the sea by a sand bar. With the onset of monsoon, the water
level rises and the sand bar breaks, thus allowing the stream to flow
into the sea in late October or early November for a period of about
3 to 5 weeks. During the rest of the year the Cooum is more or less
stagnant. For topographic and hydrographic details consult Ganapati
(1964).

M. cyprinoides is distributed from Madagascar to the East Indies.
The juvenile fishes migrate into the backwaters of the east coast of
India, where they grow up to 300 to 400 gm. in weight but do not attain
maturity in these waters of low salinity (Job & Chacko 1947), and are
said to return to the sea. Larger fishes weighing 600 gm. or more,
have not so far been observed in the backwaters. The fish is available
in the Cooum backwaters in large numbers throughout the year.

The food and feeding habits of the fish were studied from July 1963
to June 1964 by analysing the stomach contents of 403 specimens measur-
ing 4:3 cm. to 31-7 cm. in standard length. Specimens were collected in
the early hours of the morning with a cast net operated from a cata-
maran which could catch about 30 to 40 individuals within an hour or
so. The fishes were brought to the laboratory, weighed and volume of
stomach contents in relation to the size of the fish was determined. The
various food contents were then analysed qualitatively and quanti-
tatively and the volume of different food fractions was measured by the
displacement method (see Hynes 1950; Pillay 1951).

OBSERVATIONS

Crustaceans, insects and fishes formed the major food items of the
fish M. cyprinoides. The crustaceans included, copepods Cyclops bicolor,
cladocerans, Daphnia sp. and the prawn, Metapenaeus monoceros and
insects, corixid bugs, Micronecta scutellaris and Notonecta sp., aquatic
beetles Dysticus sp., midge larvae and pupae of Chironomus sp., and
nymphs of Platycenemus sp. Fish included the fry of Chanos, Elops
and Therapon and the juveniles of Mugil and the adults of the genera
Barbus, Gambusia and Mystus. Other items of minor importance were
the eggs of crustaceans and rotifers and a number of species belonging
to the genus Brachionus. Stray occurrences of megalopa larvae of brach-
yuran crabs and the malacostracans Cirolina and Grandierrella were
also recorded, especially during the rainy season. Table 1 gives the

-

FOOD ORGANISMS (%.)

FEEDING HABITS OF MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES 571

seasonal variations in the Composition of different food fractions
(Fig. 1). The year can be arbitrarily divided into three periods namely,

JUL SEP NOV JAN MAR MAY

Fig. 1. Monthly variations in the food composition of Megalops
cyprinoides collected from July ’63 to June ’64 in the
Cooum backwaters, Madras.

Key : 4——A = Crustaceans ; 0....0 = Insects
x—— x = Fishes ; @—o—o—o@ = Miscellaneous

Rainy (August to November), Cold (December to March), and Hot
(April to July) Seasons with temperature characteristics of 27°, 25°,
and 30°C. respectively. The different food fractions characteristic of
a period (expressed in % of total food) have been considered as basic,
secondary and incidental food (Nikolsky 1963). It may be seen from
Table 2 that intensive feeding at any given period centred around a few

‘key species only. This observation conforms with those of Shorykin

(1939) and Darnell (1961), who have shown that in a community only
a few species suffer heavy losses from predatory fishes.

In the present investigation, only fishes measuring 4°5 to 31°7 cm.
in length were available for study. A comparison of the food com-
position of different size groups indicates that there was no marked
difference in the food preference in relation to size of the fish. The
smallest M. cyprinoides found in the Cooum backwaters were 4°5 cm.

in length; these were feeding mainly on planktonic organisms and

Chironomus and rarely on the fish Gambusia, A similar observation

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

has been reported in the case of larval and juvenile tarpon Megalops
atlantica by Harrington & Harrington (1960).

TABLE 1

MONTHLY VARIATIONS IN THE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MAJOR FOOD ITEMS OF
Megalops cyprinoides COLLECTED FROM THE COOUM BACKWATERS

Food
Month Crustaceans Insects Fishes Miscellaneous
& Year (%) CA) (%) (%)
July °63 54°64 45°36 — —
Aug. °63 46:90 43°00 — 10°10
Sep. °63 31°94 60°24 5°77 224
Oct. °63 45°18 16°12 28°61 10:08
Nov. °63 (51°76 10°60 21°98 15°66
Dec. °63 6°43 48-11 43-92 1°54
Jan. °64 17°40 79°80 2°80 _
Feb. °64 APD 66°08 24°80 1°30
Mar. °64 3°93 79°80 13°41 2°80
Apr. °64 64°31 32°45 —— 3°24
May ’°64 : 275:03 24:97 — as
June °64 76°67 23:33 — =
TABLE 2

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE FOOD COMPOSITION OF Megalops cyprinoides

Basic food Secondary food Incidental food
Period (25 to 75% (Sito 25% (less than
of total) of total) 5% of total)

Aug. to Nov. Micronecta, Cyclops, Dysticus,
(Rainy Season Metapenaeus Elops, Chanos, Brachionus
Temp -27°€.) Therapon
Dec. to Mar. Chironomus— Gambusia, Barbus, Notonecta
(Cold Season larvae & pupae . nymphs of Platy-
Temp. 25°C.) cenemus |
Apr. to. July Cyclops Micronecta, Brachionus _
(Hot Season Ostracods

Temp. ae

-- For a period of isouts seven “weeks during Ae rainy season ae the

middle of October till the early. December), when the sand. bar between |

the Cooum and the sea breaks, a large variety of larval and juvenile
forms of marine animals migrate into the Cooum, thereby increasing
the quantity and variety of food organisms available (Panikkar &
Aiyar 1939). To ascertain if. there was selective feeding among the
different size groups on these food organisms, the data obtained for. the

FEEDING HABITS OF .MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES agi)

months of October, November, and .December have been pooled ‘to-
gether. Four size groups, with a size range of 4:3-9°9 cm., 10°0-
14°9 cm., 15°0-24°9 cm., and 25°9-30°3 cm. were averaged and the mean
sizes obtained were 8°3, 12°5, 17:0, and 27°7 cm. in length, respectively,
(Table 3). It can be seen from Figure 2 that with an increase. in size,
there is a marked preference towards fish-food. Insects and crustaceans,
which formed more than 35% each in the first and second size groups,
are correspondingly reduced in the third and fourth size groups. Thus,
with increasing size, the fish passes through the feeding succession :
crustaceans —> insects — fishes. Similar feeding succession has also
been observed for carnivorous fishes like Esox lucius (Hunt & Carbine
1951). Difference in food preferences among the different size groups
may be an adaptation for an effective utilization of the increased
range of food supply (Nikolsky 1963).

The different food items of M. cyprinoides were arbitrarily divided
into microfauna comprising planktonic organisms and macrofauna
consisting of prawns, insects and fishes. There was a remarkable in-
crease in the macrofauna components eaten during the period, Septem-
ber to March, accompanied by a corresponding decrease in microfauna
(Table 4; Fig. 3). These changes can be attributed to the ease with
which the prey can be captured. For instance, fully ripe females of
‘Mystus and Barbus were often eaten in October and December, res-
pectively, but were absent in the stomach in other months, although
they were present in the Cooum. As the gonads ripen Mystus (Pandian
in press) and Barbus females, become sluggish and are perhaps easily
caught during October and December. The frequent occurrence of
jsopods and amphipods in the stomach of the fish only during Novem-
ber and December and not in other months, indicates that they move
to the surface from the muddy bottom because of flooding.

. TABLE 3

FOOD PROGRESSION IN DIFFERENT SIZE GROUPS OF Megalops cyprinoides
COLLECTED FROM OCTOBER TO DECEMBER 1963 IN THE COOUM BACKWATERS

Size group Total Crusta- Insects Fishes Miscella-
(body ‘ual examined — ceans (7%) Caioigata Car neous (%)
8-3 10 52923 iS? 18°10 17°10
"b2+5 32... \, 42:92 36625 11-30. ee
L7-0. ws) 33531 21eSY 40°54 4°56.
7 Ke “4: 11°45 Wi SoS —

34:80

_. During the. month of May, 14 individuals collected had empty
stomachs, but their.intestines were more or less gorged with food. The

574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

absence of food in the stomach of the fishes collected during this period
is probably due to their feeding at night, and the food having passed

60

90

FISHES

a
©

CRUSTACEANS

Food organisms (Js)
GW
©

... INSECTS

10

MISCELLANEOUS.

e
Se 0 enna

= .

~~

eee (0 15 20 25 -3e
Standard length of fish (cm)
Fig. 2. Food progression in different size groups of Megalops

cyprinoides collected from October to December 1963
in the Cooum backwaters, Madras.

into the intestine at the time of collection (6 a.m.). This assumption is
supported by the observation that collections made during the night
(11 p.m.) during this period showed stomachs full of copepods, ostracods,
corixid bugs etc. Similar results were recorded until the end of June.
The plankton collection made in the area during the day revealed that all _
the items consumed by the fish at night were present in the plankton, —

2)

FEEDING HABITS OF MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES

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‘376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Therefore, it may be inferred that the fish did not feed during the day not —

because of the non-availability of food, but for some other reasons,
which are not clear owing to lack of data on turbidity of water, diurnal
migrations of planktonic organisms and other factors. In Canadian
waters, cessation of feeding due to higher temperature during the day and
resumption of feeding during the night by the juveniles of Salmo salar
has been reported by Hoar (1942). :

The amount of food consumed by M. cyprinoides varied during the
different months of the year (Table 4; Fig. 3). Feeding intensity,
was low in July (0°318 % body weight), and increased steadily throughout
the rainy season reaching a maximum of 1°:784% body weight in
December. It declined (0°742% body weight) in January, but again
increased to 0°991°% body weight in February and remained at about
0°8°% body weight throughout the summer months. The fish fed inten-
sively from October to December. In other months, the intensity of
feeding was more or less uniform ; the variations being within a range of
0-7 to 08% body weight.

TABLE 4

MONTHLY VARIATIONS IN THE AMOUNT OF FOOD CONSUMED, OCCURRENCE
FREQUENCY OF MICROFAUNA, CONDITION FACTOR OF Megalops cyprinoides
AND CHANGES IN SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF THE COOUM BACKWATERS

Month & Total Food con- Occurrence Condition Tempera-
Year examined sumed (% frequency factor (K) ture of the
body wt.) of micro- Cooum (°C.)

fauna (%)

duly, 63 11 0°318 90-90 1-4540°15 28°5
Aug. °63 39 0°683 79°61 1:50+0°10 26°5
Sept. °63 AD) 0°392 37°19 15440714 29>
Oct. °63 38 0°908 15°79 1°5324:0°15 21>
Nov. °63 39 1:246 20°51 1:55+0°19 24°5
Dee. ; 763 32 1-784 0°00 1°59+0°17 24°5
Jan. °64 . 44 0°742 20°45 1°57+0°14 24°0
Feb. °64 33 0:991 15°38 1°53 +0°15 24°5
Mar. °64 30 0°558 ~ 20°00 1°47+0°07 25°3
Apr. 7°64 34 0°780 58°00 1:48 +0.04 28°0)
May °64 22 0-799 85°00 1°46+0°08 a)
June *64 20 0°785 100-00 1°5240°08 325

Intensive feeding, as during the monsoon period from October to
December may be accompanied by a change in growth of the fish. The
mean condition factor of M. cyprinoides as seen from Table 4, steadily

increased throughout the rainy season, reaching a maximum of 1°59 © |

in December. It then declined gradually during the cold. season and
remained more or less low during the hot season. Further, Figure 3
shows that the trends obtained for the condition factor and the feeding

FEEDING HABITS OF MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES 577

intensity are almost parallel to each other, indicating the effect of fluctua-
tions in the food supply, not only on the consumption of food but also
its resultant effect on the growth of the fish.

During the period of rapid growth, fishes and insects formed a major
proportion of the diet of M. cyprinoides. Hunt & Carbine (1951) showed
that an acceleration of growth of the fish Esox Jucius is associated with its
change over to fish diet. The selection of larger food organism by M.
cyprinoides during the period October to March (Table 4) is significant
as it helps the fish in cutting down the energy expenditure by capturing
fewer prey (see also Allen 1935; Nikolsky 1963). During this period
the condition factor of the fish was more than 1°5 (Fig. 3). Moreover,
Pandian (1967b) showed that the conversion rates of protein and total
food in M. cyprinoides is faster in individuals fed on Gambusia affinis
than those fed on Metapenaeus monoceros. In the present study, the
growth rate of M. cyprinoides, as indicated by the condition factor, is
faster during the rainy season when Gambusia and other small fishes
formed the main food than during the pre-monsoon period when Meta-
penaeus and other crustaceans were taken. During summer, the fish
feeds less and in most cases ostracods formed an important food source.
They were, however, not easily digested, since most of the ostracods
observed from the rectal content were intact with bivalved carapace.
Gerking (1962) reported that ostracods were found similarly in the lower

part of the intestine of Lepomis macrochirus. Apparently, ostracods
so common in the stomach of M. cyprinoides during the summer months
have little food value to the fish, and this may account for the relatively
lower value of the condition factor during these months.

DISCUSSION

It is seen that the quantity of food consumed by M. cyprinoides
was more or less uniform except for a marked increase during the
period October to December. Although previous studies, Job (1940),
Vijayaraghavan (1950, 195la, b, 1953) and Kuthalingam (1955a, b,
1956a, b) have been limited to the species composition and to the seasonal
changes of the diet of a number of coastal water fishes of Madras, their
data indicates a similar feature as has been observed in the present study.
A point to be noted is that the intensity of feeding, observed in M.
cyprinoides is not as pronounced as one finds in temperate fishes. It is
known that the intensity of feeding is influenced by the food supply,
temperature, and reproductive cycle of the fish (Ricker 1946). In the
present study, feeding habits refer to immature forms since mature M.
cyprinoides do not occur in the brackish waters of the Cooum. There-
fore, nothing can be said of the influence of breeding cycle on the feeding
rhythm. The surface water temperature of the Cooum is quite high and

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

varies from 24° to 32°C. seasonally. Whereas, in temperate waters
very low winter temperature may reduce or even stop feeding in fishes
(Moffett & Hunt 1943 ; Ricker 1946), tropical fishes like M. cyprinoides
enjoy relatively constant and warm temperature conditions and it appears
that temperature has no bearing on the intensity of feeding in M. cypri-
noides. Therefore, increase in feeding intensity observed from October
to December in the fish is attributable to the changes in food supply
in the habitat, because of the breaking of the sand bar at the mouth of
the river.

M. cyprinoides of. 1 gm. weight when fed on prawn Metapenaeus
monoceros in the laboratory consumed 9°2% body weight/day and with
increasing size of the fish, the feeding rate decreased to 1°8% body weight/
day in 150 gm. individual, (Pandian 1967a). Considering this fact, the
quantity of food (0°8 to 1.8% body weight) consumed by the fish collected
in the Cooumis low. One of the possibilities seems to be that fishes feed
more than once in the natural habitat. In fact it has been recently em-
phasized that intensity of feeding must be based not only on the quantity
of food found in the stomach at the time of observation but also on the
rate of digestion (Bajkov 1935) and on the frequency of feeding (Darnell &
Meierotto 1962). In view of the difficulties in making continuous
observations over a period to count the frequency and the limitations
encountered in applying the data obtained for digestion rates in the
laboratory to the fishes collected in the Cooum, the present study has
been confined to the observations on the stomach contents alone.
Finally, it can be seen that it is more important to study the efficiency
and rate at which the food ingested is converted for growth in natural
habitat by the fish than to consider the various aspects influencing the
frequency of feeding and digestion rate. Allen (1940, 1941, 1951) and
Benson (1953) have combined studies, such as those mentioned above, in
relation to the condition factor. The changes observed for feeding inten-
sity and those of condition factor of M. cyprinoides were parallel to each
other. It is assumed that the results obtained for intensity of feeding
based on the stomach contents are reasonably reliable and that additional
effects due to changes in digestion rate and frequency of feeding would
not alter the main trends observed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper formed part of a Ph.D. thesis submitted to the University
of Madras. Thanks are due to Prof. G. Krishnan and Dr. S. V. Job
for guidance. I am indebted to Prof. O. Kinne, Director of the Bio-
logische Anstalt Helgoland, Hamburg, for offering valuable criticism
and improving the manuscript. I also thank my colleagues Miss

FEEDING HABITS OF MEGALOPS CYPRINOIDES

579

D. J. Colbourn and Dr. A. B. Wagh for their help. Fellowship awarded
to me by the CSIR, India, is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

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migration of the perch (Perca fluviatilis)
in raat J. Ani. Ecol. 4: 264-
273.

(1938) : Some observations
on the biology of the trout (Salmo trutta)
in Windermere. ibid. 7: 333-349.

———— (1940): Studies on the bio-
logy of the early stages of the salmon
(Salmo salar): 1. Growth in the river
Eden. ibid. 9: 1-23.

— (1941): Studies on the bio-
logy of the early stages of the salmon
(Salmo salar): 3. Growth in the Thurso

ayer system, Caithness. ibid. 10: 273-
295.

(1951): The MHorokiwi
streams. A study of trout populations.

Fish. Bull. Wellington, N.Z. 10: 1-231.

Baskov, A. D. (1935): How to esti-
mate the daily food consumption of the
fish under natural conditions. Trans.
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BENSON, N. G. (1953): Seasonal flu-
ctuations in the feeding of brook trout
in the Pigeon river, Michigan. ibid.
83 : 76-83.

Bocorov, B. G. (1960): Perspectives
in the study of seasonal changes of
plankton and of the number of genera-
tions of different latitudes. In: Pers-
pectives in Marine Biology, Ed. by
A. A. Buzzati—Trquerso, Uni. Calif.
Press, Berkley, 145-158.

DARNELL, R. M. (1961): Trophic

spectrum of an estuarine community
based on studies of Lake Pontochartrain,
Louisiana. Ecology: 42: 533-568.
, & MEreROTTO, R. R. (1962) :
Determination of feeding chronology in
fishes. Trans. American Fish. Soc. 91:
313-320.

GANAPATI, S. V. (1964) : A hydrobio-
logical study of the River Cooum in
Madras, south India with special re-
ference to fisheries. Arch. Hydrobiol.
60 : 200-224.

GERKING, S. D. (1962): Production
and food utilization in a population of

oe sunfish. Ecol. Monogr. 32:
1-78.
HARDY, A. E. ef ai. (1936): The

ecological relation between the herring
and the plankton investigated with} the
plankton indicator. J. mar. biol. Assoc.,
U.K. 21: 147-291.

HARRINGTON, R. W. Jr., & HARRING-
TON, E. S. (1960): Food of larval and

young tarpon, (Megalops
Copeia, (1960): 311-319.

Hoar, W. S. (1942): Diurnal varia-
tions in feeding activity of young salmon
ane trout. J. Fish. Bd. Canada, 6: 90-
101.

Hunt, B. P., & CARBINE, W. F. (1951) :
Food of young pike, Esox lucius L. and
associated fishes in Peterson’s Ditches,
Hughton Lake, Michigan. Trans.
American Fish. Soc. 80 : 67-83.

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950): The food of
fresh water sticklebacks (Gasterosteus
aculatus and Pygosteus pungitius) with a
review cf methods used in studies of food
of fishes. J. Ani. Ecol. 19: 36-58.

Jos, T. J. (1940) : An investigation of
the nutrition of the perches of Madras
coast. Rec. Indian Mus. 42 : 289-364.
— & CuHacko, P. I. (1947):
Rearing of salt water fish in fresh waters
of Madras. Indian Ecol. 2: 1-9.

KUTHALINGAM, M. K. D. (1955a) :
Food and feeding habits of juvenile and
adults of four fishes of Madras. J.
Madras Uni. (B) 25: 235-253.

— (1955b) : The food of horse-
mackerel Caranx. Current Sci. (1955):

416-417.

— (1956a): The food of two
grey mullets of Madras. J. Madras Uni.
(B) 26 : 465-478.

(1956b) : The food and feed-
ing habits of some Madras'fishes. ibid.
26 : 465-478.

MorfettT, J. M., & Hunt, B. P. (1943):
Winter feeding habits of bluegills Lepomis
macrochirus (Rafinesque) and _ yellow
perch, Perca fluvescens (Mitchell) in
Cedar Lake, Wastnaw County, Michi-
gan. Trans. American Fish. Soc. 73:
231-242.

NIKOLSKy, G. V. (1963) : The ecology

atlantica).

of fishes. Translated from Russian by
L. Birkett. Academic Press, New
York.

PANDIAN, T. J. (1967a) : Intake, diges-
tion, absorption and conversion of food
in the fishes Megalops cyprinoides and
EE a striatus. Mar. Biol. 1:
16-32.

———— (1967b): Transformation of
food in the fish Megalops cypriroides.
ibid. 1 : 61-65.

———— (in Press): Feeding and re-
productive cycles of the fish Mystus
gulo in the Cooum backwaters, Madras.
Indian J. Fish.

580

PANIKKAR, N. K. & ATIYAR, R. G.
(1939): Observations on ‘breeding in
brackish water animals of Madras. Proc.
Ind. Acad. Sci. (B), 9 : 343-364.

Pittay, T. V. R. (1951) : A critique on
the methods of study of food. J. zool.
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RAMAMOORTHY, S. (1953) : Hydrobio-
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waters. J. Madras Univ. (B), 23: 148-
163. Ae

RIcKER, W. E. (1937) : The food and
food supply of sockeye salmon
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— (1946) : Production and uti-
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Monogr. 16: 373-391.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

SHORYKIN, H.A. (1939): The food and
food relationships of some _bentho-
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Sea. Pitarae i pishcheye Vzaimooto-
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VIJAYARAGHAVAN, P. (1950): Food

factor and migration of a few fishes of
the Madras coast. J. Madras Uni. (B)
19 : 59-68. ite ee

———— (195la) : Food of the ribbon
fishes of Madras. ibid. 21: 81-95.

—————. (1951b): Food of rainbow
sardine Dussumeriea acuta (Cuv. & Val.)
ibid. 21 : 282-287.

———— (1953): Food of sardine of
Madras coast. ibid. 23: 29-39. .

Eco-Toxicology and Control of
Indian Desert Gerbil,
Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon)

V. Food preference in the Field during Monsoon
BY

ISHWAR PRAKASH
Animal Studies Division, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

Food preference of the Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon)
during monsoon is described by identifying the unconsumed plant species
lying near their burrow openings and from field observations with bino-
culars. A comparison of the occurrence of unconsumed plant species with
that in the surrounding plant communities revealed that the Desert Gerbils
chiefly feed on grasses in the monsoon season. Economic losses by the Desert
Gerbil are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

An earlier study of the stomach contents of the Indian Desert Gerbil,
Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon) had revealed that normally their food con-
sists of seeds but during the rainy season they thrive more on shoots,
leaves and flowers of plants that are readily available (Prakash 1962).
Only a few plant species could, however, be identified from the stomach
contents since they were thoroughly masticated. Recently, during field
observations, it was noticed that while consuming plants, the rodents
leave identifiable portions near their burrow openings during the mon-
soon season, the main flowering season for herbs in the desert. This
study is aimed at finding the preference for various herbs and to
estimate their loss under field conditions.

METHODS

Plant remains were identified and the number occurring near each
burrow opening was recorded. In one plant community observations
were taken around 20 to 30 burrow openings. The composition of the
vegetation was studied by line intercept method and frequency of occur-
rence of each species was compared with the frequency of occurrence of
that species found unconsumed near gerbil burrow openings. If the latter

4

582. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

was more than twice its occurrence in the surrounding vegetational com-
munity, that species was regarded as ‘most preferred’; if less than
twice ‘preferred’, if less than its occurrence in the community but
not less than 50 per cent ‘less preferred’, and if less than 50 per cent
then ‘not preferred’. Each of the above four palatability class was
awarded the numerical scores of 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively. To find
out the palatability index of various food species the numerical scores
denoting the various palatability classes were added for species occurring
in more than two communities and an average was found out.

Observations were also made with a 10x40 binoculars on gerbils
feeding on various identified plant species.

All these observations were made during the monsoon season at
Maulasar in a fenced area of 72 hectares. This area lies in a tract with
an average annual rainfall of 400 mm., in the Nagaur District of Western
Rajasthan.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

I. Observations on unconsumed plant species lying near Desert Gerbil
burrow openings

The observations were taken in four plant communities found in the
area. :

(a) Cenchrus ciliaris—Cyperus arenarius—Eleusine compressa—

Phaseolus trilobus community

This community was situated on a low lying sandy plate and the
species comprising this community had a frequency of 75 per cent in the
transects. The other species in this community having a frequency of
50 per cent were Justicia vahlii, Digitaria adscendens, Tephrosia purpurea,
and Boerhavia diffusa. Cenchrus ciliaris, although forming 14:0 per
cent of the vegetation in this community, constituted 69°2 per cent of
plant species found unconsumed near burrow openings (Table 1). It
was the most preferred species. Cyperus arenarius and Aristida adscen-
sionis although having a low per cent of incidence in nature (0°66 and 2:0
per cent only) yet formed 7:7 per cent of the gerbil food indicating a high
preference for these. Eleusine compressa on the other hand formed 10°6
per cent of the community and formed only 7°7 per cent of the rodent
diet. It is worth noting that the plant Phaseolus triolobus and those
having 50 per cent frequency were completely absent from the gerbil
menu indicating that they are unpalatable to gerbils. This may alsobe ~
due to the higher availability of Cenchrus ciliaris which forms the majority
of the gerbil food in this plant community. 92°2 per cent of the food
species were grasses (Poaceae).

(b) Digitaria adscendens—Perotis hordeiformis—Brachiaria ramosa—

Eragrostis ciliaris community.

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL _ 383

The community was found on a stabilised sand dune. The four
species forming this community had a frequency of 83°3 per cent and the

TABLE |

PER CENT OCCURRENCE OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES NEAR GERBIL BURROW
OPENINGS AND IN NATURE, AND THEIR PALATABILITY CLASSES IN THE
PLANT COMMUNITY(a)

Per cent occurrence

Palatability
Unconsumed plant classes
species near in nature
| burrow openings
|

Plant species

Cenchrus ciliaris 69°2 14-0 most preferred
Eleusine compressa hel 10°6 less preferred
Aristida adscensionis | 2'0 most preferred
Cyperus arenarius qe 0°66 most preferred
Digitaria adscendens 3°8 2°6 preferred
Eragrostis ciliaris 3°8 0°66 most preferred

others having a frequency of 66°6 per cent were: Tribulus terrestris and
Justicia vahlii ; and those having a frequency of 50 per cent were : Cyperus

TABLE 2

PER CENT OCCURRENCE OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES NEAR GERBIL, BURROW
OPENINGS AND IN NATURE, AND THEIR PALATABILITY CLASSES IN THE
PLANT COMMUNITY(b)

Per cent occurrence

, Palatability
Plant species Unconsumed plant classes

species near in nature
burrow openings

—y =

Digitaria adscendens 21°3 3 less preferred
Cenchrus ciliaris 18°6 1°8 most preferred
Brachiaria ramosa 8:0 9°5 less preferred.
Eragrostis ciliaris 8:0 6°5 preferred.
Aristida adscensionis 8:0 6:0 preferred
Dactyloctenium aegyptium 8°0 5) most preferred
Eragrostis cilianensis 6°6 1°8 most preferred
Cenchrus biflorus Bes: 0°6 most preferred
Tribulus terrestris 2.6 12°0 not preferred
Tragus biflorus 2.6 3°0 less preferred
Glinus hirta 2°6 1°8 preferred
Cucumis callosus 2°6: 0°6 most preferred
Perotis hordeiformis 1:3 10°7 not preferred
Cyperus arenarius 1°3 3°0 not preferred
Boerhavia diffusa 1°3 0°6 most preferred
Cenchrus setigerus 1°3 0°6 most preferred

584. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

/

arenarius, Heliotropium marifolium, Cenchrus biflorus, Tragus racemosus,
Aristida adscensionis and Corchorus sp. In this community Cenchrus
ciliaris in spite of having a low (1°8 per cent) occurrence in nature consti-
tuted 18°6 per cent of the food species, while Digitaria adscendens, which
had the maximum occurrence of 17°3 per cent in nature, constituted 21°3
per cent of the rodent menu (Table 2), showing that the former species
is more preferred. Onthe other hand, the occurrence of Tribulus terres-
tris was 12°0 per cent in nature and it constituted only 2°6 per cent of
gerbil food. Brachiaria ramosa and Perotis hordeiformis having higher
frequency were rated as less preferred and not preferred, although their
occurrence percentages were 9°5 and 10°7 respectively. Some of the
species having higher frequency of occurrence in the community were not
eaten. 89:0 per cent of the gerbil food in this community comprised of
grasses.

(c) Cyperus arenarius—Digitaria adscendens—Pulicaria wightiana—
Justicia vahlii community.

The plant community occurred on an inter-dune sandy plain. The
first two species in this community had 100 per cent frequency in the
transects, and the latter two had 83°3 per cent frequency. Fragrostis
cilianensis and Tragus biflorus had a frequency of 66°6 per cent. In this
community Cenchrus ciliaris formed 25°5 per cent and Eragrostis cilia-
nensis 8°5 per cent of the gerbil food in spite of being only 4 and 0°5

TABLE 3

PER CENT OCCURRENCE OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES NEAR GERBIL BURROW
OPENINGS AND IN NATURE, AND THEIR PALATABILITY CLASSES IN THE
PLANT COMMUNITY(C)

Per cent occurrence

: Palatability
Plant species Unconsumed plant | _ classes
species near in nature
burrow openings

Cenchrus ciliaris 25:5 4:0 most preferred
Cyperus arenarius 17:0 24°5 less preferred
Digitaria adscendens 8°5 14:0 less preferred
Aristida adcensionis 8°5 2°0 most preferred
Eragrostis cilianensis 8°5 0°5 most preferred
Cynodon dactylon 6°3 2°0 most preferred
Polycarpaea corymbosa 6°3 1d most preferred
Eragrostis ciliaris 4°2 4°5 less preferred
Tragus biflorus 4:2 4°5 less preferred
Eleusine compressa 4:2 0°5 most preferred
Trichodesma indica oa 2°5 less preferred

eae Eee ee
per cent respectively in nature (Table 3), indicating that they are most
preferred by the desert gerbils. Cyperus arenarius and Digitaria adscen-

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL _ 585

dens have a higher occurrence (24°5 and 14:0 per cent respectively) in
nature as compared to that in the gerbil food (17°0 and 8°5 per cent
respectively) and both the species are rated as ‘less preferred’. Pulicaria
wightiana and Justicia vahlii, though predominantly occurring in nature,
did not at all occur as gerbil food. In this community, grasses formed
73'1 per cent of the gerbil food.

(d) Pulicaria wightiana—Justicia vahlii—Polycarpaea corymbosa—
Sporobolus helvolus community.

This community was situated on the flat top of a sand dune. All
the four species forming the community had 100 per cent frequency in
the transects. Aristida adscensionis and Convolvulus microphyllus had
75 per cent frequency. All the dominant species of the community were
absent from the gerbil food except a low (4°5 per cent) occurrence of ~
Sporobolus helvolus as against 17°5 per cent (Table 4) incidence in nature
which shows that the species was not preferred by gerbils. Cenchrus
ciliaris, the occurrence of which is maximum in the gerbil food, was
absent in this community and the desert gerbil showed lesser selectivity

TABLE 4

PER CENT OCCURRENCE OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES NEAR THE BURROW
OPENINGS AND IN NATURE, AND THEIR PALATABILITY CLASSES IN THE
PLANT COMMUNITY(d)

Per cent occurrence

Palatability
Plant species Unconsumed plant classes
species near

burrow openings

in nature

Brachiaria ramosa 227 4:0 most preferred
Perotis hordeiformis 13:5 4:0 most preferred
Cenchrus biflorus 9:0 4:0 most preferred
Aristida adscensionis 9-0 3°2 most preferred
Convolvulus microphyllus 9:0 2°4 most preferred
Sporobolus helvolus 4°5 17°6 not preferred
Fimbristylus barbata 4°5 332 preferred
Digitaria adscendens 4°5 0°8 most preferred
Boerhavia diffusa 4°5 0°8 most preferred
Glinus hirta 4°5 0°8 most preferred
Tragus biflorus 4°5 0°8 most preferred

in preferring various food species when compared to other communities
in which it was present. Perotis hordeiformis, rated not preferred in
community (b) was rated as most preferred. Moreover, all the species
except Sporobolus helvolus and Fimbristylis barbata were rated as most pre-
ferred. It appears, therefore, that in the presence of the choicest species,
the rodents do not show selectivity in choosing their food. In this
community 89°0 per cent food comprised of various species of grasses,

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

IJ. Palatability Index of various plant species

Table 5 shows that out of the seven species which occurred as food
item in more than two communities, the first six belong to family Poaceae
which indicates that the Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

_ TABLE 5

PALATABILITY [INDEX OF UNCONSUMED PLANT SPECIES OCCURRING IN MORE
THAN TWO COMMUNITIES, AS RATED BY DESERT GERBILS

Plant species Family No. of communities |Palatability

in which occurred Index
Cenchrus ciliaris Poaceae 3 4:0
Aristida adscensionis Poaceae 4 3:7
Eragrostis ciliaris Poaceae 4 3-0
Digitaria adscendens Poaceae 4 27
Brachiaria ramosa Poaceae 3 2°6
Tragus biflorus Poaceae 3 2°6
Cyperus arenarius Cyperaceae 3 23

mainly feeds on grasses. Cyperus arenarius (Cyperaceae) was the only
non-grass species to occur in this hierarchy of preference but it is rated
lowest as compared to other six grasses. All these grasses are palat-
able to livestock.

Ill. Field observations on Desert Gerbil food

Observations with binoculars revealed that the gerbils fed mostly
on shoots, leaves and inflorescence of plants. In an earlier study
(Prakash 1962) on the examination of stomach contents it was found
that during monsoon season the occurrence of these plant parts increased
whereas in other seasons, seeds formed their main food. The follow-
ing plant species were observed being consumed by the gerbil.

Family POACEAE

Cenchrus ciliaris
Cenchrus setigerus
Cenchrus biflorus

. Aristida adscensionis
. Digitaria adscendens
. Eleusine compressa

. Cynodon dactylon

. Eragrostis ciliaris

. Eragrostis cilianensis

WONINDKNRWNE

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL 587

10. Dactyloctenium aegyptium
11. Brachiaria ramosa
12. Perotis hordeiformis
13. Tragus biflorus
Family CARYOPHYLLACEAE

14. Polycarpaea corymbosa

Family CyPERACEAE

15. Cyperus arenarius

Family ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

16. Tribulus terrestris

Family MOLLUGINACEAE
17. Glinus hirta

Family CUCURBITACEAE

18. Cucumis callosus
19. Citrullus colocynthis

Family NYCTAGINACEAE
20. Boerhavia diffusa

Family CONVOLVULACEAE

21. Convolvulus microphyllus

Out of 21 species eaten by the Desert Gerbil, 13 were grass species
and most of the plants observed being fed on by the gerbil are those
which were found unconsumed near gerbil burrow openings. Thus,
besides consumption there is also perhaps a larger amount of destruc-
tion through the cut and unconsumed material.

IV. Economic consideration

In the desert tract, where the study was conducted, the density of
Desert Gerbil was estimated to be 477 per hectare. Considering that a
gerbil consumes about 6 gm. feed per day (Prakash & Kumbkarni 1962),
their annual requirement will be 1044 kg./hectare: ; assuming that their
number will be maintained at this level all the year round.

1 The cost of this fodder al be about Rs. 225,68 per hectare at the rate of
Rs. 20.00 per quintal,

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

The figures of the estimated forage production in this tract during
1963-64 and 1964-65 are summarised in Table 6 (Ahuja, Personal com-
munication). Comparing the gerbil depredation and forage produc-
tion figures, it will be observed that hardly any fodder will be left for

TABLE 6

FORAGE PRODUCTION (AIR DRIED) PER HECTARE AT MAULASAR

Forage production (air
dried) per hectare, kg.

Forage species er ET a

1963-64 1964-65

1. Edible grasses ; High perennials (Cenchrus spp.) 332 196

Low perennials (Eleusine compressa, Cynodon 31 8
dactylon, etc.)

Cyperus spp. 25 8

Annuals (Aristida spp., Cenchrus biflorus, Digitaria 822 307

adscendens, Tragus biflorus etc.)

Total edible species 1210 519
2. Non-edible species 159 S15
Total forage production 1369 834

livestock, particularly when the estimate of the gerbil consumption
does not include the destruction they do merely by cutting the grasses
to reach the inflorescence. The rodents also destroy the vegetation by
damaging their roots by tunnelling and expose the loose soil excavated
from these tunnels to wind, thus affecting grass growth. All these fac-
tors in their turn affect the establishment of good pastures for proper
livestock industry which largely depends on these pastures. It is, there-
fore, essential that control operations are to be visualised while planning
improvements to rangelands. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. P. C. Raheja, Director (Retd.) and to Shri

C. P. Bhimaya, Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, for
providing facilities, for encouragement and helpful suggestions ; to
Shri K. C. Kanodia, Systematic Botanist, for identifying most of the
plant species ; to Shri L. D. Ajuha, Livestock Officer, for providing the

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBIL = 5389

data on forage production ; and to Sarvashri Bajrang Lal Sain and Hari
Prasad Sharma for assistance during the field work.

REFERENCES

PRAKASH, I. (1962): Ecology of ger- Indian desert gerbille, Meriones hurrianae
billes of the Rajasthan desert, India. (Jerdon). I. Feeding behaviour, energy
Mammalia 26 : 311-331. requirement and selection of bait. J.

————, & KUMBKARNI, G. C.. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 ; 800-806.
(1962) : Eco-toxicology and control of

On a new species of sea
anemone from Maharashtra, India

BY

ARUN PARULEKAR

Senior Research Fellow (C.S.1.R.), Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay-1

(With four text-figures)

Anthopleura panikkarii a new species of intertidal sea anemone from
India is described. Detailed notes on ecology, external morphology and
anatomy are given.

The paper describes a new intertidal sea anemone collected from
Vengurla Port, Ratnagiri (Mirkarwadi) and Bandra Point, Bombay,
along the coast of Maharashtra, India, during 1966-68. It was first
identified as the Japanese species, Anthopleura midori (Uchida 1958),
which has been reported from Bombay by Parulekar (1968). However,
observations on a large number of living specimens showed it to be an
undescribed species. The new species is named after Dr. N. K. Panikkar,
in recognition of his valuable contributions to actinian research in India.

Anthopleura panikkarii sp.nov.
(Text-figures 1-4)

Material : Holotype (Reg. No. P 1858/1) in the collections of the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, collected at Vengurla Port (15°
51'N., 73° 37’E.), Maharashtra, India in April 1967. Paratypes : Five
specimens collected from Vengurla Port, Ratnagiri; Bandra Point,
Bombay (Maharashtra) and Kalangut (Goa). These will also be

deposited in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. — |

Diagnosis: Actiniidae with well-developed basal disc, column with
adhesive verrucae arranged in more or less distinct longitudinal rows,
especially, in its upper part. Marginal spherules (acrorhagi) present.
Sphincter weak or strong, restricted to circumscript. Tentacles simple,
hexamerously or irregularly arranged, their longitudinal muscles ecto-
dermal or meso-ectodermal. Numerous perfect mesenteries, all the
stronger ones, fertile. Retractors of the strong mesenteries diffuse,

A NEW SEA ANEMONE FROM MAHARASHTRA 591

sometimes restricted. Younger mesenteries growing from the basal
disc upwards. Cnidom: Spirocysts, basitrichs, holotrichs, microbasic

p-mastigophores.

Description

General features: A medium-sized anemone found firmly attached
to sheltered side of rocks, in the upper marginal zone. Some speci-
mens inhabit crevices of rocks. The characteristic feature of this
actinian is the presence of green verruciform suckers on its column.
In its habitat, the anemone frequently bears gravel and shell-fragments
on its body. When contracted, it is cone-shaped, with an irregularly
spreading base.

=o

Text-fig. 1: Anthopleura panikkarii sp. noy. : Showing the habitat.

Size: Shape and dimensions variable, depending on the state of
expansion. A well-expanded specimen, is about 40 mm. in height and
27 mm. in width. The size-range for the species, based on measurements
of 30 specimens, is as follows: length of column 10-40 mm. ; dia-
meter of column 9-28 mm. ; diameter of oral disc 7-32 mm. ; diameter
of basal disc 5-30 mm.

Colour > Column brick-red with dirty-green verruciform suckers,

$92. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 65 .(3)

Marginal spherules pinkish or flesh-coloured. Tentacles uniformly
blood-red, Oral disc red with greenish tinge. Basal disc flesh-coloured.

Basal or pedal disc: In live specimens, firm, well-developed and
more or less irregular in outline when contracted, and rounded, when
expanded. Rounded or oval in a well-preserved specimen. It is only
in a contracted living specimen that its diameter is greater than that of
the column or oral disc.

Column: It assumes different shapes, depending on the state of
contraction or expansion. When contracted, it becomes cone-shaped
or dome-like with upper part thickly covered by verruciform suckers.
In a fully-extended condition, the anemone is pillar-like with narrow
basal part and broad distal part. When elongated, the column is long
and cylindrical, its height being more than twice the diameter. The
gravel and shell-fragments are borne only on the upper part. Ectoderm
cells are cylindrical and vesiculated. Endoderm cells rather low, cylin-

drical and filled with black granules. Verrucae : The column is studded
with papillated verruciform suckers, arranged in 96 longitudinal rows

swollen and cone-shaped in a fully expanded live specimen! but long and
papillose in preserved ones. They are densely set in the upper part,
but are sparse near the base. The uppermost suckers, are the largest,
possessing a pit in the centre. In a contracted specimen, the suckers
near the oral disc form a dense ‘ Papillose collar ’, thus completely con-
cealing the acrorhagi. In young anemones, the verruciform suckers —
are seen only in the upper part of the column. Acrorhagi or Marginal
spherules : The upper limit of the column is marked by the presence of
acrorhagi or marginal spherules, which are pinkish or flesh-coloured in
the living anemone. Ina well-grown anemone, they are lobed in appear-
ance. The number varies from individual to individual but in a well-
grown specimen, there are 48 of them. The basal part of the acror-
hagi is vacuolated and slightly glandular, but the distal part is closely
set with long spirocysts.

Oral disc and Tentacles: Rounded to oval in shape, with diameter
more or less equal to that of the column but always more than that of
the basal disc. An elliptical mouth, with two siphonoglyphs, marks the
centre of the oral disc. Tentacles arranged in 5 cycles in a hexamerous
plan of 6+6-+-12+24+48—96. Broad at the base and gradually taper
towards the tip. Nearly equal in length except for the outermost cycle,
which are slightly shorter. Tentacles of the two inner cycles are, during
expansion, held in an upright position while the others, especially, those
of the outermost cycle (Vth) are either curved, outwards or downwards,
Muscles of the tentacle are ectodermal and sparsely branched. Endo-
dermal muscles with numerous foldings, occur in the oral disc, Marginal

A NEW SEA ANEMONE FROM MAHARASHTRA 593

sphincter (Text-fig. 2) well-developed, almost oval in shape asymmetri-
cally circumscribed, pedunculate pinnate, with numerous foldings.

Text-fig. 2: Anthopleura panikkarii sp. nov.: Marginal sphincter in radial
section. :

. Mesenteries: WHexamerously arranged in four cycles of 6+6+12+
24=48 pairs, of which two are directives (Text-fig. 3). The first two
cycles are perfect. All mesenteries, except directives are provided with

_ Text-fig. 3: Anthopleura panikkarii sp. nov.: Mesenterical arrangements
(diagrammatic).

filaments, and are fertile. They have well-developed longitudinal muscles,
which are diffuse, circumscribed. The muscle pennons of the directives

594. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

give rise to a number of foldings (Text-fig. 4). The muscle foldings of
the first and the second cycle of mesenteries are narrow with a long ex-
tension possessing shallow foldings. Those of the third cycle are rather

Text-fig. 4: Anthopleura panikkarii sp. nov. : Sections of mesenteries.

circumscribed, and of the fourth often crescentic. In the lower part,

the parietobasilar and the basilar muscles are well-developed. :
Cnidom: The distribution and size (in microns) of nematocysts, |
are as follows :— |
Tentacles :— |
Spirocysts ay £ 2 4 282252 x 2'1-3°5
Basitrichs ee > ee 18241 9°69 21 |
Body-wall |
Basitrichs 4 # 2 79-155 X 14-22 |
Holotrichs oF es :. 12°6-16 x 1°4 |
Microbasic- p-mastigophores.. 7. 15°4-19+6 x 25823°5 i
Acrorhagi
Basitrichs ei fs .. 9°8-16°8 X 1°4-2°1
Spirocysts ie Bi .. 14°0-23°8 x 2°1-2°8

Holotrichs as -- 36°4-53°2 x 2°4-5°6

A NEW SEA ANEMONE FROM MAHARASHTRA 595

Septal filaments

Basitrichs wi gt .. 15°4-19°6 x 2°8-3°5 \
Microbasic p-mastigophores 3 .. 17°5-19°6X3°5-4:2

Microbasic p-mastigophores ke .. 26°6-29°4 x 2°8-4°2

Remarks: This actinian closely resembles, Anthopleura midori,
the ‘Green Sea Anemone’ of Japan, described by Uchida (1958). They
resemble in habitat, presence of green verruciform suckers, similar type
of mesenterial arrangement etc., but differ in coloration, structure of
marginal sphincter in section, presence of acrorhagi in all stages of
growth and the distribution and size of nematocysts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is deeply grateful to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay
Natural History Society, for providing research facilities and taking in-
terest in this work. Thanks are due to the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research for award of a research fellowship.

REFERENCES

PARULEKAR, ARUN (1968): Sea Ane- Tohoku Imperial Univ. XII Nr.3 : 281-317.
mones (Actiniaria) of Bombay. J. & Muramatsu, S. (1958) :
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 : 138-147. Notes on some Japanese Sea Anemones

UcuibA, TOHRU (1938): Report on the J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Univ. Series VI
Biological Survey of Mutsu Bay. 33. Zoology III (i): 111-119.

Actiniaria ‘of Mutsu Bay. Sci. Rep.

Observations on the Breeding Biology
of Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus
Hume) in the Kumaon Terai

BY

V. C. AMBEDKAR
(With a plate)

The observations presented here were made during three field trips to
Rudrapur, Kumaon terai, Dist. Nainital, in 1961, 1962 and 1963. It was
ascertained that Finn’s Baya has two distinct breeding periods, the first, May
to middle of July, the second in August-September. The observations show
that in the first period the birds build their nests on tree-tops, and in the
second low down among Typha reed-beds standing in water. Clutch-size,
incubation and nestling periods, and nesting success were studied for the
first time. Finn’s Baya is a polygamous species practising successive poly-
gamy. The male alone builds the nests while the female is almost wholly
responsible for the domestic duties. Mud-blobs were observed in the nests
as in those of other Indian weavers ; their significance remains obscure.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, particularly after the re-discovery of the Finn’s Baya
(Ploceus megarhynchus) in Kumaon terai (Ali & Crook 1959), there has
been considerable interest on two aspects of the biology of this endemic
Indian weaver bird, namely the taxonomy of the species (Abdulali 1952,
1954, 1960), and the unusual breeding habits. This paper is a report
chiefly on some quantitative aspects of the breeding biology of the bird.
The field work was carried out during the breeding seasons of 1961,
1962 and 1963 in Kumaon terai, District Nainital, Uttar Pradesh, under
the direction and active participation of Dr. Salim Ali.

Three other weavers namely the Common Baya (Ploceus philip-
pinus), the Blackthroated Baya (P. benghalensis) and the Striated Baya
(P. manyar) also breed in the same area. The selected study area had
all the four species breeding so that it might be possible to assess the
ecological niche of each species.

STUDY AREA

Rudrapur was selected as the base for the study as the town stands in
the midst of the terai, and is well connected by roads with Moradabad,

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 597

Rampur and Bareilly. The following villages were visited during field
trips : Haldwani, Fatehpur (Bhabar area), Lalkua, Bilaspur, Ghadarpur,
Sitarganj, Sultanpur (Terai area) all situated within a radius of fifteen
miles of Rudrapur.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The field work mainly consisted of direct observations of nests and

birds, using 6 x 30 prismatic binoculars. Birds, both adult and nestling,
were marked with aluminium rings of the Bombay Natural History
Society, and coloured celluloid rings for individual identification. Adults
were caught with nylon mist nets. Weights of the young and eggs were
taken by a spring balance. The colonies were visited early in the morning
and observations were continued till late in the evening but for a short
. break at mid-day.

FIELD CHARACTERS

Finn’s Baya differs from other weaver birds by its larger size and bill
although in non-breeding plumage differentiation from the Common
Baya in the field is not always certain. In breeding plumage the male is
brilliant golden yellow with black wings. The black beak is decidedly
larger than that of other weaver birds. In some males the vent area is
white and can be clearly seen from a distance, one of the characters on
which the eastern race is separated from the western race by Abdulali
(1960). The female is in general coloration pale yellow with dark-brown
wings. The males utter a harsh twit twit during flight from one place to
another. Very often they descend on cart-tracks, and even on asphalted
roads to pick up grains, spilt during transport. The birds appeared to
be very fond of hemp seeds. The females, just prior to the breeding
season, usually move in separate flocks of their own sex.

TABLE |
396 oe
Wing 69 - 79 mm. 66 - 73 mm.
Weight — 34-40 gm. 30 - 34 gm.

Juvenile males are very similar to the females but can be identified
in the field by the call note which is similar to that of adult males. The
juvenile males move in flocks of their own, which do not intermix with
the breeding population as observed also in the Common Baya (Ali
1931, Ambedkar 1964).

Amongst the breeding males, at least one or two males have a com-
plete black breast-band (BNHS Ring No. AB 1808), which is quite
unusual.

5

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

ECOLOGY
Habitat |

The breeding birds frequent the swampy area of the terai, a belt
10-12 miles in width with extensive luxuriant growth of elephant grass
(Imperata), and other grasses, dotted with Salmalia malabarica and
Sheesham (Dalbergia sisoo) trees. Patches of bulrushes (Typha) occur °
along ditches, ponds and swamps. Insects are abundant and various
species of insect-eating birds are characteristic of the area. Warblers of
the genera Cisticola, Prinia, Acrocephalus are extremely common, and
their call notes very frequently heard.

In 1961, between 1 July and 20 August, I men twenty-one bree-
ding colonies of Finn’s Baya on trees, and the total number of nests
counted was about eight hundred. The trees being isolated or well
spaced-out in the grassland, I feel that I counted all the colonies within
a radius of fifteen miles. The trees selected for nesting were : Salmalia
malabarica, Sheesham (Dalbergia sisoo), Mango (Mangifera indica), and
Flame of the Forest (Butea monosperma). A colony on a dead Salmatia
near the fish culture pond at Rudrapur was observed in 1961 and again
in 1962 and suggests that Finn’s Baya uses traditional nesting sites as
observed in the Baya (Ali 1931, Ali & Ambedkar 1956, 1957, and
Crook 1960). ,

Although almost all the colonies were located away from human
habitations, yet there was one extraordinary nesting colony observed
right in the centre of Sultanpur village, about six miles from Rudrapur
on the Rudrapur-Ghadarpur road on 14 July, 1961. A leafy banyan tree,
(Ficus bengalensis), about fifty feet high was selected, not only by Finn’s
Bayas but also by the Common Baya, the Pied Myna (Sturnus contra) and
the Drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis), for nesting. The uppermost stratum of the
tree was occupied by Finn’s Baya with fifty completed nests. The nesting
was nearly completed by mid-July since many nests looked deserted and
were being constantly visited and inspected by a flock of the White-
throated Munia (Lonchura malabarica). Female Finn’s Bayas, still feed-
ing young, collected insects from elephant grass about a hundred yards
from the tree. The second stratum was selected for nesting by the
Common Baya which had nearly seventy completed nests. Breeding was
in full swing and there was constant traffic of birds bringing food for the
growing young and nesting materials for construction of new nests. All
these were collected from the different patches of grassland in the neigh-
bourhood. Apparently Finn’s Baya and the Common Baya do not
compete for food and nesting materials. The third stratum was selected —
for nesting by a pair of Drongos (Dicrurus adsimilis) which had three
younginthe nest. And the last and lowest portion of the foliage canopy,

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 599

about ten feet above the ground, held a nest of the Pied Myna (Sturnus
contra), apparently incubating. The entire colony was benefited by the
alertness and fearlessness of the drongos, who constantly drove off
crows (Corvus splendens) and pariah kites (Milvus migrans) approaching
the tree.?

Detailed observations on the nest construction and breeding be-
haviour of Finn’s Bayas breeding on tree-tops were provided by
Salim Ali & Crook in 1959 who stated that ‘but for the builders
in attendance among the tree-top, one would have hardly thought of
looking for a nest colony in such a situation, or recognised such com-
pletely unorthodox structures as nests of an Indian weaver bird’. The
nests were described as ‘ unlike those of any other Indian weaver. They
are large globular structures, untidily but firmly woven with long strips
of coarse grass, and the entrance is at one side near the top. Often a
porch-like projection surrounds the entrance forming a small papilla
as Often seen in munia’s nests. The structures are usually firmly knotted
to upright twigs which are often worked into the fabric and also sup-
port the body of the nests from below. Occasionally the nests are slung
sideways on to a twig or two so that the nest chamber hangs free below
it. In no case, however, are the nests truly suspended from fine single
- twigs as is normally the case with the Common Baya (Ploceus philip-
pinus) (Ali 1931)’.

' During field trips to the Kumaon terai I observed nesting colonies
mainly on tree-tops in July (1961), prior to the monsoon, and in reed
beds after the rains had properly set in (1962, 1963). The nesting
colonies observed in reed beds were recorded for the first time in the
Kumaon terai as described here.

C. V. O’Donel (Baker 1926, 1934) observed the breeding of Finn’s
Baya [since described as a new subspecies, Ploceus megarhynchus sali-
malii Abdulali (1960)] in Bhutan Duars in the year 1912 and described
its nesting habitat as ‘a vast area of grass more or less intermixed with
scrub’. Salim Ali & Crook (1959) also observed some half-completed
nests and structures in reeds standing in water in Kumaon terai but they
considered these as the work of first year juveniles merely ‘ doodling’
with nesting materials. Further they remarked that they did not see
any females visiting these nests. | :

1 [ visited the same tree on 3 September, 1968, and except for Finn’s Baya, all
the other ‘ tenants’ were in occupation. Perhaps the absence of Finn’s Baya is due to
the absence of elephant grass from the surrounding area Which is now under cullti-
vation. — : Hen tay Svar eine) Sy

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR |

In 1962 an active reed bed colony was located near Rudrapur at the
end of July. The dates of the various stages of this colony (Fish Culture
Pond Colony) were as follows : 3

TABLE 2
Establishment of the Colony 26 - 30 July
Nest construction 1- 6 August
Egg-laying 5-12 August
Hatching 18 - 24 August
Feeding the young 18 August - 3 September
Young leaving the nests 29 August '
End of nesting activities 4-8 September

Colony site

The colony was located in a reed bed adjacent to the Fish Culture
Pond on the Rudrapur-Phoolbagh road about one mile from Rudrapur.
The reed bed of Typha reeds was roughly half an acre in area. Some of
the Sheesham trees along the adjacent main road were occupied by the
birds in May and June, but none were active in August after the rainy
season had properly set in. In the centre of the reed bed, dead and
dry, upright, bulrush (Typha) stems were available for nesting; for the
inspection of the nests one had to wade through knee-deep water.
Although fresh leaves and stems were readily available yet the birds
selected dry, stiff, upright stems for the construction of their nests.

Other similar colonies were observed in the vicinity of Rudrapur in
1962 and 1963 which suggests that the breeding of Finn’s Baya in reed
beds once the rains have set in, is a regular feature.

Nest Construction

The male Finn’s Bayas,-who were the first to arrive on the nesting
site, started to construct nests after plucking off the green flexible leaves,
leaving behind stiff, bare stems of the Typha. The females did not help
the males at this stage, but their hidden presence nearby could be detes-
ted by the display of the males.

The nest was rather loosely constructed of coarse long, green and
flexible strips of elephant grass. Unlike the Bayas’ nest, the nests were
not pendant but attached firmly to the upright stalks of Typha. The
general structure and stages in nest construction are remarkably similar
to that of the Quelea nests of Africa (Morel, Morel & Bourliere 1957,
Collias & Collias 1964).

Following are the stages of nest construction :

(1) Crescent shape

The male Finn’s Baya, after the selection of Typha stems tied two or
three dry upright stems with a few strands of coarse grass, like a waist

#

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

’s Baya

Inn

Fi

Ambedkar

up of reed bed nests.

Close-
Ali

; Below

Photos :

A reed bed nest colony

e
e

Above

)

Sdlim

.

(

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 601

belt, just a few inches above water level, in such a way that the upper
free ends came closer together. Then he started the construction of the
nest at about 8-14 inches above the belt. By knotting one or two stems
and picking the loose end with his beak from the third stem he con-
structed a bridge-like structure. After adding more material to this
structure it became a firm bed of grass on which he could stand to con-
struct the main body of the nest.

(2) Initial Ring with Pouch

This is the most important stage in the nest construction. It forms
the base of the nest, and it is at this stage that the prospecting females
visit the colony and the nests for inspection (Ali 1931) and, if approved,
appropriate them for laying the eggs. After the first stage of nest con-
struction the male immediately started on the next stage—the ‘ Ring
with Pouch’. By adding more strands the male made a ring-like struc-
ture, and with shaping movements he prepared a ball-like pouch which
hung down in the opposite direction to the entrance. By repeatedly
adding more material he made a nest with a wide entrance. At this
stage also as in other Indian weavers, he added the mud-blobs, within
the nest, whose function still remains unknown. As soon as the female
arrived he acknowledged her presence with a joyous twit-twit-twit, and
often jumped in the air to greet her and then both came back to the nest,
the male landing on the outer wall of the nest, the female within the ring.
Copulation often occurred at this stage, if the female permitted.

(3) Complete nest with wide entrance

This is the stage when more vigorous activity to complete the nest
took place. Pilfering of materials from other nests was a common
sight in the colony. More strands were added to thicken the outer wall
of the nest. The male brought lining material particularly Typha floss
which was readily available in the colony. Unlike other weavers this
lining was plastered all along the entire inner wall of the nest but more
profusely at the bottom of the egg chamber. The floss lining along the
entire inner wall probably serves as insulation and for keeping out the
rain. After weaving and interlacing more nesting materials, the outer
‘structure presented a coarse crisscross appearance, the entrance of the
nest was narrowed down to permit entry of a single bird only. This
was the final stage in the nest construction which took roughly between
three and five days to complete. The shape of the completed nest was
oval with a high lateral entrance. In some cases two entrances were
seen. The female spent much time now in the nest and started laying.
The male went on to construct a second nest often attached to the first -
one, in effect converting it into a composite double or multi-chambered
structure. These functional composite nests, commonly to be seen in

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65: (3)

Finn’s Baya colonies, are unique among the Indian weaver birds. In the
above colony I observed a compound nest which consisted of seven nests
belonging to two males. The entire structure was built on ten dry Typha
stems. The nests were not inter-connected, each unit being quite in-
dependent, with separate entrances. Other instances of this kind in
ploceidae are known in the case of the Black Buffalo Weaver of Africa
(Chapin 1954, Crook 1964, Collias & Collias 1964) and the giant and
spectacular compound nests of the Sociable Weaver (Philetairus socius)
of South Africa (Friedmann 1950).

In this reed bed it was noted that the nests, which were at the centre
of the colony, were very active attracting other birds to build nests around
the centre and particularly near the compound nests. The compound
nests probably acted as the centre of social stimuli and no doubt served
to orientate prospecting females. The peripheral nests always remained

undeveloped.
The average weight of the dry nests was found to be 66°8 gm.

One of the basic differences in the breeding biology of Finn’s Baya

from that of the other Indian weaver -birds seems to be that if the nests
of. Finn’s Baya are removed then they abandon the colony site and move
elsewhere, whereas other weavers even after repeated destruction of the
nests, build again and again at the same site.

Clutch-size

Table 3 shows the average clutch-sizes of Finn’s Baya for the years
1959, 61, 62 and 63. To understand the frequency of the clutch-sizes,
data from Ali & Crook (1959) are also incorporated here for compari-

son. The average clutch-size in the tree-top nests was 2°3 in 1959 and >

2°5 in 1961 ; in the reed bed nests it was 2°6 in 1962 and 2°3 in 1963.

TABLE 3

CLUTCH-SIZE

Year Number of eggs in clutch Total
1 2 3 4 5 6
1959* 4 Di ae 6
1961 1 4 3 te 1 9
1962 3 8 23 10. 5 49
1963. 2 3 5 os 10
6 19 33 10 6 74

_ * Data:collected by Sglim Ali'& Crooks: 2°

Dae

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 603

Out of 74 clutches observed, 33 clutches or 44°6% had 3, while 19.
clutches or 25'°6% had 2 eggs each. The average clutch-size in the four
years was 2°4 which is decidedly lower than that of the Common Baya
recorded as 3:2 in the Poona area (Ambedkar 1964). Moreau (1944)
has observed that in various other bird families e.g. Podicipidae,
Falconidae, Sylviidae and also Ploceidae there is a tendency for the
larger members of the same family to lay smaller clutches.

Due to the short periods of my stay at Rudrapur in all three years
it was not possible to collect data on the clutch-sizes and to study various
other aspects of the tree-top nests versus reed bed nests in any one year
to determine if there was a difference in clutch-sizes laid in two entirely
different periods of the same year and in the different situations. It is
possible that in the terai the available food in different months of the
year, and the different nesting sites, have some bearing on the clutch-
sizes. Repeat clutches have not been recorded during the investigation.

Egg weight

The eggs were laid daily, mostly in the morning. The first egg was
laid in the Colony on 5th August 1962 before 7.30.a.m. This egg was
observed in a nest where the males were building their nests in close
contact which formed the compound nests. Probably the females were
attracted first to these compound nests due to two possible factors (1)
social stimuli received through the courtship activities of the males (2)
safety from predators.

The weights of the fresh eggs were determined for the first time in
1962. The heaviest egg was 3°1 gm. and the lightest weighed 2°1 gm.
The average weight was 2°7 gm. It is a common tendency in Finn’s

Baya for the second egg to be heavier than the first as shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4

WEIGHT IN GMS. OF IST AND 2ND EGGS OF A CLUTCH

No Ist egg 2nd egg
1 2°8 2°9

2 2°1 22

3 2°6° 2°8

4 26 33 3°0

5 2°6 2°8
_Mean ; AES i, 254 2°74

It is, at the present state of muiowibdee not possible: to explain the
significance of this consistent difference in weights.

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Incubation

Incubation is performed by the female alone, as in other Indian weaver
birds. The nests were well insulated due to interior lining of the entire
inner wall of the nests. In view of this insulation of the nests and high
atmospheric temperature, it was not surprising to see the extreme irregular
movements of the females which sat on the eggs for a few minutes rang-
ing from ten seconds to eight minutes. There was constant inward and
outward traffic of the females in the Colony and the Colony appeared

to be most lively and active at this stage and the next stage of the breed-

ing cycle. Incubation usually started from the first egg, and here the
period was reckoned from laying of the first egg to its hatching.

Night brooding was carried out only by the females entering the nests
before sunset. The eggs were inspected each morning for hatching.
The data in Table 5 show that the most frequent incubation period was
14 and 15 days.

TABLE 5

‘ INCUBATION PERIOD

Incubation period No. of clutches
(days)
13 7
14 10
15 10
16 8

Average for 35 clutches—14°5

It is interesting to note that Finn’s Baya has a shorter incubation
period, 14°5 days than that of the Common Baya 16°5 days (Ambedkar
1964).

Nestling period
The female Finn’s Baya broods the young during night in the same

way as she incubates the eggs. She rarely stays in the nest after the 3rd.

or 4th day of hatching. The young are mostly fed on insects collected
only by the female from the neighbouring area. The male usually does

not collect food but guards his nests alertly from enemies, particularly © |
crows. Throughout the day he perches on the nests singing and chir- —

ruping. Feeding by regurgitation is common for the first two or three

days and thereafter the female brings morsels large enough for the young —

to swallow. In some cases the feeding instinct was observed to be
present also in the males. On 3rd September, 1962, the male who was
guarding the nest, fed the. young with insects brought by the female,

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus 605

The female passed on the food to the male to deliver it to the young.
She was making continuous foraging trips.

The first young hatched in the colony was on 18th August afternoon.
Almost all the eggs hatched between 18th August and 24th August, in
a week’s time. This was the most active part of the breeding cycle and
the birds were constantly going out of the Colony in flocks for collect-
ing food and bringing new materials for adding to the nests. The nest-
ling period of Finn’s Baya is between 12 and 17 days as shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6

Days after hatching No. of young flew off

12 7
13 |
14 13
15 9
16 I
17 1
42 Total

Se ee eS

Based on forty-two observations, the mean, maximum and mini-
mum nestling period was recorded. Twenty-four young flew off suc-
cessfully when they were 13 and 14 days old. The mean period was
14-5 days. From available data it is considered as the shortest nestling
period among the Indian weaver birds.

Nesting success

Nesting success may be defined as the ratio of young that flew from
the nests to the number of eggs laid. In the Fish Culture Pond Colony,
out of 79 eggs laid, 55 eggs hatched (69°6%) and 42 young flew off suc-
cessfully (53°1%). This high nesting success can be attributed to the
following three factors (1) safe nesting site (2) very short breeding cycle
(3) abundant food supply.

»- The breeding activities at this colony ended on 4th Sept., i.e., 39 days
after commencement.

_ PREDATORS

No predators were observed in the Colony (Dr. Salim Ali’s obs.)
except parties of House Crows and Jungle Crows, whose efforts towards
predation were unsuccessful. The crows were driven off by the male
Finn’s Baya as they attempted to enter the colony. They foundit difficult

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65: (3)

to stand on Typha stems these being too thin to grasp. Thus it appears

that such sites are more protective than the tree-top sites, which are more.

vulnerable. In August 1963 a mixed party of House Crows and Jungle
Crows raided a colony, which was situated on a Sheesham tree. -
made repeated attempts to enter the colony, and finally one crow
managed to pull out a nestling about eight days old through the entrance
of a nest. After carrying-it to the ground he plucked out the feathers

with his powerful beak. Other crows joined the first one and. ote was — |

a keen tussle to snatch the nestling.

No nest of the Tree-mouse (Vandeleuria oleracea) was * sbsgived with- ie
in those of Finn’s Baya’s, though in the Kumaon terai, the mouse was*
noted in the nests of the Common Baya, Blackthroated Baya and Striated ,

Baya.

At the roosting place, in a dense Typha reed patch, Finn’s Bae
were often observed roosting around a Crow-pheasant (Centropus
sinensis). As the crow-pheasant changed his roosting place, the entire
flock of Finn’s Baya followed and settled around him. Possibly the
presence of the crow-pheasant gave the birds a sense of safety ?! Crook
(1964) reported that the males attack or at least make feints at snakes and
human beings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my indebtedness to Dr. Salim Ali for his helpful
advice, criticism and constant encouragement. His supervision and
inspiration have been invaluable. I am grateful to the University of
Bombay for financial support during the years 1962 and 1963. Without
it, it would not have been possible to undertake the study. The trip to
Rudrapur in 1961 was supported by Sir Dorabji Tata Trust grant received
through the Bombay Natural History Society.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1952): Finn’s Baya
(Ploceus megarhynchus). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 51 (1) : 200-204.

———— (1954): More notes on
Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus).

ALI, SALIM, AMBEDKAR VJIAYAKUMAR C.
(1956): Notes on the Baya’ Weaver
Bird, Ploceus. philippinus. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (3): 381-389..

—- (YY ——.

They.

(1957) : Further

ibid 57 (2): ae -601.

1960) : A new race of Finn’s

Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus). ibid. 57
(3) : 659-662.

ALI, SALIM (1931) : The nesting habits

of the Baya (Ploceus pElinpians): ibid

34 (4) : 947-964.

notes on the Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus
Dhilippinus Linn. ibid 54 (3) : 491-502.
& Crook, J. H. (1959):
Observations on Finn’s Baya (Ploceus
megarhynchus Hume) rediscovered in
the Kumaon ‘terai, 1959. ibid 56 (3):
457- 483. a es ie

1 More likely collective precaution—Eds,

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’S BAYA P. megarhynchus

AMBEDKAR, V.C. (1964) : Some Indian
Weaver Birds.
Bombay.

BAKER, STUART, re C. (1926): Fauna
of British India, Birds 3 : 69-70. Taylor
& Francis, London.

(1934) : The Nidification of
the Birds of the Indian Empire. 3: 4.
Taylor & Francis, London.

CuaPIn, J. P. (1954) : The birds of the
Belgian Congo, Part IV. Bull. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist. 75 B: 1-846.

CoLuias, N.E. & COLLIAS, lele(Ge (1964) :
Evolution of nest building in the weaver-
birds (Ploceidae). Univ. California pub.
Zool. 73 : 1-162.

Crook, J. H. (1960): Studies on the
Reproductive Behaviour of the Baya
Weaver (Ploceus philippinus) (L). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (1) : 1-44.

University of Bombay,

607

Crook, ' J. H- (1964) : The Evolution of
social organisation and visual communi-

cation in the Weaver birds (Ploceinae).
Behaviour Supplement X.

FRIEDMANN, H. (1950) : The breeding
habits of the Weaver Birds. A study
in the biology of Behaviour Patterns.
Smiths. Inst. Ann. Report : 293-316.

MoreEAu, R. E. (1944) : Clutch-size :
a comparative study with special re-
ference to African birds. Jbis., 86 :
286-348.

More, G., MOREL, Y. & BOULIERE, F.
(1957) : The ” Blackfaced Weever Bird
or Dioch in West Africa. An ecological
ae eD J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54:
811-825.

More additions to the crab fauna of _
Bombay State

BY

B. F. CHHAPGAR
Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay

(With two plates)

Taxonomic accounts of the Brachyuran fauna of the Bombay coast:
have been given in previous issues of this Journal (Chhapgar 1957, 54:
399-439, 503-549 ; 1958, 55 : 582-585 ; 1961, 58 : 529-531). Collections
of crabs made subsequent to these publications have revealed the occur-
rence of several new distributional records. A taxonomic description
of eleven such forms is given below.

| Tribe DROMIACEA
Subtribe DROMIIDEA
Family DROMIIDAE

Genus Conchoecetes Stimpson

Conchoecetes artificiosus (Fabricius) ; |
(Plate I) |

Dromia artificiosa, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. Suppl. : 360 (1798).

Conchoecetes artificiosus, Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) (2)5:
407 (1893) ; Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 151 (1896); Alcock, Catal.
Ind. Deca. Crust. 1 : 41 (1901) ; Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus. 35 : 28 (1933) ; Barnard,
Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 : 308 (1950).

A female from Bombay represents the present collection.

length of carapace .. ae ied Samm:
breadth of carapace aa .. 16mm.

The carapace is flat and pentagonal. The front is cut into three teeth,
the middle being smaller and on a lower plane. There are two teeth on |
the lateral borders of the carapace—one immediately behind the cervical —
groove, the other behind the branchial groove.

The claws are massive, with two tubercles at the distal end of the outer —
surface of the wrist, and two on the palm near the fingers,

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE 609

_. The third. pair of legs are shorter than the first two pairs,’ but are as

stout. They end in huge, talon-like dactyli. The last pair ends in tiny,

claw-like dactyli. The sternal grooves of the female reach the level of

the bases of the first pair of legs.

The crab protects itself by holding a valve of a bivalve mollusc over

it. : |
Distribution: East coast of Africa to Japan and Australia.

Tribe OxYSTOMATA
Family LEUCOSIIDAE
Subfamily LEUCOSHNAE

Genus Leucosia Fabricius

Leucosia pallida Bell

~ Leucosia pallida, Bell, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 21 : 285 (1885) ; Alcock,
~~ Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 222 (1896); Sankarankutty, J. Mar. biol. Assoc.
India 4(1) : 154 (1962).

A female from Bombay represents the present collection.

The carapace is roundish. The true postero-lateral margins of the
carapace are beaded up to the level of the second pair of walking legs.
The posterior border is straight, and has toothed outer angles. The
thoracic sinus is Y-shaped, there being six to seven granules in a row in
the tail of the Y ; three to four of these granules are large and pearl-like.
The front is tridentate and anteriorly distinctly concave in the midline.

The arms of the claws have 7 to 9 pearly tubercles arranged in two
rows. The hand is more than # as broad as long and has its outer border
strongly keeled. The abdomen is four-segmented. ;

Colour greyish. There are two pairs of pale spots in the gastric
region, and two brown spots in the posterior part of the carapace.

This species has been previously recorded from the Andaman Islands
as well as the Persian Gulf.

Leucosia vittata Stimpson

_ Leucosia vittata, Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 159 ip Alcock,
Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 232 (1896).

- A female from Bombay is in the present collection.

The carapace is hexagonal, and is conspicuously longer than broad.
The front ends in three horizontal prongs. The-thoracic sinus has no

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)
granules. -Its outer branch encroaches into the antero-lateral borders
of the carapace, causing a sharp emargination.

The body is blackish, with flame-coloured stripes.
It has been previously recorded from the Andaman Islands.

Leucosia longifrons as Haan
(Plate I)

Leucosia neocaledonica, A. Milne-Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. du Mus. 10 : 40 (1874).
Leucosia longifrons var. neocaledonica, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 218

(1896). .
A male from Bombay is in the present collection. It measures :—
length of carapace .. es .. 23mm.
breadth of carapace es .. 20mm.

The true postero-lateral borders are beaded only as far as the level of
the first pair of walking legs. The tail of the Y-shaped thoracic sinus
bears a row of six to seven large pearly granules, in line with the milled
epimeral edge of the carapace. The front is triangular.

Both the borders of the upper surface of the arm in the. chelipeds
bear a row of tubercles. Proximally there is also a patch of 6-8 coales-
cent granules, and five isolated ones. On the inner border of the wrist
is a row of four granules. The inner edge of the hand bears several such
rows. 3 |

The meropodites of the legs have three rows of gee gs The pro-
podites are keeled.

The anterior male. abdominal appendages are beat at right angles at
the tip to form a spirally twisted, spooned hook, bearing hairs. Just
below the hook is a knob.

Colour greyish. On the gastric region are two large ocelli with
small white centres and very broad red outer rings. Around the
posterior half of the circumference of the carapace are six reddish spots.
The legs are banded red. The fingers of the claw have their basal halves
red, and the distal halves white.

Alcock records this species from the Persian Gulf, Karachi, and Palk
Straits.

Genus Nursia Leach

Nursia abbreviata Bell
(Plate I)

~ Nursia abbreviata, Bell, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 21: 308 (1855) ; Alcock,
Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 65 : 184 (1896).
Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from Worli and
Mahim (Bombay). A large male measures :—

length of carapace .. a .-10 mm.
breadth of carapace a ..12 mm.

J. Bompay nat. His7. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I
Chhapgar: Crab Fauna

gece
tre

25 MM.

0.5 MM

a. Conchoecetes artificiosus, dorsal view. b. Leucosia longifrons, dorsal view. c. Myra
fugax, dorsal view. Nursia abbreviata. d. Dorsal view of crab. e. Tip of Ist left abdo-
MTinal appendage of male.

PLATE II ;

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)
Chhapgar: Crab Fauna

a. Rhynchoplax prox. octagonalis, dorsal view. Sphaerozius nudus. b. Dorsal view of
crab. c. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. d. Tip of same, enlarged. Actaea obesa. |
e. Dorsal view of crab. /f. Ist-left abdominal appendage of male. g. Tip of same, |
enlarged. Portunus hastatoides. h. Dorsal view of crab. i. Tip of 1st left abdominal |

appendage of male.

SRE aes aaa

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY-STATE 611

_ The carapace. is depressed, with thin borders cut into seven lobes.
It has only two ridges across it—one running laterally from border to
border, and a longitudinal one from-the front. The front is eee reeanctly
tridentate.

The arm of the claws is trigonal, with Bra nulas dees The wrist and
hand have a dorsal beaded ridge.

The tip of the anterior male abdominal appendages is shaped like a
trident.
__. This. species has been Cre notiela econded from Karachi. the Coro-
mandel Coast Gulf. of Mannar, and Gulf of Martaban.

Genus Myra Leach

Myra fugax (Fabricius)
(Plate I)

ig Leucosia fugax, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. Suppl. : 351 (1798).

Myra fugax, Leach, Zool. Miscell. 3:. 24; Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal
65 : 202 (1896) ; Ihle, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39 : 256 (1918) ; Chopra, Rec. Ind.
Mus. 35 : 39 (1933) ; Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 : 373 (1950) ; Sankaran-
kutty, J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 4(1) : 154 (1962).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were obtained from trawl catches
off ieee in 25 fathoms. A large male measures :—

length of carapace (without posterior spine) oa) OT am’
'-- length of posterior spine Ad ey. 13 hs 8 mm.
breadth of carapace =i a ie aeaelle da aelany.
length of cheliped cis pehee Sone san asl

_ The carapace is broadly oval, with three sharp spines—one at each
end of the posterior border, and a long one in the middle line above the
posterior border. The front is broadly bidentate. The carapace has a
broad notch in the antero-lateral borders between the hepatic ‘and
branchial regions. The side-walls of the hepatic region form a facet,
behind which the lateral borders are marked by a beaded line.

The anterior abdominal appendages are straight and end in a claw-
like tip almost hidden in a brush of setae. . as

The chelipeds are long and slender. The hand is much longer than
the fingers. : |

~ Colour pinkish.

Distribution: Indo- Pacific, from East Africa to ere Australia,

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Tribe BRACHYGNATHA
Subtribe OXYRHYNCHA
Family HYMENOSOMIDAE
Genus Rhynchoplax Stimpson _
Rhynchoplax prox. octagonalis Kemp
(Plate IT)

Rhynchoplax octagonalis, Kemp, Rec. Ind. Mus. 13 : 256 (1917).

Two females from the crevices of a sponge were collected at Cuffe
Parade, Bombay. The length of carapace of the larger one is 2°5 mm.

The specimens agree with Kemp’s (1917) description of R. octagonalis,
collected from Marmagoa, in the shape of the carapace and other general
characters, but differ in the following characters :—

The long, sharp procurved tooth is situated between the bases of the
first and second pairs of walking legs, rather than above the bases of the
first leg. The walking legs are slenderer and less hirsute. The anterior
border of their meri has no tooth. There is a stout recurved tooth close
to the tip of the dactylus in the first pair of legs. Four minute denticles
are present on the dactyli of the second and third pairs of legs.

Elamena sindensis Alcock

C. Sankarankutty, on page 347 of his paper ‘On Decapoda Brachyura
from the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay ’, published along with the other
papers read at the Symposium on Crustacea held by the Marine
Biological Association of India in 1966, states Elamena sindensis to be a
new record for the Indian region. It appears that he has not seen my
paper published in this Journal, volume 55 (3), 1958, where I have des-
cribed E. sindensis on page 582.

Subtribe BRACHYRHYNCHA
Family PORTUNIDAE
Subfamily LUPINAE
Genus Portunus ~
Portunus hastatoides Fabricius
(Plate IT)

Portunus hastatoides, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. Suppl. 368 (1798):

Neptunus (Hellenus) hastatoides, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 68 : 38 (1899).
Neptunus hastoides, Chopra, Rec. Ind. Mus. 37 : 477 (1935).

Hellenus hastatoides, Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 : 158 (1950).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from trawl catches
off Bombay in 25 fathoms. A large male measures :—

length of carapace oh i oo) 2.) oe
breadth of carapace (excluding lateral spines) 33 mm.

MORE ADDITIONS 70 I'HE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE 613

The carapace is flat, the front being cut into four teeth. The antero-
lateral borders are cut into nine teeth, the last being much longer than
the others. The postero-lateral angles of the carapace are spiniform.

The hands of the chelipeds are almost as massive as the arms. There
are two spines near the distal end of the posterior border of the arms.
The distal half of the borders of the meropodites of the last pair of legs
is finely serrulate.

The anterior abdominal appendage is abruptly bent in its distal half,
with a few hairs near the tip.

Colour fieshy brown. There is a brownish black patch on the tips
of the dactyli of the swimming legs.

This species occurs from, Zanzibar to Japan, having also been recorded
from the east coast of India and the Andaman Islands.

Family XANTHIDAE
Subfamily MENIPPINAE
Genus Sphaerozius

Sphaerozius nudus (Milne-Edwards)
(Plate 1)

Actumnus nudus, Milne-Edwards, Ann. Soc. Entomol. France 7: 265 (1867) ;
de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 22:49 (1887-88) ; Alcock, Journ.
As. Soc. Bengal 67 : 207 (1898).

Sphaerozius nudus, Balss, Rec. Ind. Mus. 37: 46 (1935).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from the wreck
of the 8.8. RAMDAS, (which sank on the 17th July, 1947, with a loss of
more than 700 lives) when it was salvaged on Ist April, 1957, and re-sunk
off Butcher Island (Bombay harbour). A large male measures :—

length of carapace .. he seep Oanarin,
breadth of carapace ei sie), 2a faa

This species is distinguished by the bare, convex carapace with four
broadly triangular teeth on the antero-lateral borders, not including the
outer angle of the orbit. There are two arched rows of pearly granules
on either side of the gastric region.

The chelipeds are unequal, with the upper and outer surfaces of the
wrist and hand studded with tubercles. The thumb has a broad tooth
proximally.

Colour yellowish grey, fingers of chelipeds dark brown with white
tips.

6

614. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

The anterior abdominal appendages are sinuous, with the truncate
tip bearing numerous spinules.

Balss has discussed the systematic position of this crab.

This species has been previously recorded from Pondicherry, the Gulf
of Mannar, and Mergui. :

Subfamily ACTAEINAE
Genus Actaea

Actaea obesa Milne-Edwards
(Plate II)

Actaea obesa, Milne-Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. du Mus. 1: 272 (1865); Alcock,
Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 67 : 145 (1898).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from the wreck of
the 8.S. RAMDAS.

This species can be distinguished by the convex carapace being
covered with granules, and not with tubercles. The areolation of the
carapace is extremely faint anteriorly, due to the fineness of the grooves ;
itis absent from the posterior third of the carapace. The lobulation of
the antero-lateral borders is also indistinct, especially in the first lobe.
The length of the carapace is slightly more than two-thirds its breadth.
_ There are a few hairs on the carapace and legs.

length of carapace .. fs Sei ek oD oot
breadth of carapace Vs 2) 4950 mama,

The anterior abdominal appendages are arched, with a transparent
horny tip. There are many recurved spinules and a few long hairs near
the tip.

This species has been previously recorded from Bombay.

/
Family PINNOTHERIDAE
Subfamily XENOPHTHALMINAE
Genus Xenophthalmus White

Xenophthalmus pinnotheroides White

- Xenophthalmus pinnotheroides, White, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 18: 178 (1846);
Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 5 : 394 (1893) ; Rathbun, K. Dansk.
Vid. Selsk. Skr. 7(5) : 338 (1910) ; Tesch, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39 : 272 (1918).

Xenophthalmus pinnoteroides, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 69 : 332 (1900).

Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from Chowpatty,
Bombay.

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE 615

Anterior part of carapace and legs hairy. Carapace 13 times as
broad as long. Epistome absent. Orbits are longitudinal slits, parallel
to each other, in the carapace. Palp of external maxillipeds spirally
twisted, rod-like, the propodite being at right angles to the carpopodite,
and the dactylus being again perpendicular to the propodus.

Propodite of first pair of walking legs as broad as long, distorted—
the originally ventral side being turned dorsally. Third pair of legs as

long as, or longer than, twice the carapace length.
Anterior abdominal appendages long, obtuse at the tip, the latter with

a group of slender spines.
Distribution : Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand.

I had given a key for the identification of the marine crabs of the
(then) Bombay State, on pages 524-530 of volume 54, no. 3, of this
Journal. Additional records of crabs from Bombay, published by me
since then, have necessitated modifications and/or additions to this
key at various places. A revision is, therefore, attempted here. The
numbers referred to in it are those found in the original key—new inser-
tions being indicated by letters, so as to avoid confusion.

6. Merus of external maxillipeds more than half the length of the ischium
measured along the inner border (Leucosiinae) on oe A

Merus of external maxillipeds half or less than half the length of the
ischium measured along the inner border (Iiinae) ae
Arcania septemspinosa

A. Carapace convex, subcircular or oval Se nae a B
Carapace broad and polygonal .. ne Nursia abbreviata
B. Chelipeds massive, posterior border of carapace smooth ee C
Chelipeds slender, posterior border of carapace with three petaloid
spines .. c et a uy: Myra fugax
C. Front narrow. Exopodites of external maxillipeds narrow, with the
outer margins straight (Leucosia) i ne ee D
Front broad. Exopodites of external maxillipeds broad, their outer
borders forming a semicircle (Philyra) ae a KN 9
D. Carapace much longer than broad.. Mes “fe Oy E
Carapace as broad as long a as Leucosia sima
E. Thickened epimeral edge of carapace not visible in all its extent when
viewed dorsally Aa Ae He ee ay F
Thickened epimeral edge of carapace completely visible wken viewed
dorsally .. ae ae at: a We G
F. Outer edge of hand keeled Sa bee Leucosia pallida

Outer edge of hand not keeled a Leucosia longifrons neocaledonica

616

G.

Tit

13;

IES}

22:

36.

42.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Thoracic sinus deep... ts ah Leucosia vittata
Thoracic sinus shallow ae je Leucosia pubescens
Last pair of legs shorter than the first two pairs me ae H
Last pair of legs longer than the first two pairs. . Pseudodromia integrifrons
Carapace convex Bis Bt ts Dromia dormia
Carapace flat and pentagonal ea at Conchoecetes artificiosus

Carapace flat, weakly calcified. Male genital openings on last thoracic
sternite (Hymenosomidae) ae ve in mt J

Carapace not flat, strongly calcified. Male genital openings on fifth

coxopodites ne ath ae ie a 14
Carapace with a honeycomb pattern he Rhynchoplax octagonalis
Carapace without a honeycomb pattern (Elamena) a oe K
Tips of dactyli of legs biunguiculate Au Elamena cristatipes
Tips of dactyli of legs triunguiculate RE Elamena sindensis

Eyes without true orbits. Eyestalks very short or obsolescent, con-
cealed beneath a supra-ocular spine or sunk in the sides of a large
rostrum .. an ee he ie Bt L

Orbits partly defined. Postocular process present, hollowed for the

partial retraction of the short eyestalks (Pisinae) +h Ae 16
Orbits complete enough to entirely conceal the cornea dorsally Ks 17
Eyestalks long ae ee ae Achaeus lacertosus
Eyestalks short (Acanthonychinae) aA AS aH M
Rostrum simple ae Pa site Menaethius monoceros
Rostrum bifid Hy ah ee Acanthonyx limbatus |
Teeth on antero-lateral borders equal in size. . Ai Scylla serrata |

Last tooth on antero-lateral borders enlarged in the form of a large
spine (Portunus) hs Me ge ie oe N-

Posterior angles of carapace rounded ie ue Le 23),

: Se e |
Posterior angles of carapace spiniform ay Portunus hastatoides |

Fingers of chelipeds with broad, hoof-like extremities Etisus laevimanus

|
|
:

Fingers of chelipeds pointed ay es de SY, P |
Carapace granulate .. Be a Actaea obesa |
Carapace tuberculate .. i sk Actaea savignyi |
Basal antennal joint not reaching the front (Menippinae).. zi, Q |
Basal antennal joint broadly in contact with front Ks Ne 43 |
All the antero-lateral teeth broad, triangular. . Sphaerozius nudus |

Anterior antero-lateral teeth broad, anteriorly acuminate, last one
narrow and carinated 2 Ses Myomenippe hardwickii

ee
SS

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF BOMBAY STATE 617

47.

54.

Small crabs living as commensals, mostly in bivalve molluscs (Pinno-
therinae) x? + oa ove an 48

Free living crabs ie Ay ae fe bh R
The orbits are narrow chinks situated dorsally with their long axes at

right angles to the anterior border of the carapace
‘ Xenophthalmus pinnotheroides

Orbits normal, transverse hg a éy, e. 49
Front 1/5th to 1/6th the greatest breadth of the carapace. . ote Ss
Front less than 1/15th the greatest breadth of the carapace a 55
Two oblique granular ridges on the inner surface of the palm of the

larger male cheliped.. 5 ae! Gelasimus annulipes
Only one oblique ridge on the inner surface of the palm of the larger

male cheliped ies Eu .. Gelasimus inversus sindensis

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to Dr. K. K. Tiwari, of the Zoological Survey
of India, for confirmation of identification of some of the crabs, and to
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director, and Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior
Scientific Officer, Department of Fisheries, Maharashtra State, for
critically going through the manuscript.

Occurrence of Spindasis abnormis
(Moore), (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)
on the Western Ghats

A revised Description, including Male Genitalia and
Notes on early Development

BY

| A. E. BEAN, SSJE
Society S. John the Evangelist, Marston Street, Oxford

(With eight plates and two text-figures)

Both sexes of Spindasis abnormis Moore are redescribed. Examination
of male genitalia establishes this as a good species. The egg, and the egg-
larva with its ant relationship, are described for the first time. Field notes
are given on the biology of this butterfly. Much further research,
especially of the early stages, ought to be undertaken.

INTRODUCTION

Between 1951 and 1964 I was most fortunate in capturing nineteen
examples of the rare butterfly Spindasis abnormis (M.),in two places on the
Western Ghats, Maharashtra State. Previously there had been a total
of only three males and six females available in the BM (NH), the Hope
Department, Oxford, and the Bombay Natural History Society. This

additional material, therefore, made possible a detailed review of the ©

species. Mr. G. E. Tite has done dissections of the male genitalia, and

with the generous permission of the authorities of the British Museum —
(Natural History) I am able to reproduce his drawings here. Mr. Tite’s —
work, and that of Sir Keith Cantlie, seemto establish this Spindasis form —

as a good species. The egg has been found for the first time. Un-
happily the resulting larva only survived a few days. It was of great

interest, being attractive to ants from the first like the other members of ©

the genus that have been studied. One hopes that this paper will help
someone to work out the full life history.

DESCRIPTION

Sir Keith Cantlie sent me a passage from De Niceville (1890 : 355)
who quotes the original description by Moore of the male, made from

|

|

J. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I

Bean: Spindasts abnormis

is Be

Above ; Post-monsoon Male. Upperside showing clear shade on lower and
central areas of forewing.

(Photo: F. L. Wain)

Below: Spring Male. Upperside showing dusting of light scales on forewing.
(Photo: W. McM. Wait)

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE II

Bean : Spindasis abnormis

Above: Post-monsoon Male. Underside showing complete markings.
(Photo: F. L. Wain)

Below : Spring Male showing reduced markings.
(Photo: W. McM. Watt)

Sete Mae ae

OCCURRENCE Ql SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 619

what seems must be the type specimen now in the BM (NH)?. But in
view of the material now available I venture to offer the following in
greater detail: (See Plates I, I] and IV for the male; Plate III for the
female).

MALE:

Upperside. Forewing, c. 15 mm., dusky violet brown. Spaces la, 1b, 2 base of
3 and lower part of cell between origins of v3 and v4 covered with scales of dull
greenish blue, seen as shot with rich dark blue when held at a certain angle, and shin-
ing green at another angle. In DSF examples upf blue area may be sprinkled with
light scales. In two examples (my S/Nos. 1745 and 1768) the irroration is very notice-
able, largely obscuring the greenish blue, and so reducing the shot or shining colours
at other angles. Dcv darkened. An obscure dark mark mid cell. Marginal line
blackish brown, obscure but continuous. Cilia sullied white, hint of pale blue at
tornus. Hindwing spaces 7 and 8 greyish brown, grading to a lighter shade towards
the termen, often flushed with yellowish. Pre-costal cell bare, of a darker greyish
brown. All cells, and spaces 1c to 6, overlaid by greenish blue scales, seen at different
angles as on F. Spaces la and 1b ochreous, clothed with long white hairs. Marginal
line as on F but obsolescent in 8 and 7, wider from 6 down. In one WSF example
(my S/N 2210) there is an irregular ochreous brown border of approximately 1 mm.,
inside marginal line from apex to lobe. Lobe dull ochreous brown, with a few
ochreous scales, anally dark brown to a variable extent prominently so in WSF
examples. In most cases a very slight touch of silver on the lobe. Tail at v.1b, 3 mm.,
blackish, orange at base, white tip. Tail at v2, 1 mm., sprinkled with a few orange
scales, white tip. Between tails the marginal line is indicated by a variable amount
of dark brown sometimes touched with silver scales. Cilia greyish brown often
variegated in shade, with a hint of light blue at the tornus.

Underside. Forewing light ochreous with scattered bluish-grey inconspicuous
scales, but these are denser in spaces la and 1b. In DSF the ground colour shade
appears paler and seems to have more red in it. Costa shaded brokenly blackish-
brown from near base to apex. A sub-basal band of conjoined brown spots bearing
silver spots from costa across cell terminating at origin of v2. A central band of
conjoined brown spots bearing silver spots from mid-costa directed towards the tor-
nus, ending at vl. Discal markings, a quadrate spot in 9 and 10, silver centred.
Postdiscal markings, a striga from space 9 to 6, and another striga in 4. Submarginal
markings, brown dots in 1b to 5, those in 4 and 5 slightly silvered, at least in the
example S/N 2222 in coll.BNHS. This also has a query-shaped apical mark touched
internally with silver in 6. The submarginal markings vary greatly and tend to
obsolescence in the DSF. Some of the WSF examples, including that illustrated
(Plate II, above) and the BNHS specimen more faintly, (Plate IV, above) show a double
row of submarginal spots. A marginal line on termen, blackish brown, often ill-
defined especially in DSF. Hindwing, ground colour as F. Obscure basal spots in
7, cell, 2, and on vila, often absent, even in WSF. A central band of narrow con-
joined brown strigae, bearing silver spots, from mid-costa to v1 above the lobe of
the tornus. A discal band of similar strigae bearing silver spots from costa to v4.
A postdiscal band of brown strigae from v7 to v4, after which it becomes darker brown
until it meets the central band and also a line in 1b above the lobe. Traces of a sub-
marginal line in some specimens. A marginal line from v6 to v2. Tail at v1b, turn-
ing through yellow to blackish, white tipped. Tail at v2 blackish. The marginal
line between the tails is indicated by a line broader and richer brown than the line
between v6 and v2. A sparsely silvered patch above the marginal line between the

1 Then known as Aphnaeus abnormis Moore. See Moore 1883, p. 526.

¢

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

tails. Lobe; greenish, dark blue and rich brown scales on a ground of yellow and
pinkish. A small tuft on inner side of lobe. The description of the lobal area is
made from the well-marked WSF,S/N 2222 in coll. BNHS (Plate IV, above); the mark-
ings here tend to complete obsolescence, especially in DSF. In 1b a chevron-shaped
brown line with silver spots from the dorsum near vla, ending not far from the central
and postdiscal bands. The chevron points roughly to the junction of the central band
with the costa. Cilia, greenish externally, then olive brown ; internally, at base, like
ground colour of wings. Antennae. Club gradual. Above, club purplish, iridescent ;
sheathed by shaft to expose 8 segments. Shaft inconspicuously annulated with white.
Below, club velvety, light blue, sheathed by shaft to expose 10-11 segments. Shaft
has chevron-shaped white marks at joints. Thorax, above purplish brown, darker
than wings, iridescent. Scapular hairs light greenish-blue, pubescent. On segment
2 there are some longer and coarser white and whitish hairs, and more such on seg-
ment 3. Below, concolorous with wings. Abdomen, above purplish brown, some
iridescent blue scales. At sides, reddish, this colour usually extending well up to-
wards the dorsal surface. Below, as wings.
Eyes and legs: similar to those of other species of the genus.

Male Genitalia (See Plates V, VI, VII, and VIII.)

Mr. G. E. Tite writes : ‘The Spindasis abnormis genitalia are, I find, a little diffi-
cult to draw in a way that shows clearly the various parts ; the valves are an amazing
mixture of twists and curves, and the anellus is joined up with the valves by a quantity
of diaphanous tissues, very difficult to see, and not possible to reproduce on paper.
In order to overcome this I have made two preparations ; one is separated into three
parts, the uncus, the aedeagus, and the valves with the saccus ; the other is kept in-
tactie:

Mr. Tite’s work on the genitalia seems to establish this as a good species, and that
it cannot be an aberration of some Spindasis form as suggested, but without reasons
given, by Evans (1932).

The nearest on genitalia to this species would, on general grounds, appear to be
Spindasis maximus Elwes from Burma. When, however, the parts are dissected out
the relative difference in each species of the size of the aedeagi asicompared with the
valves is striking. There are also the following clear differences.

S. abnormis S. maximus

Uncus : Central U-shaped gap narrow. U-shaped gap much wider; this
could be due to pressure in
dissection, but in Mr. Tite’s
Opinion this was not so.

Aedeagus : Bears a solid looking organof No such organ, but an area in in-

cylindrical shape covered with terior of vesica is covered with
blunt points. Length 2°29 mm. short, sharp spines. Length

2°36 mm.

Valves : (i) Viewed from inside, as in (i) The outline referred to is con-
plate VI(a), the outline from tinuous but slightly wavy.
tip to ventral edge is sharply See plate VI (b).

broken by a right-angled
step.
(ii) Dorsal edge of valve is at right (ii) Dorsal edge of valve makes
angles to tip. an S-shaped curve with the
tip.
(iii) The bridge connecting the val- (iii) The bridge has a wide U-
ves inside has a narrow, | shaped cleft.

deep U-shaped cleft.

OCCURRENCE CF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 621

It seems to be characteristic of both abnormis and maximus that the tips of both
uncus and valves are folded and twisted over in an intricate manner.!

FEMALE :
_ The following description is from my two females, S/Nos. 1496 and 1750, slightly
expanded from De Niceville’s description, (loc. cit. 355) :—

Upperside : forewing, 16-17 mm., WSF the smaller, shining plumbeous silvery.
Dark ochreous brown border, widening on costa from about 1 mm. to about 2 mm.
near apex. At apex about 4 mm., narrowing again towards anal angle which it just
turns. Veins darkened by shade similar to that of border, especially in the WSF
example. Darkening of dcv and mid-cell as male. Hindwing, below v6 of the same
plumbeous silvery as F. Above v6, lightish ochreous, darkened towards bases of

spaces 6 and 7. Precostal cell bare and darker. Dcv darkened, more broadly in the
WSF example. Veins as on F. Marginal line easily seen, as no other border except
obscure ochreous brown patch at apex. De Niceville’s accurate description helped
me to see that the lobes of my two females are slightly redder than those of the males.
In the WSF example the colour of the lobes extends to near vla. In De Niceville’s
description there is a footnote that the silvery shade resembles that on the upperside
of females of the forms now Known as Spindasis nipalicus M. and S. nipalicus sani
DeN. Underside as in male. Sides of abdomen ochreous, (cf. male).

EGG
, The egg was light brown the day after being laid, and the next day
turned darker. The empty egg shell, stillin position on moss-covered
bark, is mounted with S/N 1997 in my collection. In shape it is a sphere,
flattened but not extremely, at the poles. Diameter 1 mm., depth, from
‘Sto ‘6 mm. These measurements include the surface sculpture. The
depth cannot be given precisely, because of the hole in the top where the
larva emerged.
The surface of the egg is netted by cells of irregular squarish and
hexagonal shapes. So far as can be seen the cells are roughly equal in
area. However, the egg mentioned below (p. 626), is presumably of the
same species and being unbroken it shows cells decreasing slightly to-
wards the micropyle. The cell walls rise fairly sharply as shown at top
| left in Text-fig. 1. When looked at from above, with more or less top
lighting, the cell walls seem band-like, as shown in the right central area
in the figure. The junctions of the cell walls form slightly raised knobs
“many of which have a slight pit on top. The bottoms of the cells are
shallowly scored by coarse, irregular pitting. The inside of the shell,
seen through the emergence hole, is light brown and polished, showing
at certain angles a beautiful green iridescence.

-EGG-LARVA
On 3.ii1.1964 the newly hatched larva had green mid-segments and was

jred elsewhere. A pair of permanently everted dorso-lateral organs were

| clearly seen on somite 8 of the abdomen. The head was always visible

| 1The BM/NH slides of abnormis are listed ‘G. E. Tite, 1965-655’ and ‘656’
| Prepared from males in the coll. with my S. No. 1751 & 2307—A.E.B.

att oe oe

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

and never drawn into the first thoracic segment as in most Lycaenidae,
and this is probably characteristic of the genus. From above, the sides

® aN
Wear

Text Fig.

Spindasis abnormis M.
Egg shell (diagrammatic)

of the body were parallel. The whitish hairs which clothed the body
were long and shiny. i
On 6.iii.1964 the length was about 1°5 mm. and colour changes had
occurred. The head was now dark brown, and as far as I could make out
the thorax also. I noticed that the lateral hairs sloped towards the
support. The larva was so closely appressed to its support that only the
upperside could be examined, the sides being practically concealed.

While the larva was alive I failed to locate the exact position of the
dorsal organ, and did not manage to see the ants drinking from it. I
cannot at present detect it in the dead specimen either. It is probably
hidden in a crease of somite 7, caused by the anal end turning up some- |
what after death. |

Also, I cannot now be sure of the exact location of the paired organs
on somite 8 which were easy to seein life. In the figure I have indicated —
small processes which I believe to be these organs at either end of a kidney-
shaped darkened area, representing what is apparently a hardened |
surface. I have not attempted to show all the abundant hairs, but have |
tried to show the club-like setae or tubercles which are present at the sides |
of somite 7 of the abdomen and 1 and 3 of the thorax. :

Until more material is obtained it will probably be impossible to |
describe the larva more fully. A detailed description of the larva of
S. vulcanus F. unsurpassed since, is in Bell (1919) : 473 ff. |

OCCURRENCE OF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 623

DATA OF AVAILABLE MATERIAL

Collection

1. BM(NH)

We fe

13. Bean

14. BM(NH)

15. Hope Depart. in

coll.H.C. &R.

Winkworth
16. BM(NH)

18. Bombay NHS
19. BM(NH)

20. oa

pl. A

22. Bombay NHS
ZS. Sf) 99

24. Hope Depart.coll.
1 (ee Oot amin 6
Winkworth
25. BM(NH)

26. ss

‘27. Bean

28. BM(NH)

29. Bean

30. Dept. of
Entomology,
Michigan State
University

31. A. J. Sharman,

A Dallington Green,
Northampton, Eng.

32. Muséum National
Paris
33. Bean

Locality &
Sex altitude Date
3 (type) Coonoor, n.d.
e coll. Moore Nulgiris
2 (type) Nilgiris, n.d.
6200 ft.
Nilgiris im. di
e coll. Watson
Nilgiris March,
1892)
3 (809) W. Ghats 29-x-61
c. 750 m.
3d (810) », c. 750 m. 5-xi-61
3 (1489) Bae 17-x-63
3 (1745) as 8-11-64
3 (1751) ic hag 22-11-64
3 (1752) oh ciae 22-11-64
3 (1749) sarehi? 23-ii-64
3 (1765) ae 29-11-64
3 (1766) eaten 29-11-64
3 (1768) senate, Se 29-11-64
6 Clt77) rae As 29-11-64
3 (2209) be ies 4-x-64
3 (2210) Se ae 4-x-64
Gr 222) La ae 11-x-64
3 (2289) Cor 26-x-64
3 (2307) ca ee 27-x-64
Q Nr. Poona, n.d.
Purandhar
9 Coonoor, -1ii-1927
Nilgiris
Q Coonoor, -1i1-1927
Nilgiris
2 Coonoor, -iii-1932
Nilgiris
2 Coonoor, 16-iv-1934
Nilgiris
@ (2498) W. Ghats 7/10-v-1951
' c. 1300 m.
2 (1496) », 750m. 17-x-1963
2 (1750) in a 23-ii-1964
ob (2663) + ie 11-x-1966
S (2668) Bh . 15-i-1967
a (2675) 34 3 28-i-1967
3 (2674) » 9» 28-i-1967
@ (2874) »» ¢. 1300 m. 3-iv-1967

Collector

Lindsay
not given
not given
not given

A. E. Bean

Mrs. E. M.
Harvey
J. Florence

99

Note :—The female type in BM(NH), listed No. 2 above, is apparently that des-
cribed by De Niceville (loc. cit., 355) ‘from a single example in Mr. G. F.

. Hampson’s collection ’.

specimen.

Unfortunately this is not actually noted under the

624. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)
FIELD OBSERVATIONS

The following is based entirely on notes made while the facts were
fresh in the mind ; it is hoped they are of some value in filling out the
picture of this species in the field. The numbers given for reference
below are the serial numbers from the first column of the above list.
They are followed in brackets by the serial numbers on the data labels of
my specimens.

26 (2498) is my first caught, and through inexperience not identified
until 1957. It is a ragged female example taken at flowers of Vitex
negundo Linn., which are especially attractive to Lycaenids and also to
bees and wasps. It is the only one I found in the regions during the
month of May.

5 and 6 (809 and 810) are males taken ‘ basking’ on leaves in the
hot sun at about 14.00 hrs. They seem to have similar habits to male
S. lohita M. which I found flying in the same favourite spots on this

Text Fic. 2.

Spindasis abnormis M.
Egg larva x 50

particular hill. They arrive as if from nowhere, dash back and forth and
around the trees, and then may pitch suddenly on a leaf or else go off
without settling. In this case one sat about twelve feet up a Terminalia
tree, and the other on a low bush in the * basking ’ clump.

All my males, about which there is nothing particular to say below,
were caught ‘ basking’. My reason for inverted commas here is given
below (p. 628) under Field work. They were often about 15-20 feet up,
and hard to see because of the cryptic undersides, especially in the dry
season against yellowing Terminalia leaves. Almost the only way of
locating them is to try and follow their tantalizing preliminary dartings
before they settle. They may, when really settled, open their wings
displaying the shot blue as a stab of colour in the sunlight. In this

J. BomBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) Pracn al

Bean: Spindasis abnormis

Above : Spring Female. Upperside ; Below : Underside.
(Photos: W. McM. Wait)

J. BompBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE LY

Bean : Spindasis abnormis

Above : Post-monsoon Male. Underside. Western Ghats, October 1964 ;
Below : Typical Ghat country.

(Photos: W. McM. Wait)

OCCURRENCE OF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 625

position the hind-wings are mostly covered by the forewings. When
there is a good view of the underside one’s excitement increases, for
abnormis has a distinctive pale look below, quite unlike /ohita with its
broad sienna, almost crimson, strigae.

In connection with the male habit of ‘ basking’ the following is of
interest: On 29.11.1964 at about 15.30 hrs. I was about to leave the
ground with one male secured, when another, and, as it turned out, at
least two others arrived in quick succession and in a rather different
manner from those observed when the sun was high. By this time most
of the ‘ basking’ clump was in shadow on account of the hill summit
behind me ; but the sun still lit up a four-foot Randia bush in front of
the trees. The first arrival halted on the Randia. I could see it was
abnormis and felt sure it would not stop long, so I disregarded the fear-
some spines and made a stroke just above the insect, the only hope in the
circumstances, and it worked. As soon as I was ready again another
appeared, and I managed to get it in the same way. A third turned out
to be unsuspecting, for though it left the bush while I was trying to aim,
it settled in a much easier position on the Jambul behind. I have
observed S. lohita behaving in the same kind of way as these abnormis
in order to get the last of the sun. My impression was that they
came from a roughly westerly direction, probably from the summit.
[References are to 12 (1765), 13 (1766), 14 (1768) and 15 (1777)].

The WSF female, 27 (1496), was pointed out to me by my colleague
Father Wain as it sat drinking from the flowers of Celosia argentea Linn.
at about 13.00 brs. The sky had clouded over from 11.00 hrs. and
thunder was about.

The DSF butterflies also come to flowers ; I took the males 9 and 10
(1751) and (1752) at or around the flowers of Colebrookia, a scrubby
plant with persistent flowerheads, very attractive to several kinds of
Lycaenids during its short flowering season. When it was getting past
its peak I took the male 12 (1765) nearby at flowers of Zizyphus rugosa
Lamk.

In the fine weather after the monsoon of 1964 a specially interesting
tree, Dalbergia came into flower, and was very attractive to Lycaenids
for about five days. The male 20 (2307) came to this tree at about
11.00 hrs.; I have never seen an abnormis earlier in the day. Spindasis
vulcanus F., and S. lohita also came to this Dalbergia, along with a female
Tajuria cippus F., and both male and female Anthene lycaenina lycaenina
Felder, in good numbers. This particular Shisham or Rosewood tree
was growing on the side of a steep nullah where it would have got less
attention from woodcutters and was able to flower.

Egg laying
On 22.11.1964, I saw a female evidently egg-laying on a Terminalia

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

about ten feet from the ground. She was clinging to a small moss-
covered side branch, from which there were lateral stems carrying leaf-

buds about to open. She was well concealed by the underside pattern, —

but as she probed delicately about with her abdomen her perching angle
changed somewhat and showed she was there. The movement would
not have been likely to attract a bird or lizard, as it was very like that of an
insecure leaf in the wind. 7

After about a minute she left the tree, fluttered around the
Colebrookia without pausing for a drink, and made off. I wished her
well, climbed the tree and cut off the small branch. But I could not find
an egg on the leaf buds. I cut the buds off and took them to the house ;
I scrutinized them outside and in, and still no egg. Next day I was able
to return as it was Sunday afternoon. There was the branch, exactly
where I had put it down when looking at the buds. There were the side
shoots, with traces of the buds. And there, below the junction with the
stem of one of these side shoots, was an egg on the bark among moss.
I reflected that I might well have flung the branch from me instead of
putting it down. As I had seen no Spindusis eggs of any kind before I
was not prepared for looking at bark, though of course this is just where
such great ant-lovers might be expected to lay. I report the circum-

stances, in no doubt myself that this was the egg I had watched an un-

mistakable abnormis laying the day before.

A week after this adventure I was again on the spot, and depressed
to find the whole area had been burnt by grass cutters and several trees
and much undergrowth were affected. After a long search I found an
egg, apparently identical with that found on 22 March, on the same tree
trunk. It was slightly marked, as if by fire, over the micropyle area and
did not hatch. It is mounted in my collection, S/N 1998.

Young larva, and ant relationship
On 3.i1i1.1964, the larva emerged from the egg after an interval of
nine days, whichis exceptionally long for butterflies in the latitude ; I
do not remember any of the admittedly few tropical Lycaenidae I have
studied in the early stages taking more than three days. The larva
emerged from the top of the egg and did not consume the rest of the shell.
The larva went readily to the young leaves of a Terminalia, taken from

the tree on which it had been found. However, on no occasion did I

actually see it eating these leaves, for it is not always so easy to make out
what a tiny Lycaenid larva is doing. Quite probably, even if it did eat

the leaves, it may have nibbled also the lichen on the stems provided and

the moss from the stem on which the egg had been found. I had to use
stems of Terminalia brought to Poona from the Ghats and kept in damp
earth. In order to prevent the foodstuffs drying up I had to keep the
larva in damp conditions also. In Poona, in March, this meant approxi-

—— <7

+ Baas as

OCCURRENCE OF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 627

mately airtight conditions, so I rigged a cage from a glass lamp chimney
of moderate size, bedded in damp earth and closed at the top by a glass
plate. The food kept fresh, there was not much condensation, and I
do not think the well-being of the larva was affected.

I placed two Cremastogaster ants from the Poona garden into the
cage. Immediately they began to fuss around the little larva. I was
greatly relieved at this, for when getting the egg I had seen no ants on the
tree trunk. Later I did find tiny ants everywhere on this trunk, but
missed my opportunity of taking a sample.

The larva was very active for short periods. It evidently did eat the
Terminalia leaves, making holes as far through as the lower epidermis.
Since in the cage the leaves were not in position relative to the ground
which they would have held when on the tree, it remains uncertain
whether the larva ate from the surface which happened to be above, or
always from the actual upper surface.+

After a period of activity it rested, either below a leaf or more often
in a crack of the bark, where it was very hard to see. I observed it
stayed in a crack for several hours. I kept thinking I had lost it, but
learnt to look for the glint of the dorsal hairs.

4-iii. Towards evening the larva hid among moss on the bark, the
drier of the two samples given.

5-iii. The larva was still on the bark, with the two ants continually
moving around it and all over the stems. I noted that it seemed to be
eating the dry moss. It looked healthy, and when it did decide to move,
which was not often, it did so in a quick, determined manner, the very
opposite of the sluggish behaviour of most Lycaenid larvae.

I became worried about the ants getting enough nourishment from the
secretions of this tiny larva, so I supplied sugar solution, but did not notice

them drink it. The ants remained in a state of such complete fascina-

tion by the larva that even when I was holding the stem and brushing
them off while I looked for the larva they were most unwilling to leave.

The larva continued to be very difficult to locate, pressing itself right
into the contours of the bark. Its colour and pattern were also highly
protective, and being only about 2 mm. long, a strand of moss could
hide it from view.

During the afternoon of this day the larva apparently settled down to
change its first skin.

6.111. I noted the changes in colour given above (p. 622). The ants
were continually fussing around with waving antennae, even when the
larva went under the moss in the early afternoon. I know now that I
ought to have left it alone and not looked for it; its presence during

| tetirement for the moult was well indicated by the ants. However, the

1I expect my observation is at fault; see Bell’s statement, in Hinton (1949).

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

fact is I looked for it again that evening; and placed it oa an Entada leaf
which I had added to the now not so fresh Terminalia. It ate some of
this for there were droppings, and signs of eating on.the originally whole
leaflets of the Antada. Unfortunately the last of these moves and
searchings must have resulted in injuring it. Next day I found it dead
on the upper surface of the leaflet where it had rested the night before.

Field Work

The places where one encounters the Spindasis group are almost
exclusively the tops of hills and lower eminences below the tops, where
the males play and chase one another ; and at the flowers of some trees
and herbs, where both sexes are seen. In Poona City and suburbs, for ©
instance, one sees the species more characteristic of the plains, S. vulcanus,

S. ictis Hew and S. elima M., coming to flowers, especially garden Celosia
and others of that type, also Poinsettia and Ageratum. But for the true
hill species, S. lohita and S. abnormis as well as other genera such as
Pratapa, one must locate the ‘ basking’ trees. Otherwise one may
tramp a long way on the hills without due reward. :

It is important also to carry extensions to one’s net handle, however, —
kutcha as my apparatus certainly was, but it usually worked. I had °
three male bamboos each about 4’ 6'’ long. I carried No. 1 in my left
hand where it served also as a walking and steadying stick and yet did
not prevent me from controlling the net-bag. The eighteen-inch net-
handle had a ferrule to take the top end of No. 1. A suitable ferrule can —
be got from inside a cycle pedal. As necessary I could add Nos. 2 and
3, which had ferrules from old sea-fishing rods. I carried extensions 2
nd 3 on slings over the shoulder ; I did not get into such a pickle as_
might be imagined.

The sort of place to look for is the head of a nullah on the hillside,
from about 10.00 to 11.00 hrs. until 15.30 or so, according to the time of _
year. Spindasis do not seem to come early, but Iraota, Pratapa and Zezius
do. These, and others, all like the breeze blowing up the nullah, which
makes a chosen green leaf in the sunshine a pleasant place for an active —
butterfly to sit on, often with wings half open. I cannot call this basking |
in the strict sense. Lycaenid butterflies, anyway, do not stay long in |
scorching heat yet they often sit on a favourite perch for several minutes, |
even a quarter of an hour or longer. What I think they are enjoying —
is a cool vapour-bath ; the hot wind which tries the collector is tempered _
for the butterfly by passing through green leaves.

Nearly every nullah offering such conditions may have ‘ basking |
trees ’ at its head, but one or two places on the hill will be found markedly ©
popular with the butterflies, and used by their kind year after year |
Male Spindasis only are found in this way, though of course when the |
food plant is near there is the chance of a female. |

oa

_ J. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)
Bean: Spindasis abnormis

PLATE

(5)
Uncus
(a) Spindasis abnormis ; (b) Spindasis maximus

[amore ea ww enmw fet T4819

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OCCURRENCE GF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 629

Of the two types of catching ground—hilltops and flowers—the
latter are least profitable, no doubt because there are never a great many
flowers of the right sort on the Ghats in their present denuded condition.
A garden in or adjoining the jungle might be ideal, as for instance at
Vihar and Kanheri near Bombay where I caught S. Johita. But for
S. abnormis certain trees and clumps on the hills are the places to find.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The material dissected by Mr. Tite shows that this is a good
species by genitalia, which are unlike those of the other species of the
genus. §. maximus is nearest by genitalia, but the resemblance is super-
ficial. It is quite different by facies, and apparently by range.

2. Spindasis abnormis on the Western Ghats appears in a spring
and summer, or ‘dry season’ form, and in a post-monsoon or ‘ wet-
season’ form. I looked for it without success throughout the colder
months. I did not go up the hill during the rains, though I would
have been ready to do so during the breaks which occur if I had not been
occupied with Nacaduba pactolus elsewhere ; several workers are called
for, especially when free time is limited.

The range of variation is similar to that of the rest of the genus, the
WSF dark with clear markings, the DSF lighter and with obscure mark-

‘ings. The only striking difference from other Spindasis is the irroration

of light scales on the forewings of some spring examples of the male.
I do not know a parallel to this ; such colouring is usually seen in females,
for instance those of ictis and schistacea M'. The female of abnormis
is typically distinctive, and there does not appear to be much variation.

3. The first example from the Western Ghats is Mrs. Harvey’s,
listed no.21 in the Table. When I learnt of hercapture after identifying my

own first specimen (No. 26, p. 623) I got the impression that the species is
a high or medium level insect as in the Nilgiris. Thus Coonoor in the
| Nilgiris is just below the 2000 metre line, Purandhar on the Ghats reaches
1390 m., and my first locality is of a similar altitude. It was therefore
interesting after 1960 to find the butterfly, at its most numerous so far,
considerably lower down on the Ghats in a second locality.

4. Itis a question whether abnormis has simply been overlooked in
the spot where I found it not uncommon, or whether it is increasing
throughout its range—so far as that is known. I would say it is quite
| likely to have been overlooked. In former days collectors in India
| tended to go to the Himalayas or the Nilgiris for leave ; where they went
| after butterflies in their usually scanty spare time apart from leave was

+ Thave since received a ¢ S. nipalicus nipalicus M. from Mussoorie (May) which
Shows such an irroration.

7

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

largely a matter of chance and opportunity. Thus they may not have
collected very often in the place I happened to be able to visit frequently.

If, on the other hand, there has been a general increase, one might be
able to connect it with cyclic fluctuations over considerable periods.
Obviously far more information is required, but it can be noted that the
first unfortunately undated, material was probably taken about a century
ago, when from the fewness of existing specimens it seems to have been
a very great rarity.

In either case information about status will be well worth obtaining.
If anyone came across it in numbers, especially in a well demarcated area
which the butterflies would not be likely to leave, a count should be made
if at all possible. The method is described in Ford (1945, pp. 270-275)
and consists of marking with cellulose paint and subsequently releasing
a number of the insects. The proportion recaught on several successive
days gives a mathematical basis for estimating the total population.

5. The early stages would be of the greatest interest if worked out.
If I had another chance I would try and leave the larvae alone with their
attendant ants on a growing seedling of the food plant. As long as the
ants showed by their engrossed behaviour that the larvae were present
I would try and restrain my curiosity about their progress while they were
in hiding, at least until after successful rearings.

The following on two common species of the genus is quoted from
Hinton (1949), p. 142 as it would help anyone who got larvae :

‘The immature stages of several oriental species have been des-
cribed by De Niceville (1890), and Bell (1919, 26 : 473-484). So far
as known, the larvae are all attended by ants. They all at least in their |
later instars, have numerous setae with disc-like or star-shaped apices.
The dorsal and lateral organs are always present. The lateral organs |
open at the end of short cylindrical tubes, and from the apices of these
the usual membranous tube can be exserted. The ants attended the |
larvae as soon as the latter hatch, and the larvae appear to be dependent |
upon the ants to a considerable extent. S. vulcanus F. is attended by |
Pheidole quadrispinosa Jord. and Cremastogaster sp. When the larvae |
are partly grown they make little cells for themselves in any crevice OF |
hollow they can find on the leaf surface, fastening the edges of the cell |
with silk and lining the inside thickly if somewhat slovenly (Bell). |
The cells are sometimes formed of two leaves spun together. These cells |
are more or less permanent, the larvae going outside to feed but being *
attended by the ants outside as well as in the cells. Sometimes several !
larvae of very different sizes will be found in the same cell (De Niceville). |
They feed on the undersides of the leaves, always leaving the upper:
cuticle intact even when they are full grown. The pupa is attached by |
both a cremaster and a girdle, usually inside the larval cell.

Spindasis lohita Horsf. is tended by Cremastogaster sp. which builds |

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J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 6§ (3)

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OCCURRENCE OF SPINDASIS ABNORMIS ON THE W. GHATS 631

temporary sheds over them. Usually three or four larvae are in the same
shelter. When young, they are found on dead, dry leaves on which they
feed without damaging the upper cuticle, although if given young and
tender leaves they will eat these. When the larvae are full grown, they
make cells for themselves by loosely spinning the edges of a leaf together.
Green (1902) found that in Ceylon the larvae lived on Acacia and Gre-
villea in special shelters built by Cremastogaster. The ants drove them
out each night to feed and brought them back into their shelters each
morning. The larvae may pupate in their shelters or in some crevice.
The pupa is attached only by a cremaster.’

6. Ihave noticed that the butterflies of the genus, bach I have only
observed in Maharashtra, appear at fairly well marked periods ; spring,

hot weather, rains and autumn. It looks as if they are able to key-in

their metamorphosis with the ant situation and perhaps with the plant-

lifetoo. They may delay their developmentin any of the stages, even the
egg, as observed in this single case of S. abnormis. If such delay is

normal I can think of no other reason except the need of desirability of

the seasonal generations being well marked.

7. Itis when one has the privilege of encountering a very rare butter-
fly that one realizes the gaps in one’s knowledge of the daily routine even
of common ones, particularly lycaenids. Their occupations consist,
no doubt, of sleeping, drinking, playing—often with pugnacity—, court-
ship, mating and egg-laying. Of these six or seven activities I only know
anything about two—drinking and playing—in the case of S. vulcanus
and S. lohita which occur commonly on the same hill as S$. abnormis.

If they had been rare I should undoubtedly have gathered more
information.

There is some excuse, for time is a great factor, and the work always
takes far more time than one can give. The solution is, of course, to
have more workers on the same specialized line. Moreover, field obser-
vation is intrinsically more difficult than with larger animals; where
butterflies—particularly small, quick ones like Lycaenids—are concerned
and what they are doing at any moment, are problems which must often
remain a mystery. Anyone who has gone after them knows that they

__ arrive and are off, and field observation has to be curtailed by the
- necessity of catching a reasonable number. Still, Iam glad to have spared

an egg-laying abnormis ; I hope I would always do so, for they can usually
be recognized without catching.
Finally, I hope that the peculiar difficulties in the field study of the

" fascinating Lycaenid group will spur others, on as difficulties ought to
do. Jam unlikely ever to be able to revisit India‘; this makes me all the

tn

1 But I had a short happy visit in 1967—-AEB.

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

more ready to give exact local information, through the Bombay Natural
History Society, to anyone who intends to work out more completely the
life history of Spindasis abnormis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Sir Keith Cantlie for much good advice throughout, and in
particular for condensing and clarifying my descriptions of the adult
insect. I found his note (1963) very helpful in introducing me to the
male genitalia of the genus. The authorities of the BM (NH) allowed
Mr. G. E. Tite to make dissections and drawings of S. abnormis and
S. maximus male genitalia. JI am extremely grateful for their permission
to reproduce them here, adding ‘considerable importance to this article.
I would like to thank Mr. Tite himself for his beautiful work and
for the passage quoted on p. 5, from one of his letters to me. He was
most illuminating in his quite considerable correspondence on the subject,
without which I could not have written the section on genitalia. Col.
C. Cowan helped much in obtaining exact data from the BM (NH)
material in the Zoological Museum, Tring, where the Lycaenidae
are housed. I owe a great debt of gratitude to the Curator and Staff
of the Bombay Natural History Society for every facility and encourage-
ment ; and similarly to the Hope Professor of Entomology, Oxford,
and his Staff, especially to Mr. D. Whiteley and Mr. I. Lansbury, the
last named measuring the egg forme. IJ thank the Rev. W. McM. Watt,
and my colleague, the Rev. Father F. L. Wain, for the excellent photo-
graphs. The latter, as always, helped me by encouragement and advice
under a variety of circumstances, not least in many happy days on the
magnificent hills of India. I thank Mr. N. D. Riley of the BM (NH) for
confirming my identifications of the first three specimens of S. abnormis
specimens caught.

REFERENCES

BELL, T. R. D. (1919) : The Butterflies Forp, E. B. (1945): Butterflies. |

of the Plains of India. J. Bombay nat. Collins, London.

Hist. Soc. 26 : 473 ff. GREEN, E. E. (1902) : On carnivorous

~ CANTLIE, SiR KEITH (1963): Genitalia Lycaenid larvae. Entomologist 35: 202. |
of the butterfly genus Spindasis Wallen- HINTON, H. E. (1949): Myrmecophi- |
gren. ibid. 60: 466-468. lous Lycaenidae and other Lepidoptera— —

DE NICEVILLE, L. (1890): The Butter- a Summary. Proc. S. Lond. Ent. and
flies of India, Burma and Ceylon. Vol. nat. Hist. Soc. (1949-50): 111-175.

III. Calcutta. Moore, F. (1883): Descriptions of |

cation of Indian Butterflies. Bombay zool. Soc. Lond.: 521-535

. Evans, W. H.. (1932): The Identifi- new Asiatic Diurnal Lepidoptera. Proc.
‘ Natural History Society, p. 276 sah,

ae
es

A Report on Wild Life Surveys
in South and West India

November-December 1966
BY

J. JUAN SPILLETT

(With four plates and two-maps)
[Continued from Voi. 65 (2): 325]
Wild Life Sanctuaries in Madras State *

I. THE MupUMALAI WILD LIFE SANCTUARY Bo cA O34
Introduction. . Ay. ae ii ae -. 634

Visitor Facilities We we ons be oF" 635

Habitat .. ws rae cd oa 86637
Florais.% ee Me ie ve .. 638

Fauna”... ey A at es .. 639

Other Attractions .. a Ae a 1642
Discussion. . ae ot His ms .. 643

II. THE VEDANTHANGAL WATER-BIRD SANCTUARY .. es .. 646
Introduction. . 2 Ea a ae .. 646

Habitat bg ies i Pe xs .. 647

Birds Bal bey ae ees 4 ../ 648

Visitor Facilities ae i ae a: we 65k

Ill. THE Guinpy DEER PARK Ns ae a ~s 1653
Introduction. . ar <7 ee wie 53,693
Children’s Corner... eine on ve oe OO4

Flora and Fauna on me ae he »» 655

TV. OTHER WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MADRAS STATE a0) 3 658
The Point Calimere Wild Life Sanctuary ute i .. 658

Top Slip Wild Life Sanctuary .. on iF #.. 659

The Manjampatti Valley Wild Life Sanctuary .. a .. 660

The Kodaikanal Hills or Kukkal Wild Life Sanctuary .. .. 660

The Muthukuzhivayal Wild Life Sanctuary .. Fil .. 661

The Mundandurai Wild Life Sanctuary a ns 3 662

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS eh at ae ae .. 662
VI. REFERENCES .. As ee 4% Le .. 663

1 This survey was officially sponsored by the World Wild Life Fund, Morges,
Switzerland. The project was also assisted by The Johns Hopkins University and its
Center for Medical Research and Training, Calcuttaand Baltimore, Maryland (U.S.A.).
Mr. E. P. Gee, member of the Indian Board for Wild Life, made the necessary arrange-
ments with the Government of India and the Forest Department of Madras, both of
which extended the fullest co-operation,

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

TABLES AND MAPS

Table 1. Dominant Plant species of the moist deciduous forests of the

Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary in Madras State .. .. 639
Table 2. Names of some of the animals inhabiting the Mudumalai Wild Life
Sanctuary in Madras State .. . fh .. 641

Table 3. Birds inhabiting the Vedanthangal Water-Bird Sanctuary in
- Maduranthakam Taluk of Chingleput District in Madras State .. 650

Map 1. General map of the wild life sanctuaries in Madras State .. + 608
Map 2. General map of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary is .. 668

I. THE MUDUMALAI WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

INTRODUCTION

I arrived at the Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House in the Mudumalai
Wild Life Sanctuary, from Bandipur, on the morning of November 30,

1966. Bandipur, in the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in Mysore, is 10

miles from Abhayaranyam.

The 125-square-mile Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary in the north-
western corner of the State is the largest and best known sanctuary in
Madras. It is located in the Gudalur Division of the Nilgiri District
and borders both the States of Mysore and Kerala (Map 1). The tri-
state area including the Mudumalai Sanctuary, the adjoining Bandipur
Sanctuary in the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park of Mysore, and a wild life
area in Kerala, which has been proposed as a wild life sanctuary, com-
prises the most complete ecological unit dedicated to the preservation of
wild life in India.

In 1940 a 23-square-mile sanctuary, adjoining an area in Mysore
State which was constituted as the Bandipur Sanctuary in 1941, was
established as the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary—the first true wild
life sanctuary in Madras State. The sanctuary was extended to 114
square miles in 1956 and an additional 11 square miles have since been

included.

Mudumalai includes the Mudumalai and Segur ranges of the Nilgiri

Division. A Range Officer from the State Wild Life Organization is
assigned to each of these ranges. A third Range Officer is in charge of
statistics and wild life studies within the sanctuary. Additional per-
sonnel assigned to the sanctuary from the State Wild Life Organization
include : a clerk, three peons, ten Forest Guards, 18 Forest Watchers,
a Watcher-cum-Cook and a sweeper. These men are charged with the
responsibility of protecting the sanctuary’s wild life, attending or assist-
ing visitors, and maintaining the sanctuary’s interior roads, salt licks,
observation towers and other facilities. In addition to the sanctuary’s
wild life staff, regular Forest Department personnel, including two terri-

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA _ 635

torial Range Officers, are in charge of all forest operations within the
sanctuary. Mudumalai also is composed of several forest blocks. The
centrally located Mudumalai and Teppakadu Blocks, the Benne Block

on the western end of the sanctuary adjoining Kerala, and the Moyar

Block on the eastern end adjoining Mysore are the main wild life areas.

The dense forests and luxuriant vegetation in most of Mudumalai
contrast markedly with the dry deciduous forests of the adjoining Venu
Gopal Wild Life Park. Much of Mudumalai receives between 50 and
80 inches of rainfall per year as compared to about 35 inches in Venu

Gopal. The verdant vegetation of Mudumalai presents a more varied
_ habitat for wild life than the open forests of Venu Gopal, but the thick

undergrowth also makes wild life observation or photography much

more difficult. The Moyar River, which forms the natural boundary

between Madras and Mysore States, is the most important source of
water in the sanctuary. There are a number of other streams, but most
of these, such as the Kakkanahalla and Avarahalla, dry up during the
summer.

VISITOR FACILITIES

Visitors to the Mudumalai Sanctuary are requested first to check
with the Range Officer at the sanctuary’s headquarters in Kargudi.
Kargudi is along the main Ootacamund-Mysore road, 40 miles from
Ooty and 60 miles from Mysore. The Mysore-Madras State border is
five miles to the north-west and Bandipur, the headquarters for the
Venu Gopal Wild Life Park, an additional five miles to the north
(Map 2). Daily bus services between Ooty and Mysore pass through
the sanctuary and upon request will stop at Kargudi or the nearby
Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House. The nearest railway station is at
Ooty and the nearest airport is at Coimbatore, 52 miles south-east of
Ooty.

There are 45 miles of fair-weather roads within the sanctuary, along
which motoring may be done except during the rainy season. The
Forest Department provides a truck to take visitors around the sanc-
tuary. An 18 passenger bus also was purchased in 1966 for visitor use,
but a number of the sanctuary’s roads must be widened before it may be
used on them. Six machans or observation towers have been built at
salient points overlooking salt licks and water holes. Visitors may
remain in these and observe wild life in relative comfort. However, the
best manner in which to view wild life in Mudumalai is from elephant
back. Riding elephants from the elephant camp about one and one-
half miles east of Abhayaranyam are provided for visitors upon prior
request. With care, visitors on elephant back may approach near to
herds of gaur and’other wild animals without disturbing them,

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

There are three Forest Rest Houses in Mudumalai: Abhayaranyam,
Kargudi and Masinigudi. All provide modern amenities, including
refrigerators and catering. A cook is attached to each and both vege-
tarian and non-vegetarian meals are served. However, for prolonged
visits it is suggested that visitors bring their own provisions. Reser-
vations for accommodation and food, as well as elephant rides or trans-
portation within the sanctuary, may be made through either the Divisional
Forest Officer in Ootacamund or the State Wild Life Officer, c/o Chief
Conservator of Forests, Central Office Buildings, 81 Mount Road,
Madras-6. :

The Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House is located along the main
Ootacamund-Mysore road about one-halfa mile west of the sanctuary head-
quarters at Kargudi. Itis the most modern of the sanctuary’s rest houses
and even has a darkroom for the use of camera enthusiasts. Two double
suites are provided which will accommodate a total of five people. The
present cook and caretaker is exceptional and the food and services
excellent. The Kargudi Forest Rest House is situated on the crest of a
hill a little over one-half a mile north of the sanctuary headquarters. It
has a beautiful sylvan setting and provides a good view of much of the
sanctuary. Two large double suites, which may accommodate up to
three persons each, and an extra bedroom are provided here. It belongs
to forest operators of the Forest Department rather than to the wild life
organization as does Abhayaranyam. The Masinigudi Forest Rest
House is located on the eastern end of the sanctuary. This rest house
has three suites. Although it is well-maintained, it is located near a
fairly large village and does not provide the atmosphere of the Kargudi
or Abhayaranyam rest houses.

Plans have been submitted and accepted by the State Wild Life
Organization for the construction of a ten-room dormitory, and the
estimated cost is Rs. 50,000. Construction is to be completed in 1968.

The proposed rest house is much needed for the ever-increasing num-.
bers' of visitors to the Mudumalai Sanctuary. With their completion
and the availability of accommodation for large groups or regularly
scheduled tours, the number of visitors should increase even more rapidly. —
A total of only 640 visitors were recorded for Mudumalai in 1960. How- —
ever, by 1965 the number was almost 4000, an increase of well over 600
per cent. Likewise, only 18 foreign visitors were recorded in 1960, but
a total of almost 600 in 1964. The total number of visitors to the sanc- |
tuary between 1960 and June 1966, as reported by the Forest Depart-
ment, was 17,656 including 1578 foreign visitors. When transportation —
and other expenses incurred in travelling are considered, to and from
the sanctuary as well as expenditures for food and other facilities within
the sanctuary, the revenue realized by the State and Nation from the
Mudumalai Sanctuary is considerable. Conservatively estimated, the —

J. Bompay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) BEATE “f

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Segur River Falls near the western boundary of the Mudumalai Wild Life
Sanctuary.

| (Photo: J. J. Spillett)

J. BOMBAY, NAT. ‘Elisi.7S0c:65(3) PLATE If

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above : Chital near the Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House, Mudumalai Wild
Life Sanctuary.

(Photo: J. J. Spillett)

Below: The Gaur or Indian “Bison’’,a common inhabitant of the Mudumalai
Sanctuary.

(Photo: M.A. Badshah)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 637

current revenue from Mudumalai’s wild life probably exceeds Rs. 4
lakhs per annum. Further, this is realized with very little capital in-
vestment and represents only a small portion of the sanctuary’s potential
as a revenue earner.

HABITAT

The Mudumalai Sanctuary consists primarily of undulating forest-
covered hills nestled at the base of the Nilgiri Hills. The Nilgiris attain
a height of 8000 feet and form the skyline to the south and west of the
sanctuary. The altitude of the Mudumalai Sanctuary varies between
3000 and 3800 feet (914-1158 m.) above sea-level.

The overall average annual rainfall is approximately 56 inches
(1422 mm.), although rainfall varies greatly in different parts of the
sanctuary. For example, much of the Benne Block receives about 80
inches of rainfall per year, most of which falls during the south-west
monsoon between June and September. Kargudi, on the south-eastern
side of the Mudumalai Block, receives an average of about 50 inches
perannum. The Moyar Reserve, however, receives only about 35 inches
per year. And, most of the rainfall in the eastern part of the sanctuary
falls during the north-east monsoon between October and December.
Therefore, as would be expected, the vegetation likewise varies greatly
in different parts of Mudumalai.

December and January are the coldest months. Monthly minimum
and maximum mean temperatures for these months are respectively
3) F. (12°8° C.). and 70° F. (21°1° C.). The hottest months are April,
May, and June, prior to the onset of the south-west monsoon rains.
Monthly maximum and minimum mean temperatures for these months
are respectively 90° F. (32°2° C.) and 75° F. (23°9° C.).

February, March and April are the driest months, although the dry
season for most of the sanctuary extends from October until late June. -
The sanctuary staff burn the dry grass and undergrowth each year
between December and January, along block lines, fire lines, State
boundary, and around residential buildings. This improves visibility
and permits the growth of succulent vegetation. Therefore, the best
time to observe wild animals in Mudumalai is between mid-February
and late June. In contrast, the best time to observe wild animals in the
adjoining Venu Gopal Park is between June and October, during the
rainy season. The vegetation in Mudumalai, however, is greener and
presents a more tropical luxuriance in October and November. This is
pleasing to the eye, but also it is discouraging not to be able to observe
the wild animals.

The entire sanctuary is exploited for forest produce. There are a
number of teak plantations, primarily in the Benne Block, and a plan-

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

tation of Eucalyptus in the Masinigudi area in the eastern part of the
sanctuary. The planting of bamboo for the rayon mills in Kerala also
has gained prominence during the past five years. Bamboo shoots are
planted at 39-feet intervals and the plantings have a three-year rotation
period. Such plantings probably are beneficial for gaur and elephant, as
well as other wild animals that feed extensively upon bamboo.

The major part of the sanctuary still consists of more-or-less natural
forests. All, however, are worked intensively for forest produce.
Timber extraction includes both clear felling and selective cutting.
Exploitation of minor forest produce is likewise of importance in the
sanctuary. This includes the collection of wild honey, antlers, poocha-
kottai or soap nut (Sapindus emarginata), a type of moss used as a food
condiment, gallnut for medicinal use from Terminalia chebula and T.
belerica, and edible fruits from such trees as the tamarind (Tamarindus
indica). Kurumbars, tribal hill people, collect most of the minor forest
produce through the Co-operative Department and under lease from the
Forest Department. Kurumbars also comprise most of the labour force
employed by the Forest Department at Mudumalai. With the excep-
tion of the Moyar Block at the eastern end, domestic livestock grazing
inside the sanctuary consists of about 200 animals belonging to employees,
such as the Kurumbars.

Flora

The flora of Mudumalai is noticeably varied in different parts of the
sanctuary. Generally speaking, the forests vary from dry deciduous
scrub on the eastern end to dry deciduous and then moist deciduous with
more and more intermingled evergreen species as one progresses further
west. There are also a fair number of swampy areas in the northern
part of the sanctuary.

The tree growth in the Masinigudi area on the eastern end is santa
with thorny undergrowth and short grass. Species of Acacia and
Albizzia predominate in this section. The scrublands merge into rela-
tively open dry deciduous forests with somewhat stunted trees of such
species as Shorea talura and Anogeissus latifolia as well as species of
Acacia and Albizzia.

The forests of the Mudumalai Block also are deciduous. However,
they grade from dry deciduous into primarily moist deciduous forests.
Here the trees attain impressive heights and the undergrowth is much
more dense. Ferns, vines and rank grasses are common. Characteristic
tree species include: Terminalia tomentosa, T. belerica, T. chebula,
Anogeissus latifolia, Schleichera oleosa, Gmelina arborea, Lagerstroemia
lanceolata, Pterocarpus marsupium and so forth. Dwarf date palms
(Phoenix acaulis) predominate in some forest belts and in the vicinity of
the swampy areas near the Madras-Kerala border.

WILD LIFE SURVEYS iN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 639

The Benne Block consists of an admixture of evergreen and moist
deciduous forests. Big Bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) is common
throughout the sanctuary wherever there is sufficient moisture. Accord-
ing to M. Krishnan, the bamboo flowered gregariously in 1959 in the
Benne Block. Some of the bamboo along the Madras-Mysore boun-
dary also flowered in 1964, as did most of the big and small bamboo in
the adjoining Venu Gopal Wild Life Park. However, most of the bamboo
inside the sanctuary appears to have completely regenerated and gives
many of the forests a luxuriant light-green appearance.

Roughly two-thirds of the forests of the Mudumalai Sanctuary are
moist deciduous. The other one-third is primarily dry deciduous. An
overall estimate of the per cent composition of the dominant species in
the moist deciduous forests of the sanctuary is given in Table 1.

The flowering of many of the forest trees in Mudumalai takes place
about March.

TABLE 1

DOMINANT PLANT SPECIES OF THE MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS OF THE MUDUMALAI
WILD LIFE SANCTUARY IN MADRAS STATE

Estimated
per cent of Stand

English Tamil Scientific

TREES OR CANOPY:

Teak Thekku Tectona grandis 20

Laurel Mathi (Kanarese), Terminalia tomentosa 10-15
Karimarudu

Axlewood Namai Anogeissus latifolia 15

Rosewood Eetti Dalbergia latifolia 10

Ven-teak Venthekku Lagerstroemia lanceolata 10

—— Vendai Kydia calycina 5

Other Tree Species — — 10

Big Bamboo Perumoongil Bambusa arundinacea 15

SHRUBS :

Lantana Oonichedi Lantana camara very common

Indian Laburnum Konnai Cassia fistula common

Fauna

The fauna of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary is both varied and
abundant. Perhaps nowhere else in India may greater numbers of chital
or spotted deer (Plate IT) be observed than in the Masinigudi area on the
eastern end of the sanctuary. Visitors may observe as many as 2000
deer while motoring along the roads of this area during the morning or
evening. Asa rule the animals are in groups of more than 30, and herds
of over 100 are not unusual, except during the dry season (January-
June) when they are scattered in small groups. One of the Range Officers
stated that on several occasions he has observed that the much maligned
Indian wild dog or dhole is afraid of large groups of chital, as well as of

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

man. They only attack small groups or solitary animals. Further, he
claims he twice observed chital being pursued by wild dogs which came ,
close to and stood by humans until the wild dogs had gone.

Mudumalai is also noted for its abundance of gaur or Indian ‘ bison’.
This impressive beast is the largest and undoubtedly one of the most
stately of the world’s wild bovines or oxen (Plate IJ). It generally is
associated with the sanctuary’s moist deciduous forests and the ease with
which a herd can melt silently into the forest is amazing. Herds of over
50 gaur are not uncommon and herds numbering more than 80 have
been reported. Wild elephants (Plate III) are generally encountered by
visitors to the sanctuary. Herds of 30 or more are observed not in-
frequently, but smaller groups or solitary males are the general rule.

Diurnal mammals, such as the common langur, the bonnet macaque
and the brightly coloured giant or Malabar squirrel, are common and
seen by almost all visitors.

Other mammals which are relatively common in various parts of the
sanctuary may or may not be observed. These include such animals as
sambar, barking deer or muntjac, mouse deer or Indian chevrotain, wild
boar, blacknaped hare and Indian porcupine. Although rarely seen
during the day, the last two are commonly observed at night. The
Nilgiri langur is not found in the sanctuary. However, while travelling
between Mudumalai and Ootacamund in September 1965, I observed
a troop in the forests above Gudalur, less than 15 miles west of Abhaya-
ranyam. Although not uncommon in Mudumalai, visitors may be con-
sidered lucky if they observe large carnivores, such as tiger, leopard or
panther, dhole or Indian wild dog and sloth bear. The latter is actually
an omnivore and feeds primarily on insects, fruits, and so forth. How-
ever, some visitors have reported three of these four species during a
one or two-day visit and others have observed all four during a more
extended visit. |

A species of ‘ flying’ lizard (Draco sp.) is reported to be fairly com-
mon in some parts of the sanctuary, such as in the vicinity of Abhaya-
ranyam. I searched for this reptile on several occasions, but was never
lucky enough to observe it. Although called a ‘ flying’ lizard, it is in-
capable of flight. It glides from tree to tree in the same manner as the
_* flying’ squirrels, which also are represented in Mudumalai.

Python, the largest of India’s snakes, and monitor lizards (Varanus
sp.) are seen occasionally in Mudumalai, but crocodile is observed very
rarely along the Moyar River. The Indian rat snake, however, is com-

mon and frequently encountered along the sanctuary’s roads. Iobserved |

one specimen, which was approximately eight feet long, just east of the

Abhayaranyam Forest Rest House. ‘Some Large Reptiles of Madras —
State’ are described and illustrated in a Forest Department booklet of
that name by M. A. Badshah, the State Wild Life Officer. Some of the

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 641
animals inhabiting the Mudumalai sanctuary, including some of the
more common or impressive reptiles, are listed in Table 2.

Mudumalai is a paradise for the bird watcher. A detailed check-list
of birds has been compiled by M. A. Badshah, and the check-list made
available to visitors. A latest check-list is under print with photographs
of some rare birds. February through June is the breeding season for
most of the birds in Mudumalai and the best time for bird watching or
hearing their songs, as well as for observing other wild animals in the
sanctuary. A check-list for these also should be made available to

visitors and their observations systematically recorded in the visitors’
book.

TABLE 2

NAMES OF SOME OF THE ANIMALS INHABITING THE MUDUMALAI WILD LIFE
SANCTUARY IN MADRAS STATE

Mugger

een inane amma mmr lea d

Relative

English Tamil Scientific Abundance
Indian Elephant Yanai Elephas maximus common
Gaur or Indian Kattu erumai Bos gaurus common
* Bison ”

Sambar Kudoo marn Cervus unicolor frequent

Chital or spotted Pullj marn Axis axis common
Deer

Barking Deer or Kart ardu Muntiacus muntjak infrequent
Indian Muntjac

Four-horned Ante- Nangu kombu marn Tetracerus quadricornis infrequent
lope or Chousingha

Mouse Deer or Sarugoo marn Tragulus meminna frequent
Indian Chevrotain

Wild Boar Punri Sus scrofa frequent

Blacknaped or Muyal Lepus nigricollis frequent
Common Hare

Indian Porcupine Mullampunri HAystrix indica common

Giant or Malabar Anil Ratufa indica common
Squirrel

Small Travancore Parakum anil Petinomys fuscocapillus frequent
Flying Squirrel

Common or Grey Korangu Presbytis entellus common
Langur .

Bonnet Macaque Korangu Macaca radiata frequent

Indian Pangolin Alangu Manis crassicaudata rare

Tiger Puli Panthera tigris infrequent

Leopard or Panther Chiruthai Panthera pardus infrequent

Jungle Cat Kattu poonai Felis chaus =

Leopard Cat —_———————____ Felis bengalensis infrequent

Striped Hyena Kaluthai puli Ayaena hyaena rare

Indian Wild Dog or Chennai Cuon alpinus infrequent
Dhole

Otter Neer nai Lutra sp. rare

Jackal Naree Canis aureus frequent

Indian Fox Kulla naree Vulpes bengalensis as

Little Civet Punugu poonal Viverricula indica Ee

Stripe-necked Keeree Herpestes viticollis ——
Mongoose

Sloth Bear Karadee Melursus ursinus infrequent

Python Malai Pambu Python molurus infrequent

Indian Rat Snake Sarai Pambu Ptyas mucosus common

Monitor Lizard. Udumbu Varanus monitor rare

‘Flying ’ Lizard — Draco dussumieri frequent

Marsh Crocodile or Mudalai Crocodilus palustris rare

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

An unusual, but outstanding and oftentimes beautiful feature of
Mudumalai is its abundant insect life. During some nights in April
entire areas in the sanctuary are illuminated by the flashing luminescence
of fire flies. Although these small creatures are present and noticeable
during much of the year, only during particular seasons do they become
so apparent. Not to be overlooked are the sanctuary’s numerous species
of intricately-coloured butterflies.

The spiders, which spin their giant webs between the trees, and the
mounds of the termites also form a conspicuous part of the sanctuary.
I was intrigued particularly by the colourful patterns of some of the
spiders and spent the better part of one afternoon photographing these
beautiful creatures. Many display intricate designs of bright yellow or
reds on a black background and some attain relatively large sizes, span-
ning more than five inches across both the body and legs.

Good numbers of fair-sized fish inhabit the Moyar River below
Kargudi. The tribal people working in the sanctuary were having
exceptionally good luck one evening during my visit. Although I was
not acquainted with the species which they caught, I watched them catch
a number of fish weighing up to three pounds and they claimed that they
were very good eating.

OTHER ATTRACTIONS

The exquisite flora and fauna are, of course, the outstanding attrac-
tions of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary. Nevertheless, there are
a number of scenic or other attractions in or near the sanctuary, which
I think deserve major consideration. The elephant camp near Teppa-
kadu, which is on the eastern side of the river about a mile; from
Kargudi, is of special interest. It is claimed that more, elephants have
been born in captivity here than anywhere in India. About 20 elephants
are stationed at the camp or at nearby camps in the sanctuary’s forests.
Most are used for timber work, although a few are made available for
visitors to ride.

Some of the mahouts take pride in demonstrating the abilities of their
charges. These highly intelligent beasts will bow, ‘salaam’, pick up
delicate objects with their versatile trunks and appear in many cases to
be able to do almost anything their mahouts ask of them. Many res-
pond correctly to over 30 commands. These are given vocally, by leg
and foot signals, or through prodding with a small stick. The mahouts
are not allowed to use ‘ ankus’ or force to make these huge animals do
their bidding. A small calf or two usually may be found in the camp.
Their inadroit movements and apparent uselessness of their trunks con-
trast notably with those of their parents.

East of the main Ootacamund-Mysore road near the Madras-Mysore

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 643

border in the Moyar Block is a loop road. This passes through rela-
tively open forests. The Forest Department recently built a spur road
from it to an observation point overlooking the falls and gorge of the |
Moyar River. The falls are estimated to be approximately 500 feet high.
The deep rocky gorge and the surrounding forests, coupled with the
cascading waters, present a truly magnificent spectacle.

An equally impressive sight is presented by the Segur River Falls
(Plate I). The Segur River rises in the Nilgiri Hills to the south and
flows along the eastern boundary of the sanctuary before tumbling an
estimated 700 feet into the Moyar River Gorge. The Segur River and
its two spectacular falls are located outside the sanctuary and at present
may be reached by passing through the village of Hundiuyur and then
following a jeepable cow path. An effort should be made to include
the falls within the sanctuary. A suitable road leading to the obser-
vation point overlooking them also should be constructed. The nearby
village of Hundiuyur, which has about 500 inhabitants, likewise should be
relocated elsewhere so that the scenic grandeur of one of nature’s finest
displays may be preserved in its natural setting. This area presently is
under the jurisdiction of the Revenue Department, which leases the land
to the villagers for approximately Rs. 6 per acre per year. The rocky
soil is unsuitable for agriculture and rightfully should be returned to

- forest.

The Nilgiri Hills to the south and east provide a magnificent setting
for the Mudumalai Sanctuary. The steep slopes of this range, with the
exception of frequent outcroppings of rock, are covered primarily with
grass. They are frequently covered with mist and thin clouds trailing
across their face add to their majesty. Particularly in the early morn-
ing, they are often cloaked in deep blues or purples—reminiscent of the
colours used in many paintings of mountain scenery, but which are colours
not commonly seen in natural settings. The winding journey up the
steep slopes from Gudalur, 10 miles south-west of Kargudi, to the hill
station of Ootacamund on the summit of the Nilgiris is an unforgettable
experience. It may be uncomfortably warm at the beginning of the trip,
but almost invariably one will be searching for a sweater or jacket while
winding back and forth up the mountainsides, which are covered with
tea plantations that appear like neatly trimmed hedges.

DISCUSSION

The timber resources of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary are
under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department. The State Wild Life
Officer is in charge of all the wild life sanctuaries in the State. It is
realized that the forest products of Mudumalai provide a valuable source
of revenue. However, the wild life in a wild life sanctuary should re-
ceive major consideration.

644. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

It is illogical at present to advocate the cessation of all forest opera-
tions within the sanctuary. But, on the other hand, whenever possible
such operations should be planned and executed in the manner least
detrimental or in a manner that will least disturb the sanctuary’s wild
life. For example, there is little justification for the establishment of a
forest camp along the Kakkanahalla on one of the main migratory routes
for wild life between Mudumalai and the Venu Gopal Wild Life Park in
Mysore. This camp easily could have been located elsewhere where it
would have interfered less with wild life movements. Extensive arti-
ficial plantings of trees, particularly exotic species such as Eucalyptus,
should be discouraged within the sanctuary. Natural forests in this area
are very productive and when properly managed probably will produce
almost equal to plantation areas, if the additional expense and labour for
the latter are taken into consideration. Extensive single species plant-
ings often result in soil deterioration and a lower quality of timber, as
well as form a biological desert as far as many species of wild animals
are concerned. |

The entire Mudumalai Sanctuary is subject to forest exploitation.
The establishment of key areas solely for wild life, which are maintained
inviolate to the depredations of man, has proven successful in a number
of Indian wild life sanctuaries. The Bandipur Sanctuary or ‘ sanctum
sanctorum ’ of the adjoining Venu Gopal Wild Life Park is a notable
example. At least a token area, perhaps 10-square-miles, also should
be set apart in Mudumalai as a true refuge for wild life. And, such an
area should be maintained in as natural a state as possible.

A basic essential in the development and proper management of a
wild life sanctuary is a good staff. Regretfully I have found relatively
few such men in the sanctuaries that I have visited in India. More often
than not those administering wild life areas have not been able even to
identify many of the animals under their jurisdiction, let alone give
factual information concerning their natural history.

Forest Department personnel should be encouraged to learn about
wild life. Those who demonstrate a genuine interest in wild life should
be given further opportunities. to develop these interests. Wild life
management is a technical profession and proper training, as well as
interest and dedication, is needed by those entering this field. Openings
for personnel qualified to manage wild life resources should be made
available in the Forest Department and specifically in the State Wild
Life Organization. Such positions also should be given the status they
deserve and personnel who prepare themselves for such occupations
should be sufficiently reimbursed.

There are at least 11 villages within the Mudumalai Sanctuary : six
- in the Masinigudi area and five in the Mudumalai Block. - The estimated
inhabitants for these villages total approximately 10,000 people, of which

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 645

about 4000 live in the village of Masinigudi. Large numbers of people
near or within the confines of a sanctuary are not compatible to the
preservation of wild life. Although villagers may be law-abiding, their
presence in large numbers almost invariably results, either directly or
indirectly, to the detriment of wild life. These detrimental effects often
take the form of habitat destruction through agricultural use of the land
or overgrazing by domestic livestock.

There are over 500 acres of land devoted to agriculture ane over 2000
head of livestock grazed for very nominal fees in the Masinigudi area of
the sanctuary. Grazing fees are: adult cows, Re. 0.50/year ; adult
buffalo, Re. 1.00/year and sheep, Re. 0.25/year. Goats are prohibited.
Large numbers of both domestic livestock and wild ungulates, parti-
cularly chital, in this area have resulted in severe overgrazing. Measures
should be undertaken to reduce the numbers of both classes of grazing
animals and then to maintain their numbers in balance with the grazing
capacity of the area.

The rest of the sanctuary is relatively little disturbed by agricultural
practices or by domestic livestock grazing. Hopefully it will remain this
way. However, approximately 500 head of cattle per week pass through
the sanctuary travelling from Mysore to Kerala for slaughter. These
cause a disturbance, although measures have been taken to insure that
they remain on the main roads and do not enter the sanctuary’s forests.
The Forest Department also requires that all the animals be inoculated
to help prevent the spread of disease.

Poaching is not considered by the Forest Department to be a major
problem in Mudumalai. However, with nearby areas open to shooting,
both to the east and to the west, and with the number of vehicles that ply
the roads through the sanctuary at night, it appears that poaching may
be more of a problem than is realized. This was further suggested during
my visits to the Masinigudi area on the eastern end of the sanctuary.
Among the chital of that area, I observed a sex ratio of from four to
five adult females for every adult male, whereas in a sanctuary where the
animals are protected a sex ratio closer to 1 : | would normally be ex-
pected. Admittedly it is a mere conjecture on my part that poaching
may be a factor, but I think it does deserve further investigation.

Overall the facilities and services provided for visitors to Mudumalai
are excellent. The Forest Department and particularly the State Wild
Life Organization are to be commended. It is hoped that a few sug-
gestions, however, may help to make the Mudumalai Sanctuary even
more attractive for visitors. Because of the dense vegetation in many
parts of Mudumalai the viewing of wild animals and their photography
is difficult. Therefore, as previously suggested by Mr. E. P. Gee of the
Indian Board for Wild Life, I think the creation of ‘a few grassy areas or
maidans of, say, 200 or 300 yards in width, in suitable areas accessible to

3

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)
visitors, where wild life could be viewed in the open, as at Kanha in
Madhya Pradesh ’ should be considered.

I was informed both during my September 1965 and December 1966
visits to Mudumalai that the roads in the western part of the sanctuary
were impassable. Therefore, I still have not had the opportunity of
visiting much of the Benne Block or the northern part of the sanctuary.
If at all possible, these roads should be maintained so that visitors are
not restricted primarily to the main road or the roads in the somewhat
atypical Masinigudi area. Nevertheless, as in the Venu Gopal Wild
Life Park, it would be well to permit visitors on these roads only when
accompanied by a member of the sanctuary staff.

Some excellent pamphlets concerning wild life are already made avail-
able to visitors by the Forest Department. It is further suggested that
additional literature, namely, appropriate postcards, check-lists for
mammals and birds, books on Indian birds and animals, etc., also be
made available. These, as well as those presently distributed free of
charge, could be sold at nominal prices in the forest rest houses or at the
sanctuary headquarters in Kargudi. Standard books on mammals and
birds are available in the rest houses for the use of visitors. Wild life
picture postcards are under print.

A number of complaints concerning the inefficiency of the present
system for making reservations in Mudumalai were noted in the visitors’
book. Iwas also informed and personally witnessed in 1965 that visitors
without reservations may be turned away from an almost empty Forest
Rest House. This is because reservations are not made at the sanctuary,
as they should be, but in Ootacamund. The first notice that the staff
often has is when visitors arrive with their reservations. Thus, members
of the staff do not dare provide accommodations for visitors without
reservations for fear that those with reservations might arrive later and
be upset by the inconvenience that may result. There are daily bus and
mail services between Ootacamund and the sanctuary, as well as tele-
phone service. Therefore, there is no reason why bookings for reser- _
vations cannot be made more efficiently at the sanctuary’s headquarters —
and the D.F.O. in Ooty then notified, instead of the other way around. |

Other suggestions have been made in the main text of the Mudumalai |
section of this report. Some of the general suggestions given for the —
Vedanthangal Water-Bird Sanctuary (P. 653) also apply equally well to. |
Mudumalai. |

I. THE VEDANTHANGAL WATER-BIRD SANCTUARY __
INTRODUCTION a |

Nesting colonies of water-birds near villages in south India have been
protected by villagers since ancient times. Thus the preservation of such |
colonies has become a part of the traditional culture of many of the rural

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 647

people in this part of India. The nesting colony of water-birds near the
village of Vedanthangal in the north-western part of the Maduranthakam
Taluk of Chingleput District in Madras State is perhaps the most spec-
tacular of these colonies. It is perhaps also the oldest bird sanctuary in
south India. Although only officially recognized and maintained by
the Government as a sanctuary since 1936, Vedanthangal has been essen-
tially a sanctuary for water-birds for more than a century and a half.
Documentary evidence clearly indicates that the villagers of Vedanthangal
have actively safeguarded the colony at least since 1790.

The Vedanthangal Sanctuary is a prime example of wild life conser- |
vation by the local people through their understanding of some of the
true values of wild life. It further demonstrates that an enlightened
public will take the measures necessary to preserve and protect the natural
resources under their jurisdiction—if they but understand some of the
benefits to be derived by so doing.

HABITAT

Vedanthangal is 400 feet (122 metres) above sea-level and less than
30 miles inland from the Bay of Bengal. Rainfall averages approxi-
mately 45 inches (1143 mm.) per annum, most of which falls during the
north-east monsoon between September and December. The south-
west monsoon is only of minor importance. The hottest months are
April to June, when maximum temperatures often exceed 100° F.
(37°8° C.). The coolest months are December and January, when the
minimum and maximum average monthly temperatures are respec-
tively 65° F. (18°3° C.) and 80-85° F. (26°7-29°4° C.).

The countryside surrounding Vedanthangal is flat, comprised prim-
arily of rocky plains interspersed with scattered bushes and trees. There
are frequent low-ridged hillocks and tanks or small lakes dotting the
landscape. The latter are used for irrigation, although these low-lying
areas are subject to extensive flooding during the heavy rains of the
north-east monsoon.

The combination of agricultural lands and seasonal inundation in this
region generally provides a plentiful supply of food for the water-birds
of Vedanthangal. This undoubtedly is one of the primary reasons why
such large numbers of birds gather here during the breeding season.
Another important factor is that the approximately 74-acre Vedan-
thangal Tank, which comprises the sanctuary, is the only one in this
tegion that provides a compact grove of trees suitable for nesting. This
grove, which is more or less centrally located in the Vedanthangal Tank,

consists of about 500 Barringtonia acutangula trees. This species with-
Stands seasonal water-logging quite well. The trees form a compact
Srove with an almost contiguous canopy 15 to 20 feet high, which occu-

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

pies approximately half of the area of the tank and offers a suitable nest-
ing site for water-birds.

The Forest Department has been attempting to amemlent the numbet
of trees in the grove inside the tank. One thousand Barringtonia seed-
lings were planted in 1966. The tank is dry approximately four months.
each year. However, with the arrival of the monsoon some of the seed-
lings were soon inundated and eventually died.

A bund or dam along the western side of the sanctuary impounds
the water of the tank. A path bordered by trees and bushes runs along
the top of the bund. The dominant tree species here are : Siris (Albizzia
lebbeck), Babul (Acacia arabica), Alingi (Alangium lamarcii), and Palmyra

(Borassus flabellifer), which are interspersed with a thick undergrowth
of Cane (Calamus rotang). The water-birds do not inhabit the trees

along the bund, but these trees both help to protect the tank and provide
suitable habitat for other species of birds.

A cyclone, with winds exceeding 100 m.p.h., hit much of the eastern
part of Madras State on November 3, 1966. Although the Vedanthangal
bund luckily was not damaged, many of the trees along it were broken
or uprooted. Much of the path was still in a mess during my visit a
month later. About 70 tanks in the Maduranthakam Taluk in which
Vedanthangal is located were damaged by this cyclone. As a result,
many of these tanks did not contain water at the time of my visit. It was
feared that the lack of water in surrounding areas would adversely affect
the water-birds of Vedanthangal, as well as the 200 villages that ars
dependent upon these tanks for irrigation water.

The richness of the agricultural fields irrigated from the Vedanthangal —
Tank bear testimony to the manurial potency of the sanctuary’s waters.
The droppings of the birds nesting in the middle of the tank fall into the
water, most of which eventually reaches the farmers’ fields. The tank
water contains high fertilizing properties. Even the silt, which is scraped
up from the tank’s bottom by the villagers during the dry season, is highly
valued as a fertilizer for crops. The sanctuary’s birds also help to con-
trol many agricultural pests, such as insects. Therefore, not only is the
bird colony benefited by the protection afforded by the local villagers,
but the villagers are benefited in return. This demonstrates that man
and wild life may live together in harmony and that both may be
mutually benefited. i
Birds

Depending upon the onset of the north-east monsoon rains, water-
birds begin to arrive at Vedanthangal in late September or early October.
The birds continue to arrive up until November, during which time they
are commonly observed bringing sticks and other nesting materials to the
colony from surrounding areas. The arriving birds progressively colo-

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) Pre id

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

Above: A solitary tusker; Below: A herd of elephants — Mudumalai Sanctuary.
(Photos : M.A. Badshah)

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE IV

Spillett : Wild Life Surveys

'
ew
&

Above : Juvenile Openbilled Storks in nesting colony, Vedanthangal Sanctuary ;
Below: Flamingos at Point Calimere Sanctuary.

(Photos : M. A. Badshah)

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 649

nize the available trees surrounded by water in the approximately 74-acre
tank. The trunks of the trees nearest the bund, which is on the western
side of the sanctuary, are the first to be submerged and hence colonized.

Nesting, hatching and the feeding of young continue from the onset
of the breeding season until the young are fledged. The season usually
is over by April. The birds then depart and the tank dries up. Although
difficult to determine accurately, it has been estimated that at the height
of the breeding season there are generally between five and six thousand
water-birds in the sanctuary, including both adults and young.

No trees are colonized exclusively by a single species, although certain
species predominate in particular areas. For example, the majority of
the night herons appear to inhabit the southern corner of the colony, the
openbilled storks (Plate IV) and grey pelicans predominate in the tops
of many of the trees; egrets and spoonbills commonly are observed in
the lower branches near the water. However, for the most part the colony
presents a conglomeration or hodgepodge of whites, greys, and blacks.
The peripheral trees on the sides of the grove inside the tank are used
little for nesting, but serve as roosting trees.

According to M. Krishnan, night herons, little egrets, little cormorants
and shags are the most numerous species of water-birds nesting at
Vedanthangal. Openbilled storks, grey herons, spoonbills, cattle egrets,
white ibises, medium egrets and pond herons follow, more or less in that
order. Darters or snakebirds are present in lesser numbers and large
egrets and large cormorants are relatively rare. Only two or three
pairs. of large cormorants normally nest at Vedanthangal. M. A.
-Badshah also claims that spottedbilled or grey pelicans have been
observed to nest at Vedanthangal, and that fifty pairs of grey pelicans
nested during the 1966-67 season.

Besides the water-birds that regularly nest in the trees at Vedanthangal,
the dabchick or little grebe and the Indian moorhen also nest in the
vegetation surrounding the tank. Nesting water-birds, visiting water-
- birds and scavenger or predatory birds which may be observed at
Vedanthangal are listed in Table 3. In addition, numerous species,
mainly perching or passerine birds, inhabit the trees along the bund and
the vegetation surrounding the tank. A partial list of these includes :
golden oriole, blackheaded oriole, blue jay or roller, pied crested cuckoo,
goldenbacked woodpecker, Mahratta or yellowfronted pied woodpecker,
weaver birds, Indian pitta, several species of wagtails, Indian courser,
red-and yellow-wattled lapwings, hoopoe, Indian robin, king crow, bee-
eaters, baybacked shrike, koel, purple sunbird, crow-pheasant, white-
bellied drongo, crimsonbreasted barbet, several species of doves,
partridges, and so forth.

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

TABLE 3

BIRDS INHABITING THE VEDANTHANGAL WATER-BIRD SANCTUARY IN
MADURANTHAKAM TALUK OF CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT IN MADRAS STATE

English Tamil Scientific Remarks
NESTING WATER-BIRDS:
Little Cormorant Neer-Kaakkai Phalacrocorax niger abundant
Shag a a P. fuscicollis abundant
Large Cormorant 4 A P. carbo rare
Darter or Snakebird Paambu-thaara Anhinga rufa frequent
Little Egret Vellai-Kokku or Egretta garzetta abundant
Ven-Kokku
Medium Egret Fe *e E. intermedia common
Large Egret spapes E. alba rare
Cattle Egret Maatu-Kokku or Bubulcus ibis common
Unni-Kokku
Pond Heron or Paddy Madayaan or Ardeola grayii common
Bird Kuruttu-Kokku
Night Heron Vakka ; Nycticorax nycticorax abundant
Grey Heron Naarayana-patchi or Ardea cinerea common
Narayaan
Openbilled Stork Neghthat counts Anastomus oscitans - common
aaral
Spoonbill Mamptivaayan or Platalea leucorodia common
Manvetti-vaayan
White Ibis Arivaal-mookkan Threskiornis melano- common
cephalus
Indian Moorhen Kaanaankozhi Gallinula chloropus frequent
Dabchick or Little Grebe ———-————-—-——__ Poddiceps ruficollis —
VISITING WATER-BIRDS :
Spottedbilled or Grey Pelecanus philippensis frequent
Pelican
Painted Stork Ibis leucocephalus rare
Plovers Charadrius spp. common
Spotted Sandpiper Tringa glareola
Common Sandpiper T. hypoleucos —EEEe
Little Stint Calidris minutus frequent
Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus
himantopus common
Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta rare
Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus rare
Curlew Numenius arquata infrequent
Purple Moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio = ——————
Whitebreasted Waterhen Amaurornis
Phoenicurus
Coot Fulica atra common
Common or Green Anas crecca common
winged Teal
See or Bluewinged A. querquedula common
ea
Pintail A. acuta frequent
Shoveller A. clypeata frequent
Grey or Spotbill A. poecilorhyncha frequent
Comb Duck or Nukta Sarkidiornis melanotos frequent
SCAVENGERS OR PREDATORS :
House Crow | Corvus splendens abundant
Common Pariah Kite Milvus migrans common
Brahminy Kite ad - Haliastur indus common
White Scavenger Vulture Neophron percnopterus common
Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus rare
Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus common
Kestrel Falco tinnunculus infrequent

Note.—Numerous species of perching or passerine birds, many of which nest at
Vedanthangal, also may be observed in ac vegetation and trees surrounding the
Vedanthangal Tank,

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 651

VISITOR FACILITIES

The Vedanthangal Water-Bird Sanctuary is located 51 miles south of
the city of Madras. The nearest airport is at Meenambakkam, near
Madras, and the nearest rail head is at Karunkuzhi on the Madras-
Villupuram main line, five miles east of the sanctuary. It should be
noted that only passenger trains, not mail trains, stop at Karunkuzhi.
However, both stop at Chingleput, which is 16 miles north of
Vedanthangal. Bus services are available from both locations to the
sanctuary, as well as to or from Madras. There are buses between
Madras and Chingleput every half hour and regular bus service from
Chingleput to the sanctuary and back every hour. On every Sunday
during the season a special tourist bus runs between Madras and
Vedanthangal. For those travelling by private vehicle from Madras,
the turn-off from the main road at the 43rd milestone (the Grand Southern
Trunk or GST Road) is well-marked by a large sign telling about the
sanctuary eight miles to the east. Nearby points of interest include the
archaeological finds at Mahabalipuram and the famous historic temple
at Tirukalikundram. ?

The season for observing the nesting water-birds at Vedanthangal is
_ dependent upon the commencement, extent and duration of the north-
east monsoon rains. Generally speaking, however, the season extends
from September-October through March-April, the best months being
November, December and January. The sanctuary is open to visitors
throughout the season free of charge. The only restrictions are that
visitors may not enter the tank or molest the birds. The best time to
Visit the sanctuary is from 4 o’clock in the afternoon onwards. Large
flights of birds return to the sanctuary shortly before sunset and the
Visitor on the bund then has the sun behind his back, which gives him a
clear view of the sanctuary’s activities. There is also a peak of activity
in the early morning, but the sun is then opposite the observer on
the bund.

The Collector of Chingleput officially recognized Vedanthangal as a
sanctuary and sanctioned the first government funds towards its main-
tenance in 1936. Although the Government has managed and pro-
tected the sanctuary since that time, it was not until 1960 that steps were
taken to develop this area for the enjoyment of the general public. Since
then a tar road leading to the sanctuary has been built and a parking
lot provided below the bund. Vehicles, including large buses, are
accommodated easily in the parking lot. Recently public rest rooms, an
observation platform and an observation tower have been constructed
along the bund on the western side of the sanctuary. Visitors may
observe the activities of the sanctuary’s birds from either the observation
platform or tower, as well as from the tree-lined path on top of the bund.

652. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

The U.S. Consul-General in Madras used his good offices in procuring
a telescope from the American Museum of Natural History, New York,
through the courtesy of Mr. and Mrs. Dyer, which has been permanently
mounted in the tower for the use of visitors.

A Forest Rest House also was recently constructed approximately
one-halfa milefromthesanctuary. The Forest Department provided both
the funds and the plans for this Rs. 1,11,000 building, which was built
by the Public Works Department. This rest house will provide four first
class double suites and a canteen for visitors and was scheduled to be
opened during the early part of 1967. The procedure for securing reser-
vations for these suites had not been decided upon at the time of my visit.
In addition, there is a Public Works Department Rest House at
Karunkuzhi, seven miles from the sanctuary. No catering arrange-
ments are provided, but reservations for this bungalow may be obtained
through the District Collector at Chingleput.

A Forester and a Watchman are stationed at Vedanthangal by the
Forest Department to assist visitors and to protect the sanctuary. The
Vedanthangal Tank also provides water for irrigation to the nearby
agricultural lands. ‘This water passes through two sluices along the bund
and two Government Watchers are charged with their supervision. It
is imperative that sufficient water remains in the tank during the nesting
season to protect the water-birds and their young. A recent notification

issued by the Government of Madras also prohibits the shooting of water- |

birds within a radius of 20 miles of the sanctuary from August | through
May 31 each year.

I was amazed by the number of visitors, particularly bus-loads of
students, during my visit to Vedanthangal on Sunday, December 4,
1966. As to be expected, most visitors come to the sanctuary on
week-ends. Nevertheless, the Forester stationed at Vedanthangal in-
formed me that there were over 5000 visitors the previous day, which
was Saturday, and prior to our departure that night he claimed that over
10,000 visitors were tallied that day ! This clearly demonstrates that
the general public is interested in wild life—if the basic facilities are
provided first so that wild life may be observed and enjoyed in relative

comfort and at nominal cost. It also provides a unique opportunity
to educate the public to the values of wild life and the dire need for

wild life conservation in India.

It is true that many of those visiting die sanctuary do not fully appre-
ciate what they see or are able to identify correctly more than
a few of the species of birds observed. But their presence indicates a
genuine interest in wild life and it behoves the Forest Department and
more specifically the Wild Life Organization to provide for their edu-
cation in wild life conservation. Therefore, the following general sugges-

tions are presented: (1) An illustrated board depicting the species of

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 653

water-birds commonly observed at Vedanthangal should be erected
near the bund. This would help visitors at least to identify many of the
birds which they see. (2) Booklets, pamphlets, and other information
concerning Vedanthangal, as well as other wild life sanctuaries in
Madras and in India, should be made available at minimal cost to
visitors. The booklet, «se vrepanrHaNcaL SANCTUARY FOR WATER-BIRDS by
M. Krishnan, which was published by the Madras State Forest Depart-
ment in 1960, and THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali, published
by the Bombay Natural History Society, are worthy of special note.
General information concerning Vedanthangal and other sanctuaries
also should be distributed through the Tourist Department. Efforts
should be made to conduct regularly scheduled tours of such areas under
the direction of well-qualified guides. Commercialism, however, should
be avoided in wild life areas. (3) Forest Department personnel stationed
in wild life sanctuaries should be very carefully chosen, as well as given
instruction in the basic principles of wild life conservation. For example,
the Forester and Watcher stationed at Vedanthangal should not only
have a genuine interest in wild life, but should be able to identify the
sanctuary’s plants and animals, describe their life histories and impor-
tance, and know the history of the area. In short, they should be able
to present or conduct meaningful lectures or tours of the sanctuary and
to answer correctly visitor’s questions. (4) Finally, accurate obser-
vations concerning the sanctuary and its wild life should be continuously
recorded. Changes in population densities of different species, numbers
of visitors to the sanctuary and so forth should be kept on record and
made available to the public. Scientific investigations oi wild lite by
qualified personnel also should be encouraged.

_ I. THE GUINDY DEER PARK
INTRODUCTION

Among the larger cities of India and perhaps of the world, Madras
iS unique in having an extensive natural park within its limits. This is
the Guindy Deer Park, which includes the Children’s Corner. The area
comprising Guindy was the private property of Gilbert Ricketts during
the early part of the 19th century. This property and his private. resi-
dence (Guindy Lodge), which is the present Raj Bhavan, were purchased
by the Madras Government after his death in 1817. The residence served
as a week-end resort and a country residence for the Governor of Madras
from 1825 until 1947. It then became the permanent residence for the
Governor. : fi

The late A. J. John, then Governor of Madras, offered to relinquish
the bulk of the 1262-acre estate. While approving of this offer, the

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Prime Minister of India, the late Jawaharlal Nehru, expressed the hope
that the Government of Madras would preserve the park, improve it
and arrange for its use as a public park with a portion marked out as a
Children’s Corner. The governor retained 300 acres as a part of the
Raj Bhavan. Also, 407 acres were set aside for an Institute of Higher
Technology, which has since been established under the supervision of
the West German Government. The remaining 555 acres were set
apart as a Deer Park and came under the jurisdiction of the Forest
Department in March 1958.

Of the 555 acres supposedly devoted to the Deer Park, 76 acres are
occupied by the Kattankollai and Applankulam tanks, 14 acres by the
Children’s Corner and 10 acres by a riding school built by the Riding
Club of Madras. Five riding trails utilized by riding clubs occupy
between 30 and 40 acres. The Park’s nine miles of roads occupy appro-
ximately another 40 acres. And, 20 acres have been allotted for the
establishment of a Research and Demonstration Centre for the State
Silviculture Division.

Only 395 of the Park’s present 555 acres in actuality are devoted to a
true Deer Park as proposed in the Government Order Ms. No. 3911,
Food and Agriculture, dt. 29.11.58 and approved by Government Order
Ms. No. 387, Food and Agriculture, dt. 2.2.59. Additional proposals,
such as for the construction of a golf course inside Guindy Park, also
have been presented and are now pending.

Guindy Park has not only been desecrated and diverted from the
objectives for which it was originally intended and sanctioned by the
Government, but ever increasing pressures are being exerted upon the
Guindy Deer Park.

Children’s Corner

Fourteen acres in the north-eastern corner of the Guindy Deer Park,
adjoining the Gandhi Memorial, have been set apart and constituted as a
Children’s Corner. Work was begun in January 1959 and the Children’s
Corner was inaugurated on April 14 of the same year by the late
Jawaharlal Nehru. The Children’s Corner has a two-fold objective :
(1) It should serve as a recreational park and garden, and (2) it should
help young people to develop an abiding interest in wild life and nature
study. In the words of Jawaharlal Nehru, the aim of the Children’s
Corner is to help children and young folk to learn ‘ about this beautiful
world of ours, about flowers and trees and birds and animals and.
How easy it is to make friends with them and with everything in Native!
if you go to them affectionately and with friendship’.

In keeping with the objectives for the Children’s Corner, the trees
and shrubs in this area have been labelled with their common and scienti-
fic names. A platform has been constructed around the base of a large

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 655

banyan tree to serve as an open air theatre for programmes, particularly
for presentations during the annual Wild Life Week. A nature library
for children with books on animals, birds, insects, and so forth has been
established in the park. Although most of these books are in English,
jt is hoped that volumes in the children’s native tongue will soon be made
available. Four aviaries for birds and 13 enclosures for animals have
been constructed. A special effort has been made to keep species of
birds and animals which children may handle and with which they may
-become intimately acquainted. Free pony rides are given to children
on Saturday and Sunday evenings and elephant rides were inaugurated
in June of 1966. Ten camp sites also afford camping facilities for school
children and college students. Additional recreational facilities in the
Children’s Corner include : a midget train that runs on Saturday and
Sunday evenings, a playground with a merry-go-round, swings, bars,
see-saws, sand piles and so forth.

It is sincerely hoped that in the development of the Children’s Corner
the primary objectives in the establishment of this park will always
be borne in mind. India has perhaps a greater wealth in floral and faunal
species than any other nation in the world. A special effort should be
exerted to help the young people of this great nation to become acquainted
with, to appreciate, and above all to understand the value of their wild
life heritage. There is no need to introduce exotic plants or animals
from other countries into the Children’s Corner or Guindy Park.
African lions and zebras, South American llamas and monkeys,
and North American pumas and raccoons may be seen in almost any zoo
in the world. But many of the once abundant plants and animals in
India regretfully are becoming increasingly rare. Further, the endemic
flora and fauna of this region would not only present a varied and specta-
cular display, but also something unique and worthy of note throughout
the world.

An indication of the popularity of the Guindy Deer Park and the
Children’s Corner is presented by the number of visitors tallied by the
gatekeepers during the months prior to my visit. In July 1966 there
was a total of 28,330 visitors, 35,500 in August, 24,000 in September and
31,920 in October. This is a grand total of almost 1,20,000 during this
four-month period. Members of the State Wild Life Organization sta-
tioned at Guindy include a Ranger, two Foresters, a Forest Guard and
eight Watchers.

-Flora and Fauna

The Guindy Deer Park represents a thorny scrub jungle, typical for
much of the southern arid zone of India. Although modified to some
extent, the endemic flora of the Park has been remarkably well preserved

656 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

for over a century and a half and represents one of the most natural areas
to be found in this part of Madras State.

There are more than 30 naturally occurring species of trees represented
in Guindy Park. Exotic tree and shrub plantings, however, have taken
place inside the Park during recent years. A 47-acre plot was recently
ploughed and planted with grass to provide fodder for deer. Although
it has been the intention in most cases to augment the food supply of the
native animals and to attract greater numbers of birds to the Park, I
am of the opinion that both the flora and fauna of the Guindy Deer Park
should be maintained in as natural a state as possible. Guindy is sup-
posedly a Park, not a farm nor an orchard. Therefore, in so far as
possible, it should be maintained in its natural state.

Originally the Park area was a waterless tract, but two bore wells atl
_a number of tanks have been recently constructed. Water troughs and
salt licks have been scattered throughout the Park to provide for the
animals within its confines. These encourage the animals to remain
inside the Park. Particularly during the dry season, animals are
prone to wander outside where they are extremely vulnerable.

One of the reasons for Guindy’s modification is the ever increasing
demand upon the Park for uses other than those for which it was
intended. For example, over 1500 people, mostly workers at the Raj
Bhavan, live within the Guindy Park. Members of the Raj Bhavan
staff are allowed to graze 52 head of cattle within the Park. They
are likewise permitted to collect dry fuel from the Park two days each
week. The Riding Club of Madras and the Madras Polo and Riders
Club are permitted to use the Park for riding horseback, over 100 horses
are allowed on Guindy’s roads and paths and a riding school was built
recently inside the Park. All of these activities modify both the floral
and faunal composition of the Guindy Deer Park, as well as distract
from its aesthetic values. You cannot have your cake and eat it too.
It must be decided once and for all—Is Guindy going to be maintained
as a TRUE Park, as was originally proposed and approved by Govern-
ment orders? Or, is Guindy gradually going to be diverted from its
original objectives and eventually become just another exploited area
and a park only in name ?

The Guindy Deer Park presently contains perhaps the largest. herd
of blackbuck. existing in the Indian Union. According to the July
. 1966 census, it was estimated that there are over 700 head of blackbuck
in the Park. This typically Indian animal is found in no other country
in the world and India was once renowned for the large herds of this
beautiful beast that roamed its plains from the Punjab in the north to
Cape Comorin in the south. Regretfully, however, these herds have
been decimated and in areas where herds of over a hundred were com-
‘mon less than a decade ago, it is now a rarity to see even a single animal,

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 657

In addition to blackbuck, it is estimated that there are approximately
1400 head of chital or spotted deer in the Guindy Deer Park. These
beautiful animals likewise are a typically Indian species. Less conspi-
cuous mammalian species include bonnet macaques, civet cats, common
mongoose, hares and various rodents. The bird life is both numerous
and varied. Peafowl and black partridge also have been introduced
recently into the Park.

Large predators have been excluded from the Guindy Deer Park.
Although dogs, which prey upon blackbuck and chital, occasionally
breach the approximately 8-foot-high fence surrounding the Park, there
are no natural checks to balance the numbers of ungulates in the Park
with their available food supply. As aresult, numbers of blackbuck and
chital have increased until the entire Park has been severely overgrazed.
The presence of domestic livestock and other disturbances also have
contributed to the lowering of the area’s carrying capacity. It is im-
perative that measures soon be taken to reduce and to maintain the
Park’s ungulate populations at a level compatible with the natural supply
of forage. This should be undertaken by the State Wild Life Organi-
zation and done in a scientific manner. Periodically numbers of animals
should be determined accurately, as well as the carrying capacity of the
area, and excess animals then systematically removed.

Twelve head of white blackbuck were introduced into the Guindy
Park in 1956. Only ten of these animals remain, however, I observed
a number of crosses between these and the naturally occurring blackbuck
in Guindy. Such animals are a curiosity and should be displayed in a
zoological garden, not in a natural park such as Guindy. An effort
should be made to remove these animals so that only native stock will
remain inside the.Park.

The Guindy Deer Park is confronted with a number of major pro-
blems, which must be overcome. Nevertheless, it is both a unique and
impressive area worthy of repute. The fact that this Park is located
within the confines of one of India’s largest cities, readily accessible to
literally millions of people, makes it even more noteworthy and impera-
tive that it be preserved for future generations. A noted journalist and
fellow countryman, Mr. Bill Ballantine, recorded in the Visitor’s Book
that the Guindy Deer Park is * Without doubt one of the most pleasant
animal parks of India, if not in the world’. May it so remain !

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (3)
IV. OTHER WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES IN MADRAS STATE
THE POINT CALIMERE WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

It has been proposed that 4272 acres (6°7 sq. miles) in the Kodiakadu
Reserved Forest in the Thanjavur District be constituted as the Point
Calimere Wild Life Sanctuary. The major attraction of this area. is
the large concentrations of flamingos and other migratory water-birds,
which gather here primarily during the winter months. With the excep-
tion of the Great Rann of Kutch, nowhere in Asia may such large
numbers of flamingos be seen.

Roughly half of the proposed sanctuary would consist of tidal

swamps, ideal habitat for flamingos (Plate IV) and other water-birds.

This part of the proposed sanctuary is located in what is known as the
Great Swamp. Until 1963 the Great Swamp included over 73,000 acres
of relatively virgin swamplands. However, 34,000 acres were then set
apart for the extraction of salt and the manufacture of subsidiary
products. In order to protect this area and preserve the thousands of
birds that inhabit it, it is imperative that action be taken as soon as
possible to establish and maintain the remaining part of the Great Swamp
as an inviolate wild life sanctuary.

The rich and varied bird life in the proposed sanctuary includes
such species as: flamingo, whistling teal, shoveller, pintail, tufted
pochard, redcrested pochard, curlews, greenshank, redshank, ruff,
golden and grey plovers, godwit, blackwinged stilt, whimbrel, oyster-
catcher, avocet, brownheaded and blackheaded gulls, terns, and
so forth.

The best season to see migrant birds at Point Calimere is between
November and March. Reliable sources claim that it is not uncommon
to see more than 10,000 flamingos during this season, although only about
1000 reside here throughout the year. It is further estimated that as
many as 50,000 water fowl (ducks and geese) winter here, as well as
25-30,000 shore birds, such as plovers, stilts, and so forth. There are,
of course, also a good number of resident bird species, which may be
seen throughout the year. |

The other half of the proposed sanctuary would consist of a dense
dry-evergreen forest, which formerly was known as the Kodiakkarai
Deer Sanctuary. This is the only forest area in the District and, although
severely overgrazed by domestic livestock, the exploitation of other
forest produce has been halted since 1962. Vegetation consists mainly
of the following species : Mimusops hexandra, M. littoralis, M. elangi,
Memecylon edule, Salvadora persica, Maba buxifolia and so forth.

It is estimated by the Forest Department that the proposed sanc-
tuary presently contains over 1000 head each of blackbuck, chital or

\

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 659

spotted deer, and wild boar!. Other mammals include jackal, civet
cats, mongoose, various rodents, etc. There are, however, no large
predators.

Point Calimere is accessible by both train and bus. The nearest
airport is at Tiruchirappalli, approximately 105 miles west of the sanc-
tuary. There is also an airstrip that may be used by private or char-
tered plane at Thanjavur, 70 miles from the sanctuary. The Point
Calimere railway station is near a Forest Rest House. The Great Swamp
is to the west of the station and the Kodiakkarai Forest to the east. The
rest house provides two double suites and reservations may be obtained
from the State Wild Life Officer, c/o Chief Conservator of Forests,
Central Office Buildings, 81 Mount Road, Madras-6. Point Calimere
has been constituted as a Wild Life Sanctuary in Govt. Order
MS No. 1821 Agriculture, dated 13-6-1967. The State Wild Life Orga-
nization has stationed a Range Officer, two Foresters and a Forest Guard
here and the sanctuary has had approximately 1000 visitors per year
for the past three seasons.

Top Syip WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

A 27,457-acre (42°9 sq. ml.) area consisting of Top Slip, Grass Hills
and Attakatty in the South Division of the Coimbatore District, adjacent
to the Kerala border, has been approved by the Government of Madras
for a wild life sanctuary. Development of the sanctuary is pending
upon the completion of the Parambikulum Aliyar hydroelectric project,
which includes the blasting of rock tunnels in this area. A wild life
sanctuary already has been constituted in the adjoining portion of Kerala
State.

The nearest railway station is at Pollachi, about 30 miles north of
the sanctuary. The nearest airport is an additional 30 miles north of
Pollachi at Coimbatore. Two rest houses, one belonging to the Forest
Department and the other to the Public Works Department, are located
in the sanctuary. Both have two double suites and provide full faci-
lities. Reservations may be obtained from the District Forest Officer,
Coimbatore South Division, Pollachi, Coimbatore District.

The forests in this area vary from deciduous to semi-evergreen to ever-
green, depending primarily upon elevation. Evergreen forests are confined

primarily to the upper reaches of the Punachi Range, although there are
a few compact isolated patches in the Palakadavu, Ulandi and Mount

Stuart blocks of the Tunakadavu Range. Semi-evergreen forests adjoin
the evergreen portions and deciduous forests predominate on the lower

1 See also ‘ The Point Calimere Sanctuary, Madras State—May 1967’. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 64; 512-523 (1968)—Eds.

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Slopes. Mammals inhabiting the sanctuary include elephant, gaur,
sambar, chital, barking deer, mouse deer or Indian chevrotain, leopard,
dhole or Indian wild dog, wild boar, Nilgiri langur and common langur.

THE MANJAMPATTI VALLEY WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The Government of Madras has approved a proposal for establish-
ing a wild life sanctuary in the Manjampatti, Kukkal and Kudiraiyar
areas of the Udumalpet Range in the south-west corner of the Coim-
batore District. This sanctuary will include approximately 16,836 acres
(26°3 sq. ml.) and was established primarily for the protection of the
‘ash-coloured ’ bison or gaur, whichis considered by some to be a lighter-
coloured race and a special feature of this area. Other large mammals
inhabiting the sanctuary are elephant, chital, sambar, four-horned
antelope, wild boar, sloth bear, tiger, panther and so forth. The sanc-
tuary is at present completely undeveloped. The area is inaccessible by
modern means of transportation and no facilities are available for visitors.
The Forest Department, however, proposes to construct a road into
the area as soon as possible.

Dry deciduous forests predominate along the base of the hills in the
Lower Punachi and Tunakadavu blocks in the Punachi Range (adjoin-
ing Sethumadai), but are confined to the upper reaches of the hills in
the Udumalpet Range. Intermingled with the forests are vast stretches
of grassland, encompassing numerous and compact patches of evergreen
trees. ‘ The forest is usually found in patches in the more sheltered sites
on rolling grassland, at the heads of streams, the folds of converging
slopes, in wrinkles, hollows, concave declivities and depressions.’

Thorn forests predominate in the eastern portion of the Pollachi
Range and over a large portion of the Udumalpet Range. These are
open and low forests between 20 and 30 feet in height in which thorny
species, such as Acacia, predominate. There isan ill-defined understorey
of smaller trees and large shrubs, which are mostly spiny and with other
xerophytic characters. There is little undergrowth and the soil mantle
is Shallow.

THE KODAIKANAL HILLS OR KUKKAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The Government of Madras is also considering a proposal for the
establishment of a wild life sanctuary in the north-west corner of the
Madurai District. Included in the sanctuary will be parts of the Truttar
Valley in the Kodaikanal Range, the Velancombair and Kudiraiyar
valleys in the Palni Range, the Kombais in Bodinayakkanur, as well
as parts of the Thevaram, Ayyakudi, Kannivadi and Rettayampadi
Ex-Zamindari forests. .

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA 661

The elevation of the proposed sanctuary varies between 2500 and
3000 feet. Forests consist primarily of a dry deciduous type, which
has been somewhat retarded by frequent fires and poor soil conditions.
A gallnut type of forest predominates on the upper slopes of the Palni
hills in the Kodaikanal Range. Mammals inhabiting the area include
elephant, gaur, sambar, chital, barking deer or muntjac, four-horned
antelope, wild boar, tiger, leopard, sloth bear, jackal, Nilgiri langur,
Malabar squirrel and flying squirrel.

There are no facilities for visitors to the sanctuary area at present.
Private vehicles must be utilized from Kodaikanal. Problems confront-
ing the proposed sanctuary include poaching, overgrazing by domestic
livestock and exploitation of forest produce. Most of the villagers in
this area have guns and restrictions on domestic livestock grazing are
non-existent. Such matters should be considered carefully and steps
taken at least to minimize their deleterious effects prior to the establish-
ment of a wild life sanctuary in this area.

THE MUTHUKUZHIVAYAL WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The establishment of a wild life sanctuary along the southern border

of the Tirunelveli District in southern Madras was contemplated by
Government Order MS. No. 1211, Food and Agriculture, dt. 23-3-60.
At present, however, the establishment of this sanctuary has been de-
ferred, due to disturbances caused by the construction of a hydro-
electric project in this area.
An old palace (Muthukuzhi) was formerly used by the Dewan of
Travancore and members of the royal family as a health resort. The
palace is reached by a seven-mile bridle path from Balamore Estate.
The 29-mile road leading from Balamore Estate to Nagercoil passes
through the Virupuli Reserved Forest of the Azhagiapandiapuram Range
for a distance of 12 miles. Here there are steep slopes and deep valleys.
The region generally receives over 100 inches of rainfall between May
and November and the more gentle slopes in the area are utilized for
raising rubber, teak, and softwood plantations.

There are a number of swamps in the vicinity of Muthukuzhi. Vege-
tation up to the Balamore Estate is typically a dense moist deciduous
forest with a dense and impenetrable undergrowth of cane, thorny
creepers, reeds and thorny evergreen shrubs. The vegetation between
Balamore and Muthukuzhivayal, which is at an elevation of 4000 feet
above sea-level, consists of grasslands dotted with shola, reminiscent, of
the downs near Ootacamund. Large mammals inhabiting the area in-
clude elephant and gaur in appreciable numbers, sambar, chital, four-
horned antelope, wild boar, tiger, leopard, dhole or Indian wild dog and
fion-tailed macaque.

9

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

THE MUNDANDURAI WILD LIFE SANCTUARY

The Mundandurai Wild Life Sanctuary, also called the Mundan-
durai Tiger Sanctuary, consists of 1,39,094 acres (217 sq. ml.) in the
south-western part of the Tirunelveli District in southern Madras. The
nearest railway station is 10 miles from the sanctuary at Ambasamudram.
Bus service, frequent lorries or private vehicle may be taken from there
to the sanctuary. The nearest airport is at Madurai, a distance of about
130 miles. A Forest Rest House with two suites and all facilities pro-
vided is located in the sanctuary and overlooks the Thambaraparani River.

The Papanasam Reservoir and hydroelectric project and a number
of tribal settlements are located inside the sanctuary. The sanctuary’s
dry deciduous forests also are fully exploited for forest produce, such as
firewood and beedi leaf (used for rolling cigarettes). The areais reported
to be overgrazed by domestic livestock and subject to much disturbance,
although the interior parts of the sanctuary supposedly are relatively
little disturbed. The State Wild Life Organization has established a
number of salt licks and is attempting to develop some of the sanctuary’s
scenic sites, as well as construct roads into the interior areas.

The dry deciduous forests in this area are intermingled with nume-
rous thorny shrubs, as well as some bamboo in the more moist areas.
Animals consist of tiger, leopard, dhole or Indian wild dog, sloth bear,
sambar, chital, barking deer, mouse deer or Indian chevrotain, wild boar,
Nilgiri langur and lion-tailed macaque, as well as numerous birds.

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Mr. T. Jeyadev (Chief Conservator of Forests) and
the Forest Department of the State of Madras for their co-operation
and assistance during my visit to Madras between November 30 and
December 7, 1966. Special thanks go to Mr. M. A. Badshah (State
Wild Life Officer) and Mr. C. Pavithram (Acting State Wild Life Officer
during my visit) for their hospitality and assistance, as well as providing |
most of the information contained in this report. Range Officers K. R.
Srinivasan and C. S. Hemachandran kindly accompanied and assisted
me during my visit to the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary. Particular.
thanks also goes to M. Krishnan and his wife for their hospitality during
my visit to their home. Mr. Krishnan has commendably presented the
cause of wild life conservation to the public. His factual and well- |
illustrated booklets ‘The Vedanthangal Sanctuary for Water-Birds ’, |
and ‘ The Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary ’ were of much assistance in |
compiling this report. |

The State Wild Life Organization for Madras is to be highly com-
mended for its active interest in the preservation of wild life and for its |
notable accomplishments thus far, both in developing and helping the |
public to become aware of some of the State’s outstanding wild life areas. |

sé

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

: ANDHRA PRADESH F
WILD LIFE MAP OF vad /
MADRAS STATE. ee
eng % oe)
Ooi.) 32. 4 2 .
beet A GUINDY PARK
SCALE ? i
Ey
”
Os
VEDANTHANGAL #
i
MYSORE Lp
Orog,
MUDUMALAL - t
= ” as
— “Been rs é

J BAY
a OF
me a ek eg \ BENGAL
M . e "22r.cana} :
La h
es che, ff me,
TOPSLIP (3) MANJAMPATTI tig
o VALLEY f fo° KODIAKKARAI
Ku { OINT CALIMERE
: K KKay 2 °” ’ j ©
ODaix a of a“
ANAL m L i ,
. os ¢
KERALA Ca @
Pncd
WILD LIFE SANCTUARY |SYMBOL| BEST,SEASON|

{ MUDUMALAI FEB.-MAY
_ REFERENCE GUINDY PARK ALL YEAR
STATE BOUNDARY esacasso ese ivicrate ee
JAN.-SEPT.
STATE HIGHWAYS S227: POINT CALIMERE NOV.-MAR.
RAILWAY LINE KODIAKKARAI

KUKKAL KODAIKANAL
TOPSLIP

MUTHUKULIVAYAL

MANJAMPATTI VALLEY

FEB -MAY
FEB.-MAY
JAN .°SEPT.
FEB.-MAY

INDIAN OCEAN

Figure 8. General map or the wild life sanctuaries in Madras State.

lS II RS LITE LE SS NR SSE ASR SCRE RR SEE EA A SA NS SY ON AY EE A ee oT

RD ee IETS as UCTS YOM EEL NTE ROE

WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND WEST INDIA

663

VI. REFERENCES

Aut, SALIM (1961): The book of
Indian birds. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,
Bombay. 158 pp.

ANonyMous-) (1959): Guindy Deer
Park and Children’s Corner. 6 pp.
Madras Forest Department.

———— (1965): Wild life sanc-
tuaries in India. Department of
Tourism. Government of India. New
Delhi. 84 pp.

BADSHAH, M. A. (1962) : Checklist of
birds of Madras State. (mimeo) 21 pp.

———-— (1963): Some large reptiles
of Madras State.
Dept., 15 pp.

Madras State Forest

(1966): Proposed — sanc-
tuaries in Madras _ State.(typewritten)
4 pp

(1966) : Note regarding for-
mation of Guindy Park Reserved Forest

ROAD: METALLED
UNMETALLED.

CART TRACK
FOREST REST HOUSE

Ss
br
“i Fa
ry 2
\* ABHAYARANYAM

and Children’s Corner, Guindy. (mimeo)
7 pp

(1966): Water-Birds Sanc-
tuary at Vedanthangal, short description.
(mimeo) 2 pp.

————— (1966): Mudumalai Wild-
life Sanctuary. (mimeo) 7 pp.

GEE, E. P. (1956) : The management of
India’s wild life sanctuaries and national
parks. Part III. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 54 (2): 453-466.

KRISHNAN, M. (1959): The Mudu-
malai Wild Life Sanctuary. Madras
State Forest Dept. 31 pp.

——— (1960): The Vedanthangal
Sanctuary for Water-birds. Madras
State Forest Dept. 25 pp.

PRATER, S. H. (1965) : Book of Indian
animals, 2nd ed., Bombay Natural
History Society. :

MULUUMALA] WILD LIFE SANCTUARY
0 9 WES 4

scaLe: | { }

& =
mova, po aee * POWER
bo HOUSE

SRrenork
GURUVEY GAUNDAN oon, ay
a
MOYAR RF.) sae”
yee
’

AVARAHALLA RB.F.

Figure 9, General map of the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary in
Madras State.

(Concluded)

Two new species of /seilema Anderss.
from India

BY

Murty R. UPPULURI AND U. SATYAVATHI
Department of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair, India

(With a plate)

Two new species of Jseilema Anderss. are described. A key to the
species of Jseilema found in the Indian subcontinent and Burma is given,
followed by an enumeration of the species.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Iseilema was established by Andersson in Nov. Act. Soc.
Sci. Uppsala, ser. 3, 2:250, 1856, and separated from Anthistiria (Themeda
Forssk.) to which it bears a superficial resemblance in the unit of the
inflorescence. The unit of the inflorescence in both these genera is
characterised by the fact that the fertile spikelet or spikelets are sur- —
rounded by an involucre of four homogamous spikelets. Within the
involucre are found in Jsei/lema a solitary stipitate female or herma-
phrodit espikelet with two developed male or vestigial spikelets, seated on
pedicels. In Themeda the hermaphrodite spikelets may be 1-3 in num-
ber ; when more than one, each of the lower is accompanied by a male |
pedicelled spikelet, while the terminal has two pedicelled male or sterile
spikelets. A far more fundamental difference is the method of dis-—
persal of the fruits. In Themeda the inner false raceme breaks up leav-
ing the involucral spikelets intact and each female or hermaphrodite
spikelet is furnished with a sharp callus which is covered with stiff re-
trorse hairs : obviously adapted to carriage by the fur of animals or the
clothes of humans. Anyone who has experience of grass jungle will .
testify to the plague Themeda fruits can be—they can work their way
through clothing and even puncture the skin. In Jsei/lema on the other
hand, the pedicelled spikelets may fall from their pedicels but the rest of —
the complex falls entire, the point of abscission being below the fused
pedicels of the involucral spikelets. This obviously is adapted to dis-
persal by wind though there is a slight possibility that the awns may
become entangled in the fur of animals. The genus Jsei/ema is further
distinguished by the peculiar shape of the hermaphrodite or female

7
ah
melee

_ J. Bomsay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)
Murty : New species of Iseilema

Figs. 1-8. Iseilema hubbardii sp. nov.; 9-18. Iseilema
venkateswarlui sp. nov.

1. A raceme showing the involucral and inner spikelets; 2. Central and the
two rudimentary inner pedicelled spikelets; 3 & 4. Glumes of the involucral spike-
lets; 5,6,7 &8. Glumes of the central spikelets; 9. A raceme showing the in-
volucral and inner spikelets; 10. Central and the two inner pedicelled spikelets ;
{1 & 12. Glumes of the involucral spikelets ; 13 & 14. Glumes of the inner pedi-
celled spikelet ; 15, 16, 17 & 18. Glumes of the central spikelets.

=

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ISEILEMA 665

spikelet, the tip of which is drawn out into a tail. In addition this spike-
let is seated upon a stipe which is fused to the bases of the pedicels of the
pedicelled spikelets. 3

The units of the inflorescence in Jseilema are seated on a short peduncle
enclosed in a firmly compressed, spathe-like sheath with a reduced blade
or without a blade. The whole of this structure, spathe and raceme,
often breaks off at the node and this may be an additional adaptation to
dispersal by wind. Sometimes the margins of the sheath are decorated
by tubercle-based stiff hairs which might ensure that the structure became
attached to the fur of a passing animal.

The number of species in the genus Iseilema is twenty-five, not in-
cluding the two species described as new in this paper, of which all except
two are annuals, often prostrate at the base and sending up flowering
shoots from the rooting nodes. The two perennial species are
I. thorelii A. Camus and I. holei Haines. The former has been collected
in Siam and the latter in the State of Bihar. These two species are ex-
tremely similar in appearance and may eventually have to be merged,
when the former name will have priority. It may be mentioned here,
that there is only one gathering of J. holei at Kew, although it is said
to be common in the forests of Palamau in Bihar. |

Of the twenty-five species so far described, fourteen are native to
Australia, six to India, two to Siam, two to the Sunda Isles and one to
Cambodia. Unless I. holei and J. thorelii are the same species, not a
single species of one area is found in any other (Bor, personal communi-
cation).

Two new species for India have recently been found and _ their
descriptions are as follows.

Iseilema hubbardii Murty, sp. nov.

I, anthephoroidi Hack. affinis sed ab ea spiculis involucralibus pedi-
cellisque longioribus, spiculis pedicellatis ad squamas vestigiales redac-
tis satis distincta. |

Gramen annuum. Culmi primo basi prostrati nodis radicantes,
demum erecti, 25-40 cm. alti, leves glabrique, teretes, pallidi vel pur-
purascentes, foliosi. Foliorum laminae planae, lineari-acutae, usque
15 cm. longae, 3-4 mm. latae, plurinerves, glabrae, sed marginibus basin
versus pilis e tuberculis ortis sparse instructae ; culmorum vaginae plus
minusve compressae, striatae, leves glabraeque, superiores cymbiformes,
dilatatae, laminis brevibus instructae ; ligulae membranaceae, denti-
culatae. Spiculae involucrales ¢, 7-9 mm. longae, 1°5 mm. latae, lan-
-ceolato-oblongae parum acuminatae; pedicelli 1:25-1:5 mm. longi,
infra spiculas 1 mm. lati, marginibus ciliati; stamina 3; antherae
_ 3-3°5 mm. longae ; gluma inferior spiculae aequilonga, 7 nervis, dorso

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

plana, vel inter nervos depressa, marginibus inflexis ciliata ; gluma supe-
rior navicularis, 3-nervis, hyalina; lemmata paleaeque plerumque
desunt, si adsunt hyalinae. Spicula centralis stipitata ; stipa 1 mm.
longa, apice pilis usque 3 mm. longis instructa; gluma inferior elliptico-
caudata ; pars elliptica 3 mm. longa, leviter carinata, marginibus cari-
naque ciliatis ; pars superior angusta 4 mm. longa, conspicue viridi-
nervata; gluma superior similis sed brevior; anthoecia ad basin hyali-
nam 4 mm. longam aristae redacta ; palea hyalina 4 mm. longa ; arista
c. 18 mm. longa ; columna torta castanea, 7-9 mm. longa. Spiculae
pedicellatee ; pedicelli graciles, flexuosi; spiculae ad squamas minutas
redactae.

Iseilema hubbardii Murty, sp. nov.

Allied to I. anthephoroides Hack., but differs in the length of the
involucral spikelets and their pedicels and in the extreme reduction of
the inner pedicelled spikelets to rudimentary scales.

Prostrate annual herb, rooting at the nodes, 25-40 cm. tall. Stem
round, and purple or white. Involucral spikelets 7-9 mm. long x 1°5 mm.
wide, lanceolate-oblong, somewhat acuminate ; pedicels 1°25-1°5 mm.
wide below the spikelet, ciliate on the margins. Stamens 3, anthers
3mm. long. Central spikelet stipitate, 7-8 mm. long of which 3°5 mm.
form the beak ; stipe 1 mm. long, pilose at the tip ; lower glume ellip-
tic-oblong in the lower half, ridged on the dorsal surface, rounded on
the margins, appressed hairy towards the base of the beak, pilose on the
margin, 7-nerved ; upper glume similar in shape, 3-nerved ; both nar-
rowed into the beak ; lower floret absent ; upper floret female ; lemma
4 mm. long, very narrow, produced into a perfect awn, palea a hyaline

scale,.4 mm. long. Grain elliptic in outline, dorsally compressed,

embryo ? the length of the grain. Awn 18 mm. long, column twisted,
chestnut, 9 mm. long, bristle straight, scabrid. Pedicelled spikelets
consist of reduced scales seated on-very slender pedicels. (Figs. 1-8).
Holotype collected in the University campus of Ujjain, Madhya
Pradesh, India by Murty on 22 November, 1966 under the field number
IAU 3 and deposited in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England.
Two isotypes bearing the same number are also deposited at Kew.

The specific epithet is given in honour of Dr. C.E. Hubbard, ex-Deputy 3

Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his unique contribution to
the systematics of the Gramineae as also in this particular genus.

Iseilema venkateswarlui Satyavathi, sp. nov.

Cum I. anthephoroide I. hubbardiique comparanda sed a primo spicula
stipitata glumis involucralibus breviore, ab. altero spiculis pedicellatis
evolutis instructa, distinguitur, ! 3 .

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ISEILEMA 667

Gramen annuum. Culmi basi decumbentes, nodis radicantes, demum
erecti, usque 40 cm. alti, teretes, virides vel purpurascentes, leves glab-
rique. Foliorum laminae lineares, acutae, usque 12 cm. longae,
2-3 mm. latae, planae, marginibus scaberrimae, basin versus pilis e
tuberculis ortis sparse instructae, utrinque glabrae ; vaginae striatae,
plus minusve carinatae ; ligulae membranaceae, brevissimae, fimbriatae.

- Spiculae involucrales 3, 5°5-7°5 mm. longae, 1°25-1°5 mm. latae, basi

umbonatae, marginibus inflexis longe ciliatis ; pedicelli 1-1°25 mm.
longi, 1°25 mm. lati, marginibus ciliati ; gluma inferior oblongo-acuta,
viridi nervata dorso plana, apice viridinervata ; gluma superior brevior,
3-nervis, hyalina ; lemmata paleaeque ut videtur desunt ; stamina 3 ;
antherae 3 mm. longae. Spicula centralis stipitata, foeminea, elliptico-
caudata, stipa brevissima inclusa vix 5 mm. longa; pars elliptica 3 mm.
longa ; gluma inferior spiculae ambitu similis, membranacea, marginibus
inflexis, marginibus ciliata; gluma superior brevior, 3-nervis. An-
thoecia singula ; lemma 2-3 mm. longum, angustum, ad basin aristae
redactum ; palea hyalina, parva: arista 18 mm. longa ; columna torta,
9mm. longa, castanea. Spiculae pedicellatae ; pedicelli ciliati, 4-4°5 mm.
longi; spiculae 5°5 mm. longae, masculinae, glumae anguste elliptico-
lanceolatae, pleurumquejvacuae.

Iseilema venkateswarlui Satyavathi, sp. nov.

Related to J. anthephoroides and I. hubbardii, but differs in the rela-
tive lengths of the involucral spikelets and the central hermaphrodite
spikelet.

Prostrate annual herb, rooting at the nodes, 30-40 cm. tall. Stem
round and purple or white. Involucral spikelets 6°5-7°5 mm. long x 1°25-
1:5 mm. wide, oblong-acute, markedly umbonate at the base ; pedicels
1:25 mm. long, 1-1:25 mm. wide at the apex, densely ciliate on the outer
margins ; stamens 3, 3 mm. long. Central spikelet almost sessile,
5°5 mm. long of which 3°5 mm. are elliptic and the remainder beak ; in
some racemes beak longer than lower elliptic portion ; lower and upper
glumes similar in nervation and indumentum to those of I. hubbardii ;
lower floret empty ; upper floret female ; lemma and palea similar to
those in J. hubbardii. Pedicelled spikelets present, glumes 5°5 mm.
long ; anthers present, pedicels 4-4°5 mm. long (Figs. 9-18).

Holotype collected at Lam Farm, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India,
by Satyavathi on 26 September, 1966, and deposited at the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, under the field number IAG 4. Two isotypes bearing
the same number are also deposited at Kew.

- The species is named after Professor J. Venkateswarlu under whose
supervision this work was carried out, | :

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

KEY TO THE INDIAN AND BURMESE SPECIES

A stout perennial with culms up to 120 cm. tall; leaf-blades up
to 45 cm. long ; ultimate spatheoles markedly glandular on
the keels... bei es ay .. J. holei

Annuals with much shorter culms and leaf-blades ; ultimate
spatheoles glandular or not:

Leaf-blades obtuse-apiculate at the tips, spinulose-scabrid
on the margins towards the tips An .. I. argutum

Leaf-blades linear-acute or linear-acuminate not spinu-
lose-scabrid on the margins towards the tips :

Pedicelled spikelets absent altogether or much re-
duced Ke - .. I. hubbardii

Pedicelled spikelets present :
Stipitate spikelets shorter than and hidden by
the involucral spikelets es .. I. venkateswarlui

Stipitate spikelets projecting beyond the tips of
the involucral spikelets :

Glandular tubercles present on the keels of the
spatheoles and often on the nerves of the
lower glumes of the involucral spikelets .. J. prostratum

Glandular tubercles not present on the keels of
the spatheoles or only very rarely and then
pedicels of the involucral spikelets as broad
as long :

Pedicels of the involucral spikelets slender,
longer than broad at .. I. laxum

Pedicels of the involucral spikelets almost
as broad as long .. I. anthephoroides

ENUMERATION OF THE INDIAN AND BURMESE SPECIES

1. Iseilema holei in Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1055, 1924. Dis-
tribution: Bihar.

2. Iseilema argutum Anderss. in Nov. Act. Soe Sci. Upsal. Ser. 3,
2: 252, 1856. Anthistiria arguta Nees ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 1 : 401,
1855. Distribution: Burma.

3. Iseilema hubbardii Murty. Distribution: Ujjain, addins Pradesh.

' 4, Iseilema venkateswarlui Satyavathi. Distribution : Andhra Pradesh.

5. Iseilema prostratum (Linn.) Anderss. in Nov. Act. Soc. Sci.
Upsal. Ser. 3, 2:251, 1856. Andropogon prostratus Linn. Mant. 2:304,
1771. Cymbopogon glandulosus Spreng. Pug. 2:14, 1815. Anthistiria
prostrata (Linn.) Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 901, 1806. A. wightii Nees ex Steud-
Syn. Pl. Glum. 1 : 400, 1855. Iseilema wightii Anderss. in Nov. Act,

TWO NEW SPECIES OF ISEILEMA 669

Soc. Sci. Upsal. Ser. 3, 2:251, 1856. Distribution : Throughout India,
Burma.

6. Iseilema laxum Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6 : 682, 1889. Dis-
tribution : South India and Ceylon.

7. Iseilema anthephoroides Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6: 683, 1889.
Distribution : ' South India, Maharashtra.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our sincere thanks to Professor J. Venkateswarlu for
guidance and for providing facilities. We are deeply indebted to
Dr. N. L. Bor of Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his generous help in
the preparation and revision of the manuscript, for the Latin diagnosis
and for his keen interest and constant encouragement. Our thanks are
also due to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for identifica-
tions and to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New
Delhi for financial assistance.

Some Wild-shot duck hybrids
from the Indian Subcontinent

BY

—

JAMES HARRISON AND JEFFERY HARRISON

(With four plates)

At the request of Mr. Humayun Abdulali, who is working on the
collection of bird skins belonging to the Bombay Natural History Society,
we have been asked to report on five duck hybrids.

Three of these had been identified respectively as Falcated Duck x
Wigeon ; Mallard x Shoveller and Mallard x Pintail. We are in full
agreement with these identifications. The two other hybrids had been
identified originally by the late Mr. E. C. Stuart-Baker as Falcated Duck
x Shoveller, but there is a note to the effect that he had been unable to
account for the plumage features of the wings. In our opinion these two
specimens are in fact hybrids between the Baikal Teal and the Shoveller.

Hybrids involving the Baikal Teal have only been recorded once.
This was with an American Green-winged Teal Anas crecca carolinensis
in captivity conditions (Sibley 1938). These two specimens are there-
fore of exceptional interest. One further hybrid, now in the British
Museum (Natural History) collection had been recorded as a hybrid
between the European Green-winged Teal, Anas crecca crecca, and the
Baikal Teal (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40 : 334), but after examining this —
specimen, we consider it to be a Teal x Pintail, Anas acuta.

Our findings on all these specimens are as follows :—

Shoveller Anas clypeata x Baikal Teal Anas formosa. (Plates J, IJ and IIT)

No. 15479, Bombay Natural History Society.

27th January, 1900 ; Calcutta Market. 3 by plumage.
No. 15474, Bombay Natural History Society.

18th March, 1915. Manipur, Assam. 3 by plumage.

Both these specimens present features of considerable interest. On
plumage characters they are presumptive males, although neither had
been anatomically sexed. Both are broadly of the same type.

The character which immediately strikes one and about which there
can be no doubt is that on one side the parentage must be Shoveller, in
view of the pronounced Shoveller-like bill, and it is certainly safe to
assume the Northern Shoveller, Anas clypeata,

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I

Harrison : Hybrid Ducks

Shoveller (Anas clypeata) * Baikal Teal (Anas formosa).

(Photo: Pamela Harrison)

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) Prare 4g

Harrison : Hybrid Ducks

Shoveller (Anas clypeata) x Baikal Teal (Anas formosa).

(Photo : Pamela Harrison)

, WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM INDIA 671

The parentage on the other side of the cross is not so evident and
raises speculative issues, but we believe it was a Baikal Teal and not a
Falcated Duck, as was thought by E. C. Stuart-Baker.

Description.

Head and neck : Both specimens present a curious facial pattern, which
is quite foreign to the normal morphology of the Shoveller. In place of
the glossy-green head of the drake Shoveller, both birds have acquired
whitish-cream side panels, extending from the lores, cheeks, sides of
face and gular areas, down the front of the neck, which is divided from
the breast by a glossy-green collar. There is a tendency for the white
to extend upwards as a crescent in front of the eye, which is most marked
in No. 15474.

This area deserves close scrutiny. In the adult drake Baikal Teal,
the same cream-coloured side panel is present, extending from the lores
to the root of the neck. The gular region, however, is black and this
extends halfway down the neck. The cheeks are divided by an oblique
black line running from the eye slightly backwards to the black of the
throat. The cream panel is thus divided into an anterior and posterior
part producing a striking ‘ bridled ’ effect.

If we examine these two hybrids closely, minimal traces of these
characters can be seen, showing as small black flecking on the chin and
in the gular region and, more significantly, as traces of the ‘ bridled ’
pattern.

The crowns are bronze-coloured and the nape and back of the neck
a metallic-green, which extends round the front of the lower neck as
a narrow ring, as already mentioned.

Under-parts : There is a basic departure from both parent species in the
characters of the breast, which is a rich chestnut, heavily barred with
dark sepia. In No. 15479 this pattern extends onto the upper flanks.
This type of plumage is rather similar to that of the drake Australian
Shoveller A. rhynchotis rhynchotis. The flanks are pale chestnut, finely
vermiculated with dark grey, and are therefore intermediate between
the parent species. The lower breast and belly are creamy-white and
the lower belly vermiculated with pale grey barring. The undertail
coverts are black with a trace of white at the base of the tail.

Upper-parts: The mantle is brownish with coarse transverse sepia vermi-
culations. The rump is dark sepia and the uppertail coverts. black
with metallic green reflections. The tail feathers are pale brown with

whitish margins, the central pair being darker.
le

Wing : The wing coverts are modified between the two parent species.
The lesser and medium coverts are greyish-blue, while the greater coverts
are broadly edged with bright chestnut, a characteristic of the drake

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Baikal Teal. The speculum is green. The tertials show bluish-grey
outer webs derived from the Shoveller, but the scapulars, particularly in
No. 15474 show pale brownish margins, clearly derived from the Baikal
Teal. The primaries are sepia.

The beak was obviously black in life and the legs, feet and webs
orange, as in the Shoveller.

Measurements in mm. ¢
No. 15479 No. 15474

Wing (chord) Ry Ss a 254 252
Bill-length 63 * Mis 6 32°5 55

» greatest width a ae a 20 2?
Tarsus ie Re oe ce 373 37
Tail ee es ie wi 81 et

Discussion: We have described elsewhere certain hybrids involving
the Shoveller, Wigeon, Pintail and European Green-winged Teal, in which
striking facial patterns have been produced. In their basic characters
these are closely similar to the present two hybrids, although they are
clearly quite different in many other respects. (Harrison: 1963, 1964,
1966.) :

We believe these to be expressions of reversionary evolutionary
trends, providing evidence of phylogenetic relationships. In these cases
we have postulated that the Baikal Teal could well be one of the most
ancestral of the duck species and it is of much interest to note in a hybrid
involving this species, the same basic facial pattern is dominant.

The overlap areas in the breeding ranges of the two parent species
lie in extreme eastern Siberia surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk. The
Shoveller is a common winter visitor to the Indian subcontinent, whereas
the Baikal Teal is rare.

Falcated Duck Anas falcata x Wigeon Anas penelope (Plate IV)

No. 22244, Bombay Natural History Society.
No date. Imphal, Manipur. Shot by Captain W. R. P. Williams ¢ ad.
by plumage.

This bird was identified on the original label as a hybrid involving
these two species by Salim Ali, an identification with which we. are in
full agreement.

The specimen is an excellent example of a true intermediate between
the two parent species. In general, the head and neck pattern is largely
derived from the Falcated Duck, whereas the remainder of the bird is

largely Wigeon.

Description.
Head and neck : The chin and throat are white ; the crown and cheeks
are rich chestnut, merging to a bright metallic green behind the eyes,

J. BomBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLaTE III

Harrison : Hybrid Ducks

Shoveller (Anas clypeata) x Baikal Teal (Anas formosa).

(Photo : Pamela Harrison)

J. Bompay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE IV

Harrison : Hybrid Ducks

Falcated Duck (Anas falcata) x Wigeon (Anas penelope).
(Photo : Pamela Harrison)

WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM INDIA 673

which joins behind the crown and extends to the upper neck. The
feathers of the nape are full, but there is no such ‘ crest’ as in the Fal-
cated Duck. The whole of the lower neck is a dull blackish-green.
The white spot on the forehead, immediately adjoining the upper man-
dible of the Falcated Duck, is represented by a pale chestnut one in the
hybrid.

Under-parts : The breast is vineous, the lower breast and belly white and
the flanks finely vermiculated in white and grey, the under-tail coverts
black, bordered with white anteriorly, all of which is virtually identical
to a drake Wigeon.

Upper-parts : The whole of the upper-parts are vermiculated with grey
and white with a pale brown wash, the vermiculations being coarsest
at the base of the neck and becoming progressively finer towards the
central upper-tail coverts. The lateral coverts are black. The tail,
which is pointed, is pale sepia, the four central feathers being rather
darker. Only one feature is obviously derived from the Falcated Duck
and that is the small black lateral margins to some of the scapulars.

Wing : This is also intermediate in character between the parent species.
The wing coverts are predominantly white, merging to grey, the white
being rather less extensive than in a drake Wigeon. The speculum is
black with metallic green reflections. The primaries are sepia, paler
on the inner webs. The narrow tertials are much more elongated than
those of a Wigeon, reaching to within an inch of the tips of the primaries,
and are slightly down-curved, but not so sickle-shaped as in the drake
Falcated Duck. The outer webs are black, bordered strongly with
white and the inner webs sepia.

The beak is also intermediate in size and shape between the parent
species.

Measurements inmm :

Wing (chord) ae 268
Bill-length np 41°5
», greatest width Ay 16
Tarsus avs 38
Tail be 78

Discussion : :

This is the first record of a wild-bred hybrid between these two
species, which we have been able to trace.

Like the two Shoveller x Baikal Teal hybrids, the overlap areas in
the breeding ranges of these two parent species would appear to lie in
extreme eastern Siberia surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk. Whereas the
Wigeon is a common winter visitor to the whole Indian subcontinent,
the Falcated Duck is a most unusual straggler. It is probable there-

674. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

fore that this hybrid had covered somewhere in the-region of 4,000 miles
to reach Manipur.

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos < Shoyeller Anas clypeata

No. 15473 : 31—xii—1912. Bombay Natural History Society.
December 1911, Srinagar, Kashmir.

This bird was shot during a cold spell and was originally in the
collection of M. J. Kennard. Unfortunately it is now rapidly disinte-
grating.

This specimen was not sexed, but is a male in full plumage. It is
an intermediate type of hybrid, with Shoveller features tending to pre-
dominate.

Desictiption.

Head and neck : The beak is predominantly Shoveller in shape, but slightly
broader at the base and less broad at the tip. The lamellae at the sides
of the upper mandible are present, but are less well developed than in
the Shoveller. Looking at the specimen, it is obvious that the majority
of the beak was black in life, but there is a paler band around the tip,
which was probably greenish-yellow in life. The nail was dark.

The head and neck are a uniform blackish colour, with bright metallic
blue-green reflections. These are now separated from the body, but it
seems certain from the remaining feathers in this BION that there was a
narrow white neck ring, as in a drake Mallard.

Under-parts: There is a chestnut breastshield as ina drake Mallard, and
this is extended downwards centrally to the mid-point of the belly. The
rest of the under-parts are pale grey, finely vermiculated with sepia, while
there is a chestnut suffusion over the front half of the flanks. The chest-
nut colour on the belly and flanks is clearly derived from Shoveller. The
upper and undertail coverts are black and in front of the undertail coverts
on the side there is a whitish patch. The tail itself is unfortunately
missing.

Upper-parts : The whole of the upper-parts are sepia, becoming progres-
sively darker over the rump, which merges with the black uppertail
coverts. The feathers between the shoulders have narrow buff edges.

Wing : The whole of the shoulder is a dull bluish-grey, the tips of the
greater wing-coverts forming a broad white bar along the inner margin
of the speculum. This is predominantly green, with only a trace of blue
reflection at certain angles. There is a narrow white outer margin. The
tertials are sepia, the outer vanes being dark on the upper half, merging
to bluish-grey along the lower half and tips. The long scapulars area
uniform dark sepia, with a narrow bluish-white central line along the
lower half of the shafts. awe

WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM INDIA 675

The wing pattern therefore is predominantly Shoveller, only made
rather duller through Mallard influence. The legs and feet were obviously
orange in life.

Measurements inmm. :

Wing one I 276
Bill-length Bi 63

5, greatest width " 31
Tarsus Ap 44
Tail ne Missing

Discussion :

The breeding range of these two species overlap very widely, extend-
ing to the north of the whole Indian subcontinent and it is likely there-
fore that the hybridisation took place in this region.

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos x Pintail Anas acuta.

No. 15384 Bombay Natural History Society.
24th May, 1915, Kashmir. Collected by M. J. Kennard. 3 by plumage.

This specimen is a typical intermediate hybrid between these two
species and is a first year bird in transitional plumage, now rather ‘ foxed ’.

Description.

Head and neck : These are in moult and are generally flecked with dark
brown feathers, some of which show green reflections on the back of the
neck. The crown is dark brown, streaked with sepia, as in the Pintail.
A white neck-ring is developing.

Under-parts: The breast-shield is very pale chestnut, merging to white on
the lower breast, which in turn merges to grey on the rest of the belly.
The flanks are finely vermiculated grey and white, with a few typical
juvenile feathers still present. The undertail-coverts are black, sharply
bordered with white in front and at the sides.

Upper-parts : These are generally sepia, finely vermiculated with grey and
white between the shoulders and extending down over the scapulars.
Many of the dark sepia mantle and rump feathers have the narrow pale
transverse bars, typical of juvenile Pintail feathers, as have some of the
tertials. The first year tertials are pale sepia with dark centers and are
finely vermiculated with grey and white on the outer veins, showing
Pintail influence.

Some of the upper tail coverts are black with green reflections, but
most are dark sepia with the pale brown edges of retained juvenile
feathers. Most of the tail feathers are also juvenile, pale brown with
whitish edges, the central ones being elongated and pointed, indicative of
Pintail influence. The first year feathers are greyish-brown with broad

~ whitish edges.

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Wing : The wing coverts are greyish-brown with the very narrow pale
edges of a first year bird. The greater coverts are tipped with bright
chestnut to form the anterior margin of the speculum, as in the Pintail.
The speculum is metallic green, broadly edged posteriorly with a band
of black and then white. The primary coverts are greyish-sepia and the
primaries, darker sepia with paler inner vanes. The wing is thus typically
intermediate between the parent species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are most grateful to the Bombay Natural History Society and in
particular to Mr. Humayun Abdulali for allowing us to examine these
five most interesting hybrid ducks. We are also very grateful to the
British Museum (Natural History) for loaning us the supposed hybrid
between the Green-winged Teal and the Baikal Teal. We must also
thank Dr. Pamela Harrison for the photographs illustrating this work.

REFERENCES

Harrison, J. M. (1964) : Further com-

ments on hybridisation between the
European Wigeonand Northern Shoveller.
Bull. B.O.C., 84 : 30-39.
AES EEE HARRISON, J. G.
(1963): A Gadwall with a white neck
ring and a review of plumage variants in
wildfowl. Bull. B.O.C., 83 : 101-108.

HARRISON, J. M. & HARRISON, J. G.
(1966) : Remarks on two European
Wigeon X Northern Pintail hybrids. Bull.
B. O. C., 86: 8-11.

SIBLEY, C. G. (1938) : Hybrids of and
with North American Anatidae. Proc.
9th Int. Orn. Congress. 1938 : 327-335. .

Two new Phytosetid Mites from.
Eastern India (Acarina: Phytosetidae)

BY

S. K. BHATTACHARYYA
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(With six text-figures)

Until recently no attention has been paid to the phytoseiid mites in
India. In 1960 Chant described Typhlodromus (Amblyseius) salebrosus,
T. (A.) assamensis, Typhlodromus (Typhlodromus) fleschneri, and T. (T.)
rickeri. Narayanan & Kaur (1960) described 7. (A.) delhiensis and
T.(A.) indicus. The same year, Narayanan, Kaur & Ghai (1960) recorded
or described T. (A.) fallacis (Garman), T. (A.) ovalis Evans, T. (A.)
asiaticus Evans, T. (A.) orientalis, T. (T.) bakeri (Garman), T. (T.) con-
fusus, Phytoseius macropilis (Banks), and P. minutus. Later Narayanan
& Ghai (1963) also recorded and described the following species asso-
ciated with malformation of mango trees: J. (T.) roshanlali, T. (T.)
rhenanus (Oudemans), and 7. (T.) nesbitti (Womersley). During the
present study, small collections of acarina have been made in the pro-
vince of West Bengal, India. In these collections two species were found
to be new to science and are described herein, based on females only :
Typhlodromus (Amblyseius) amitae sp. nov., and Phytoseius (Dubini-
nellus) indicus sp. Nov.

The type material is deposited in the Collections of the Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta.

Typhlodromus (Amblyseius) amitae sp. nov.

FEMALE. Dorsal shield Uength 0°304 mm. ; width 0°208 mm.) with
17 pairs of setae i.e., 9 pairs lateral, 6 pairs dorsal, and 2 pairs median
series (Fig. 1). Setae L4 0°064-0:072 mm., L9 0°208-0°220 mm. and
M2 0:068 mm. long and whip-like. Setae LI, L2, L3, L5, L6, L7 and L8
0:032, 0:008, 0°004, 0°008, 0°012, 0°014 and 0°012 mm. long respectively.
Setae D2, D3, D4, and M1 equal in length (0°004 mm.). Setae DI vary-
ing in length (0°024-0:028 mm.). Both D5 and D6 0:008 mm. long.
All sacral setae : Sl and $2 0°012 mm. in length and lying on interscutal
membrane. | 3

Sternal shield with usual pairs of setae and posteriorly concave.
Metasternal seta lying on discrete platelet. Genital shield wedge-shaped,

10

od

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

truncate posteriorly, and with a pair of marginal setae. Ventri-anal
shield (long 0°092 mm.; wide 0°060 mm.) vase-shaped, with lateral

Ho

Typhlodromus (Amblyseius) amitae sp. nov.

Fics. 1-3. Female: 1. dorsum, L1-9 setae of lateral series, DI-6 setae of dorsal
series, MI-2 setae of median series, Sl-2 sacral setae ; 2. part of posterior venter ;
3. genu, tibia and tarsus of leg IV.

TWO NEW PHYTOSEIMD MITES Mote

margins constricted (Fig. 2) and forming a waist, then flaring to make
shield to be widest opposite anus, and bearing 3 pairs of pre-, 1 pair of
par-and a post-anal setae. Four pairs of setae present on interscutal
membrane surrounding ventri-anal shield. Two pairs of metapodal
plates present. Post-stigmatal extension of peritrematal shield slightly
encircling coxa IV ; and peritreme anteriorly extending on to dorsum
and almost meeting in mid-line.

Legs with ambulacra. Leg IV with macrosetae (Fig. 3).

MALE. Unknown. .

Locality: The holotype female, and two paratype females on
Hibiscus sp. (lower side of leaves, mainly by the midrib), Sitala, Sonarpur,
24 Parganas District, West Bengal, Dr. S. K. Bhattacharyya, 18-5-1963.

Remarks: Similar to T. (A.) schusteri Chant, 1959, but differing in
the relative lengths of some lateral setae (L3 half the length of L2), to-
gether with the shape of the ventri-anal shield.

This species is named after the author’s sister Miss Amita Bhatta-

charyya, who helped me in making collections.

Phytoseius (Dubininellus) indicus sp. nov.

FEMALE. Dorsal shield (length 0°260 mm. ; width 0°136 mm.) with
15 pairs of setae, i.e. 8 pairs lateral, 3 pairs dorsal, and one pair each of
median, anterior sublateral, verticals, and clunals (Fig. 1). Setae L2,
D1-D3, M1 and clunals short and simple ; L4 short and slightly serrate ;
the remaining setae stout and serrate. Measurements of setae as
follows: verticals 0°020 mm., D1 0:008 mm., D2 0:006-0:012 mm.,
D3 0:010-0°012 mm., MI 0:008 mm., L1 0°022 mm., L2 0°010-0°012 mm..,
L3 0°026-0:028 mm., L4 0°010 mm., L5 0°060-0:068 mm., L6 0:060-
0:068 mm., L7 0°048-0°052 mm., L8 0:052 mm., clunals 0°008 mm., and
anterior sublaterals 0°030-0°032 mm: |

Sternal shield wider than long, with normal 3 pairs of setae. Meta-
sternal seta situated on discrete platelet.» Genital shield broad, truncate
posteriorly, with a pair of marginal setae. Ventri-anal shield longer
than wide, with 3 pairs of pre-anal setae in addition to a pair of par-
and a post-anal setae (Fig. 2). Two pairs of setae present on inter-
scutal membrane ; ventrocaudal setae serrate and long. Metapodal
plates not discernible. Peritreme almost reaching to vertical seta.

Chelicera of this unique specimen not drawn.

Macrosetae of genu, tibia, and basi-tarsus of leg IV 0:012 mm.,

0-032 mm., 0-018-0:020 mm. long respectively (Fig. 3).

MALe. Unknown.
Locality: The holotype female from Hibiscus sp. leaf, Sitala,

Sonarpur, 24 Parganas District, West Bengal, Dr. S. K. Bhattacharyya,

--18-5-1963.

680

Remarks :

= <<

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

P. (D.) indicus sp. nov. is closely related to P. (D.) inter-

medius Evans & Macfarlane, 1962, (also see Denmark, 1966) but is dis-

Phytoseius (Dubininellus) indicus sp. nov.

Fics. 1-3. Female: 1.

dorsum, LI-8 setae of lateral series, D1-3 setae of dorsal

series, A. S. anterior sublateral seta, V vertical seta, C clunal seta ; 2. part of pos-
terior venter ; 3. genu, tibia and tarsus of leg IV.

tinguished from the latter by :

seta L2 not serrated and the presence of

macrosetae on tibia, tarsus and basi-tarsus of leg IV.

REFERENCES

CHANT, D. A. (1960) : Descriptions of
five new species of mites from India
(Acarina: Phytoseiidae, Aceosejidae).
Canadian Ent. 92, 1 : 58-65.

Denmark, H. A. (1966): Revision of

the genus Phytoseius Ribaga, 1904
(Acarina : Phytoseiidae). Florida Dept.

Agric. Bull. 6 : 1-105.

Evans, G. O. & MACFARLANE, D.
(1962): A new mite of the genus Phyto-
seius Ribaga (Acari: Mesostigmata).
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 13 4: 587-588.

NARAYANAN, E. S., & KaAur, R. B.
(1960) : Two new species of the Genus

Typhlodromus Scheuten from India |
(Acarina : Phytoseiidae). Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. 51.B : 1-8.

———, ——— & Gual, 5S. (1960) :
Importance of some taxonomic characters
in the family Phytoseiidae Berl., 1916 |
(Predatory mites), with new records and
descriptions of species Proc. nat. Inst. Sch
India, Biol. 26 6B : 384-394.

& GHAI, S. (1963): Someg
new records and a new species of mites |
associated with malformation of mango.
trees in India. ibid. 29 5B : 533-546.

Sand dune flora of Western Rajasthan

1. Systematic list of trees, shrubs and herbs
BY

Kire: KANODIA AND R. K. GUPTA
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

INTRODUCTION

About 60% of the arid region of Western Rajasthan is sandy and a
major portion of this is occupied by sand dunes. These dunes are
found mostly in Bikaner, Churu, Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur dis-
tricts, though scattered patches are also met in Pali, Jalore, Sirohi,
Jhunjhunu and Sikar districts.

The pioneering work of Blatter & Hallberg (1918-1921) on the ‘ Flora
of Indian Desert’ mentioned several ecological formations. A bio-

logical spectrum was given by Das & Sarup (1951). Sankhala (1951)

enumerated the list of plants under various life forms. Agharkar (1952),
Sarup & Bhandari (1958) and Joshi (1958) dealt with some ecological

aspects of Bikaner. In eastern Rajasthan, Nair & Joshi (1958) contri-
_ buted to the sand dune ecology of Pilani and its neighbourhood. Recently

Shankarnarayan et al. (1965) worked out the dune ecology of Osian, but
very little study has been made in other regions. The present studies
are aimed at making a preliminary record of the flora of some of these
sand dunes, based on the plants collected during our surveys.

PHYSICAL FEATURES

Dunes are mainly of three types, longitudinal, transverse and para-
bolic. While the longitudinal dunes are parallel to the direction of the
prevailing winds, transverse dunes are formed on account of obstruction
in the path of prevailing winds. The old system consists of dunes of
high relief, while those of new system are still in the evolutionary stage and

are called embryonic dunes. The windward slope of these dunes is very

ry
4;

gentle and quite often cut by short streams, and subjected to wind scour-
ing, while the leeward side is mostly steep.

CLIMATE

Low, erratic, annual rainfall, seasonal and diurnal fluctuations of
temperature and intense solar radiation are characteristic climatic

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

features of sand dune ecosystem. Scorching heat with dust storms during
the summer months and biting cold with dew, mist, and fog during winter
months modify the vegetation to a great extent.

The rainfall occurs mainly during July-September. The tem-
perature conditions also vary like the rainfall. Maximum temperature
is generally recorded during May when hot winds, Loo, blow but the
nights are almost always pleasant. Minimum temperature in Bikaner
and Jaisalmer districts goes down in winter to freezing and even
below freezing point, resulting in heavy frost or dew formation on the
dunes. Wind velocity is minimum during November (4:0-5°8 km./hr.)
but goes on increasing up to June when it is maximum (12°0-31°0 km. /hr.),
Humidity is minimum during the period October to March and begins
to rise from May onwards and is maximum during August.

VEGETATION

Plants are conservative in their selection of habitat, water require-
ments etc. and thus may be called indicators of habitats. Every keen
naturalist has the experience as to how plants behave differently on
various habitat types. Some plants select only the leeward side of the
dune, while others may be present on the crest, and still others in the
interdune areas and at the base of dunes.

Crests of sand dunes which are active, support plants like Panicum
antidotale, P. turgidum, Calligonum polygonoides, Tephrosia falciformis
and Cyperus arenarius. Sand dune tops, where small sand dunes are
aggregated, species like Cyperus arenarius and Aristida funiculata are
among the first arrivals and are followed by Dipterygium glaucum, Teph-
rosia falciformis and Capparis decidua.

On the slopes, the windward side has a better vegetation than the
leeward side. Various plants like Cenchrus spp., Aristida spp., Lasiurus
sindicus, Crotalaria burhia, Tribulus terrestris, Enicostemma verticillatum,
Arnebia hispidissima, Gisekia pharnacoides, Indigofera cordifolia, Calli-
gonum polygonoides occupy this region. The leeward side, due to the

steep slopes sometimes followed by heavy runoff, supports only a few —

very hardy species, with least water requirement like Aerva pseudo-
tomentosa, Leptadenia pyrotechnica etc. There is a profound difference
in the composition and frequency of different species found on the two
sides of the dunes.

Base of the dune and interdunal areas support luxuriant vegetation
with good growth of plant species due to the accumulation of water from
the surrounding areas. The common species encountered are Teco-
mella undulata, Prosopis cineraria, Farsetia hamiltonii, Polygala eriop-
tera, Polycarpaea corymbosa etc. Mollugo cerviana, Cyperus arenarius,
Aristida adscensionis, A. funiculata, Cenchrus biflorus are some of the

a

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 683

pioneers, which are followed by species like Cenchrus ciliaris, C. prieurii,
C. pennisetiformis, Lasiurus sindicus, Panicum antidotale, Panicum tur-
gidum, Aerva persica, A. pseudo-tomentosa, Crotalaria burhia and
Leptadenia pyrotechnica which firmly hold the sand. particles in the
mesh of their root system.

List OF SPECIMENS COLLECTED

Plants enumerated in the list have been collected from sand dunes
in W. Rajasthan and are preserved at the herbarium, Central Arid Zone
Research Institute, Jodhpur. Nomenclature of plants is according to
latest findings. Flowering season and life forms for each plant have
been indicated.

CRUCIFERAE

Dipterygium glaucum Decaisne

6-10 dm. tall, perennial, erect undershrub, with yellow flowers.
Common on the windward side of dunes. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Chamae-
phyte).

Farsetia hamiltonii Royle

3-4 dm. tall, sub-erect, annual herb with pink to white flowers. Often
seen at the base of dunes and the interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov.
(Therophyte).

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew.

2-4 m. tall, deciduous, spiny shrub; when protected often attains
tree-size. Flowers yellow. Common on the windward side and top of
the dunes. Fls. Jan.-Aug. rare plants up to Oct. (Phanerophyte).

Cleome gynandra Linn.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with yellow flowers. Mostly found
around the base of dunes and in interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec.
(Therophyte).

Cleome viscosa Linn.

2-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with yellow flowers. Found mostly
at the base of dunes and in the interdune areas. Fils. July-Nov,
(Therophyte). |

684. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

POLYGALACEAE
Polygala erioptera DC.

2-3 dm. tall, erect to sub-erect, annual herb with pinky-mauve or
yellow flowers. Found on the base of the dunes and interdune area.
Fls. Aug.-Noy. (Therophyte). |

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lamk.

1°5-2°5 dm. long, erect, annual herb with white flowers having a pinkish
tinge. Common on interdune areas and leeward side of the dunes,
Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

MALVACEAE
Sida ovata Forsk.

5-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial undershrub with pale-yellow flowers.
Frequent on the interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Chamaephyte).

STERCULIACEAE
Melhania denhamii R.Br.

About 1 m. tall, bushy perennial with yellow flowers. Frequent on
hill-side dunes. Fils. Aug.-Dec, (Chamaephyte).

TILIACEAE

Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Christensen

1°5-2°0 dm. long, prostrate, perennial herb with yellow flowers. Fre-
quent on interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Chamaephyte).

C. tridens Linn.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with yellow flowers. Frequently on
the windward side of dunes. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte). .

Grewia tenax (F orsk.) Fiori

1:0-1°5 m. tall shrub with yellow flowers. Frequent on hill-side
dunes. Fls. July-Nov. (Nanophanerophyte).

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Fagonia cretica Linn.

1:5-2°0 dm. tall, spiny undershrub with pink flowers, rarely white.
Common on interdune areas and hill-side dunes. Fis. July-Nov,
(Therophyte). | |

|

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 685

Tribulus alatus Del.

1-3 dm. long, sub-erect, prostrate, annual herb with yellow flowers.
Common on the windward side of the dunes and also on the top of
stabilized dunes. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

T. terrestris Linn.

2-4 dm. long, prostrate-suberect, annual herb with yellow flowers.
Common on the windward sides and top of the stabilized dunes. Fils.
Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

SIMAROUBACEAE

Balanites aegyptiaca (Linn.) Del.

3-4 m. tall, thorny shrub with greenish-white flowers. Common
on hill-side dunes. Fils. April-Sept. (Phanerophyte).

CELASTRACEAE

Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou

3-4 m. tall, deciduous, thorny tree with white flowers. Common on
the hill-side dunes and interdune areas. Fls. Oct.-March (Phanero-

phyte).
RHAMNACEAE

Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.

1-2 m. tall, bushy shrub, sometimes large like a tree with greenish
white flowers. Common on hill-side dunes and interdune areas. Fils.
Sept.-March (Nanophanerophyte).

FABACEAE

Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.

0°5-1°5 m. tall, erect, perennial shrub with yellow flowers. Common
on the leeward and windward sides and on interdune areas. Fis.
Oct.-March (Chamaephyte) |

Indigofera caerulea Roxb.

4-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial shrub with pinkish flowers. Frequent
on the interdune areas. Fis. Aug.-Jan. (Chamaephyte).

I. cordifolia Heyne ex Roth. |

_ 15-25 cm. long, prostrate to sub-erect, annual hee sath bright red
flowers. Common on interdune areas and the windward slopes of
dunes. Fils. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

I. hochstetteri Baker

3-4 dm. long, sub-erect, annual herb with pink flowers. Common
on interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

I, linifolia (L.f.) Retz.

2-3 dm. long, prostrate, annual herb with bright red flowers. Com-
mon on the hill-side dunes and frequent on the windward slopes and
interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

I. linnaei Ali

1:0-3°0 cm. long, prostrate-suberect, annual herbs with pink red
~ flowers ; frequent on windward side of stable sand dunes, interdune
areas. Fls. Jan.-March (Therophyte).

Phaseolus trilobus (L.) Ait.

3-6 dm. long, erect-climbing, annual herb with yellow flowers. Fre-
quent on the windward side of dunes and also on cultivated dunes. Fils.
Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

P. aconitifolius Jacq.

3-6 dm. long, suberect-climbing, annual herb with yellow flowers.
Frequent on cultivated dune slopes. Fls. Aug.-Noy. (Therophyte).

Tephrosia falciformis Ramaswamy

6-9 dm. tall, erect, perennial herb with pinkish violet or rosy flowers.
Common on top of sand dunes, and on the windward and leeward sides.
Fils. Aug.-Nov. (Hemicryptophyte).

T. purpurea (L.) Pers.

4-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial herb with pink-violet flowers. Common
on the windward side and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Hemi-

cryptophyte).

T. villosa (Linn.) Pers.

4-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial undershrub with pinkish violet flowers.
Frequent on the windward slope of the dunes. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Hemi-

cryptophyte).

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia jacquemontii Benth.

1:5-3 m. tall, bushy shrub with yellow flowers in globose heads.
Frequent on the slopes of the dunes, Fls, Jan.-June (Phanerophyte).

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 687

A. nilotica (Linn.) Delile ssp. indica (Benth.) Brenan

3-5 m. tall, thorny tree with yellow flowers in terminal heads. Com-
mon in the interdune areas only, not on the dunes. Fils. Sept.-May
(Phanerophyte).

A. senegal (L.) Willd.

3-6 m. tall, prickly tree with white flowers. Common on top of hill-
side dunes. Fils. April-May (Phanerophyte).

Prosopis cineraria (Linn.) MacBride

3-6 m. tall, spiny tree with yellow flowers in spikes. Common on the
top, slope and base of dunes and in interdune areas. Fls. Oct.-
May (Phanerophyte).

P. juliflora (Sw.) DC.

2°5-4 m. tall, spiny tree with yellow flowers. Completely naturalised
in the area, native of Mexico.- On interdune areas especially. Fils.
Oct.-May (Phanerophyte).

CUCURBITACEAE

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

1-2 m. long, annual, trailing herb with yellow flowers. Common
on the windward slopes, interdune areas and sandy hummocks. Fils.
Sept.-Dec. (Therophyte).

Cucumis myriocarpus Naud.

1-2 m. long, annual trailer or climber with yellow flowers. Common
on the windward slopes and tops of dunes. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte).

C. pseudo-colocynthis Royle

1-1°5 m. long, annual trailer or climbing herb with yellow flowers.
Common on slopes and base of dunes. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte).

Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M. Roem.

1-2 m. long, climbing, annual herb with yellow flowers. Frequent
on shrubs and trees in the interdune areas and on the windward slopes.
Fls. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte).

MOLLUGINACEAE

Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.

1°5-2°5 dm. tall, erect, annual, psammophytic herb with white flowers.
Common on the windward slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov.
(Therophyte). :

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser.
1-2 dm. tall, erect herb with greenish-white flowers. Common
on tops of dunes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.- Nov. (Therophyte).

M. nudicaulis Lamk.

2-3 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with white flowers. Frequent on the
windward slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

Trianthema govindia Buch. Ham. ex DC.

3-4 dm. long, prostrate, annual herb with dark red flowers. Com-
mon on slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

RUBIACEAE

Borreria articularis (L.f.) F.N. Will.

2-3 dm. tall, erect to decumbent, annual herb with pinkish-white
flowers. Common on interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

COMPOSITAE

Echinops echinatus Roxb.
3-5 dm. tall, erect, annual, spiny herb with white flowers. Frequent
on interdune areas. Fls. Feb.-June (Therophyte).

Pulicaria angustifolia DC.
3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with yellow flowers. Common on
interdune areas and sandy hummocks. Fils. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

P, wightiana (DC.) Benth. ex Clarke
4-8 dm. tall, sub-erect, woody, perennial herb with yellow flowers.
Common on interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Chamaephyte).

SALVADORACEAE

Salvadora oleoides Decaisne
8-15 m. tall, evergreen tree with white flowers. Common on all
types of dunes and interdune areas. Fils. Feb.-April (Phanerophyte).

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. |
— 1-1'5 m. tall, erect, perennial herb with violet flowers. Common.
on dunes and interdune areas, Fils. Sept.-Dec. (Chamaephyte).

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN L gga

Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decaisne

1-2 m. tall, much branched, leafless, perennial bush with pale yellow
flowers. Common on the windward side and top of the dunes and on the
interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Nanophanerophyte).

GENTIANACEAE

Enicostemma hyssopifoliium (Willd.) Verdoon

2-4 cm. tall, erect, decumbent, perennial herb with yellow flowers.
Frequent on windward side of hill-side dunes. Fls. Aug.-Oct. (Hemi-
cryptophytes).

BORAGINACEAE

Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) DC.

| 2-3 dm. tall, erect, strigose, perennial undershrub with yellow flowers,
Frequent on all types of dunes. Fls. Oct.-Jan. (Cryptophyte).

Sericostomma pauciflorum Stocks

2-3 dm. tall, erect, perennial undershrub with white flowers. Com-
mon on hill-side dunes. Fils. Oct.-Jan. (Chamaephyte).

CONVOLVULACEAE

Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb. ex Spreng.

3-4 dm. tall, sub-erect or climbing, annual herb with pinkish white
flowers. Sometimes on interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. : |

1°5-2°0 dm. long, prostrate, annual herb with blue-purple flowers.
Frequent on dune slopes. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

Ipomoea sindica Stapf.

4-8 dm. tall, climbing, annual herb with white flowers. On ene
vated dunes. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte). |

I. pes-tigridis Linn. |

1-1°5 m. long, twining or spreading, annual, hispid herb with white
or pinkish white flowers. Frequent on hedges in interdune areas.
Fls. Sept.-Oct. (Therophyte).

SOLANACEAE

Lycium barbarum Linn.
1-2 m. tall, spiny, perennial shrub with white flowers. Common

on all types of dunes and on interdune areas. Fls. Oct.-March
(Phanerophyte).

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Solanum surattense Burm. f. .

3-4 dm. tall, erect, much branched, perennial under-shrub with
pinkish purple flowers. Frequent on dune slopes and interdune
areas. Fls. June-March (Chamaephyte).

OROBANCHACEAE

Cistanche tubulosa Wight
3-5 dm. tall, erect perennial herb with pinkish-violet flowers. Root
parasite on Salvadora. Fils. Nov. (Cryptophyte).

BIGNONIACEAE

Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem.
2-3 m. tall, deciduous tree with yellow or orange red flowers. Com-
mon on interdune areas. Fils. Jan.-March (Phanerophyte).

PEDALIACEAE

Pedalium murex Linn.
1°5-4 dm. tall, erect, much branched annual with yellow flowers.
Frequent on dune slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Oct. (Thero-

phyte).

ACANTHACEAE

Blepharis linearifolia Pers.
1°5-3 dm. long, sub-erect, perennial herb with violet-blue flowers.
Frequent on hill-side dunes. Fils. Aug.-Sept. (Cryptophyte).

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Retz.
1-2 m. tall, perennial shrub with white flowers. Frequent on dune
slopes and often used in hedges. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (Nanophanerophyte).

LABIATAE

Leucas cephalotes (Roth.) Spreng.
3-6 dm. tall, erect annual with white flowers. Common on interdune
areas and near fields. Fls. Aug.-Oct. (Therophyte).

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 691

NYCTAGINACEAE
Boerhavia diffusa Linn.

6-10 dm. long, trailing, prostrate, perennial herb with pink flowers.
Frequent in interdune areas. Fls. Major part of the year (Hemi-

cryptophyte).
AMARANTHACEAE

Aerva persica (Burm. f.) Merr.

5-10 dm. tall, erect, perennial herb with greenish white flowers.
Common on leeward and windward sides of dunes, also on interdune
areas. Fils. Aug.-Dec. (Hemicryptophyte).

A. pseudo-tomentosa Blatt. & Hall.

8-15 dm. tall, erect perennial with greenish white flowers. Common
on the windward and leeward sides of dunes. Fils. Aug.-Dec.
(Hemicryptophyte).

Digera alternifolia (L.) Aschers.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual herb with pink or rosy flowers. Frequent
in interdune areas. Fils. April-Dec. (Therophyte).

Pupalia lappacea (L.) A. Juss.

1-1°5 m. tall, straggling, perennial herb with pale green flowers.
Frequent in interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-March (Hemicryptophyte).

POLYGONACEAE

Calligonum polygonoides Linn.

1°5-2°0 m. tall perennial, leafless shrub with pink flowers. Common
on dune tops and interdune areas. Fls. Feb.-June (Nanophanerophyte).

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia clarkeana Hook. f.

1-2 dm. long, sub-erect, annual herb with greenish white flowers.
Frequent in the interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-Sept. (Therophyte).

E. granulata Forsk.

1°0-1°5 dm. long, prostrate, annual herb with pink flowers. Frequent
on stabilised dunes. Fl. and Fr. Oct.-Feb. (Therophyte).

CYPERACEAE
Cyperus arenarius Retz.

1-2 dm. tall, erect, perennial sedge. Common on the top of sand
dunes and sandy hummocks. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Cryptophyte).

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

C. bulbosus Vahl.

2-3 dm. tall, erect, rhizomatous sedge ; spikes brown-red. Frequent
in the interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Hemicryptophyte).

C. conglomeratus Rottb.

2-3 dm. tall, erect, perennial, rhizomatous sedge. Spikelets white.
Common on windward slopes and interdune areas. Fls. Aug.-Dec.
(Hemicryptophyte). Ti

C. rotundus Linn.

2-4 dm. tall, erect, perennial, rhizomatous sedge with dark-red spike-
lets. Frequent on interdune areas and base of dunes. Fls. Aug.-Dec.
(Hemicryptophyte). |

POACEAE

Aristida adscensionis Linn.

3-5 dm. tall, erect, annual grass. Common on the windward and
leeward slopes and interdune areas. Fils. Sept.-Jan. (Therophyte).

A. funiculata Trin. et Rupr.

3-6 dm. tall, erect annual. Common on the dune slopes and inter-
dune areas. Fils. Sept.-Jan. (Therophyte).

A. hirtigluma Steud. ex Trin. et Rupr.

3-5 dm. tall, erect, annual. Common on dune slopes and interdune
areas. Fls. Sept.-Dec. (Therophyte).

A. pogonoptila (Jaub. et Spach.) Boiss.
3-6 dm. erect, tufted perennial. Common on the slopes and top of
dune. Fils. Sept.-Feb. (Hemicryptophyte).

Cenchrus biflorus Roxb.

1-3 dm. tall, sub-erect, annual grass. Common on loose sands and
hummocks and dune tops. FI. Aug.-Jan. (Therophyte).

C, ciliaris Linn.

1-3 dm. tall, sub-erect, biennial or perennial grass. Common on
dune slopes and in interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-Jan. (Hemicrypto-

phyte).

C. pennisetiformis Hochst. ex Steud.

4-6 dm. tall, erect, perennial, tussocky grass. Common on. dune
slopes of mobile sand dunes. Fils. Sept.-Feb. (Hemicryptophyte).

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN 693

C. prieurii (Kunth) Maire
2°5-4°5 dm. tall, sub-erect, annual grass. Common on dune slopes
and on interdune areas. Fils. Sept.-Feb. (Therophyte).

C. setigerus Vahl

2-4 dm. tall, erect, perennial grass. Common on dune slopes and on
interdune areas. Fils. Aug.-Jan. (Hemicryptophyte).

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult.

6-10 dm. tall, erect, perennial, tussocky grass. Common on dune
slopes and on interdune areas. Fis. Aug.-Nov. (Chamaephyte).

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P. Beauv.

3-5 dm. erect, stoloniferous, perennial grass. Common on dune
base and stabilized sand dunes. Fils. Aug.-Feb. (Therophyte).

Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R. Br.
1°5-2°5 dm. tall, erect grass. Frequent on interdune areas. Fils.
_ Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).

E. tenella (L.) P. Beauv.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual grass. Frequent in the interdune areas.
Fis. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

E. tremula Hochst. ex Steud.

3-4 dm. tall, erect, annual grass. Frequent in interdune areas and
on sandy hummocks. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (Therophyte).

Lasiurus ecaudatus Saty. et Shank.

6-10 dm. tall, erect, perennial, tussocky grass. Common on dune
slopes and interdune areas. A good sand binder. Fils. Aug.-Dec.
(Therophyte).

Panicum antidotale Retz.

1-1°5 m. tall, erect, perennial grass. Very common on the crest and
leeward slope of the dune. A good sand binder. Fls. Aug.-Dec.
(Chamaephyte).

P. turgidum Forsk.

1-1°5 m. tall, erect, perennial, tussocky grass. Common on the top
and dune slopes. Fis. Aug.-Nov. (Chamaephyte).

Perotis hordeiformis Nees apud Hook. et Arn.
2-4 dm. tall, erect, annual grass. Common on the interdune areas.
Fls. Aug.-Dec. (Therophyte).
11

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

STATISTICAL es OF SAND DUNE FLORA

‘Out of 58 families, -226 genera and 440 species recorded as iadiaen am
in Western Rajasthan, 35 families covering 62 genera and 93 species are
available from sand dunes of the area. Of these the families having
two or more genera are : Cruciferae (2), Capparidaceae (2), Tiliaceae (2),
Zygophyllaceae (2), Papilionaceae (4), Mimosaceae (2), Asclepiadaceae
(2), Convolvulaceae (3), Solanaceae (2), Amaranthaceae (2) and
Gramineae (8), while only the following families are represented by four
or more species : Papilionaceae (11), Mimosaceae (5), Cucurbitaceae (4),
Ficoideae (4), Convolvulaceae (4), Amaranthaceae (4), Cyperaceae (4)
and Gramineae (17). The maximum number of genera and species are
that of Gramineae (8 and 17) in this land-form. Family Compositae
with 33 species, which comes next in rank to Gramineae in the flora of
Western Rajasthan, lags behind in the dune flora and so also is the
case with Cyperaceae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are deeply indebted to Sri C. P. Bhimaya, Dr. P. C.
Raheja, present and ex-Directors respectively, Central Arid Zone
Research Institute, Jodhpur and Dr. B. B. Roy, Head of the Division
of Basic Resource Studies of the Institute, for his interest and encourage-
ment, and for suggestions to improve the manuscript. Thanks are also
due to Sri P. Rakhecha for providing assistance in recording the
rainfall data.

REFERENCES

AGHARKAR, S. P. (1952) : Plant ecology
of the Rajputana Desert. Bull. nat. Inst.
Sci. 1 : 246-247.

Biswas, K. & Rao, R. S. (1953):
Rajputana Desert vegetation. Proc. nat.
Inst. Sci. India 19 : 411-421.

BLATTER, E. & HALLBERG, F. (1918-
21): The flora of Indian Desert.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 525-531,
811-818, 968-987 ; 27 : 40-47, 270-279,
506-519.

Das, R. B. & Sarup, S. (1951) : The
Biological Spectrum of the Indian Desert
Flora. rs Rajput. Studies, Bio. Sci.
1951 : 36-42

Josut, M. C. (1956) : Plant ecology of
Bikaner and its adjacent areas in com-

parison with rest of Western Rajasthan. -

J. Ind. bot. Soc. 35 : 495-511.

. (1958) : A. preliminary survey
of the sand dune vegetation of Pilani and
its neighbourhood. ibid 37 : 310-327.

KING, G. (1879) : Sketch of the Flora
of Rajputane. Ind. For. 4 : 226-236.

Nair, N. C. & JosuHI, M. C. (1957) :
Sand dune vegetation of Pilani and
neighbourhood. J. Ind. bot. Soc. 36:
599-617.

PRAMANIK, S. K. & HARIHARAN, P. S.
(1952) : The climate of Rajasthan. Proc.
Symp. on Rajput. Desert : Proc. nat. Inst.
Sci. India: 167-178.

RAHEJA, P. C. & SEN, A. K. (1964) :
Resources in Prospective ; Recent Deve-
lopments in Rajasthan — ‘Souvenir Vol.
pp. 28.

RoLLaA, R. S. & Kanopia, K. C.
(1962-63) : Studies on the vegetation

and Flora of Jodhpur Division. Annals _

35-60.

of Arid Zone 1: 16-46; 2:
‘Note on the

SALISBURY, E. J. (1925) :

“edaphic. succession in some dune. soils

with special reference to. the. time: factor.
J. Ecol. 13° 322-328. >

SAND DUNE FLORA OF W. RAJASTHAN

SALISBURY, E. J. (1952) : Downs and
Dunes—Their plant life and its en-
vironment. Bell & Sons, London.

SANKHALA, K. S. (1951) : Enumeration
of flowering plants of North Western
Rajasthan.
Sci. : 43-56.

SHANKARNARAYAN, K. A.
Flora of Luni Basin—Habit

(1963) :
forms.

Report, Division of Basic Resources and.

Human Factor Studies, Govt. of India,
Jodhpur : 86-93.
et al. (1965) : Ecology of dune

Univ. Rajput. Studies, Bio. ..

695

vegetation at Osian, Rajasthan. J. Ind.
bot. Soc. 64 : 37-50.

SmITH, G. G. (1957): A guide to sand
dune plants of South Western Australia.
Austr. Nat. 6: 1-18.

“WALTER, H. (1964): The role of
ecology in the development of tropical
and subtropical regions. Tenth Inter-

“national bot. Congr. 69-80.

WARMING, E. (1909): Ooecology of
plants. An introduction <0 the study of
Plant Communities, Oxfcrd.

A Catalogue of the Birds in the
Collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society—3

Falconiformes

BY

HUMAYUN ABDULALI
[Continued from Vol. 65 (2) : 430]

The first volume of the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND
PAKISTAN was published (July 1968) after the manuscript of this part
had been got ready for the press. An attempt has been made to in-
corporate in the text necessary references to the HANDBOOK. Measure-
ments cited in the text are generally from the FAUNA; where such
measurements are reproduced in the HANDBOOK, it has not been con-
sidered necessary to substitute a reference to the HANDBOOK. Measure-
ments preceded by the letters IH are taken from the HANDBOOK.

The serial numbers in the HANDBOOK are identical with those
in the SYNOPSIS, and so a separate reference was not found necessary.

As some of the buzzards and eagles are difficult to identify, even
down to species, it is possible that in spite of every care some of the |
specimens in the collection are incorrectly identified. It is hoped that
it will be possible at some future time to examine them once more along
with additional material from the Indian Region and some reliably
identified specimens for comparison.

This part deals with 846 specimens including all up to Register
No. 23041.

124 Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham) (Coromandel Coast)
Black-winged Kite 5: 1259
28:15 391199 20? (9juv.)
2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 2 Ambala, 1 Bahawalpur, 1 Wazirabad, Punjab; 1 Delhi;
1 Gwalior ; 3 Gujerat ; 2 Nasik, 3 Bombay, 1 Thana, 1 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra ;
1 Coorg, Mysore ; 1 Orissa ; 1 Bulandshahr, U.P.; 1 Nepal ; 3 Tirhut, Bihar ; _
2 Imphal, Assam ; 1 Henzada, Burma.
The females are not very appreciably larger than the males but
specimens from the neighbourhood of Bombay and southwards have
slightly smaller wings and tails than those from the north. The few
[32]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 697

larger specimens included among the southern birds may well be
non-breeding migrants.

Wing Tail

(1H 260-276) (1H 116-124)
Tnorthern 3d 267-282 av. 274 118-123 av. 121
2southern do 251, 266 115, 116
6 northern &9 273-281 av. 276.5 122-126 av. 124.6
3 southern 2° 262, 265, 273 116, 118, 121
3northern $3 juv. 25 2525 273 123, 124, 132
2southern $d juv. 240, 270 120, 129
3 northern 99 juv. 262, 273, 276 128, 132, 133.

It appears very curious that some, both male and female, in juvenile
plumage, in addition to having wings as large as adults, have even
longer tails.

125 Aviceda jerdoni jerdoni (Blyth) (Malacca) Blyth’s Baza 5: 174
1° Kurseong. Wing 338.

126 Aviceda jerdoni ceylonensis (Legge) (Near Kandy, Ceylon)
Seli5
nil.

127 Aviceda leuphotes teuphotes (Dumont) (Pondicherry) Indian
Blackcrested Baza Ss iit
10? Coonoor. Wing 230, wing tip 68.

128 Aviceda leuphotes syama (Hodgson) (Lower region of Nepal)
5:1940? (1 fragmentary)
1 Bastar, M.P. ; 1 Nepal ; 2 Darjeeling ; 1 Upper Burma.

With the material available, it is not possible to separate the races, so
the specimens are listed in accordance with the distribution in SYNOPSIS
and IND. HANDBOOK. Deignan (Auk 1948 : 248) indicates that the northern
birds syama (Nepal, Assam, north Burma, and parts of China) migrating -
south to Siam, Malaya and possibly Ceylon, have a longer wingtip
(80-87) than the southern residents. In the present series the wingtip
is 60 (Upper Burma), 72, 76, 85, 95 (Bastar, M.P.). The last relates to
avery damaged wing and may be incorrect.

129 Pernis ptilorhyncus orfentalis Taczanowski (Eastern Siberia)
Honey Buzzard OS 168
1 0? Chin Hills, Burma.

This one unsexed specimen, a very ragged ee (No. 12712) obtained
in November (wing 444), differs from all the others in the brown of the
underparts extending on to and replacing the grey on the undersurface

[33]

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

of the tail. The specimen was sent to Dr. Amadon who thought it was
of this race. al

Orientalis was included in the FAUNA as a race of apivorus. In this
specimen and in a ¢ ruficollis (No. 12708, Wazirabad, Punjab), the
outer webs of the primaries are emarginated from the second to the
fifth (and not the sixth as in the other Pernis available), a character of
apivorus (Vaurie 1965: 145). In the course of recent correspondence
Dr. Amadon said: ‘As to the wing emargination, I suspect that it
varies ’. : .

In IND. HANDBOOK, in addition to a general statement that it is an
uncommon winter migrant to northern India, it is said that it has
occurred as far south as Ceylon, and reference is made to a record
in Loris. This is a mere quotation from ‘ Bird Club Notes’ which
reads: ‘Specimen obtained at Mannas’, with nothing to show how
and by whom this difficult identification was made. More recently
Phillips records one from the Maldives (JBNHS 60 : 569). Vaurie, 1962,
Amer. Mus. Novitates 2111, p. 6, refers to specimens from Margherita,

Assam, and Bengal.

130 Pernis ptilorhyncus ruficollis Lesson (“‘Patrie inconnue” = Bengal)

Honey Buzzard 5: 167

24:10 66 792 70? 12 adults (underparts brown) ; 9 juvenile (underparts ‘inte
with dark streaks) ; 1 all white below ; 2 barred.

2 Ambala, 1 Hissar, 1 Wazirabad, 1 Rater Punjab; 2 Radhasaie
N. Gujerat ; 2 Bhuj, Kutch ; 1 Chikalda, Berar ; 1 Thana, 1 Khandala, 1 Bombay,
Maharashtra ; 1 Karwar, Mysore ; 1 Coonoor, 1 Ootacamund, 1 Palnis, Madras ;
1 Vizagapatnam, A.P.; 1 Agra, 1 Shahjehanpur, U.P. ; 1 Bihar (?) ; 1 Calcutta ;
1 Godavari, Nepal ; 1 no data.

Only one of the specimens available is separable as orientalis and the
wings, though larger than indicated in the FAUNA, are within the limits
of this race in Vaurie (1965 : 149) : :

10 gS 377-447 av. 402 (Vaurie 366-450 av. 401°3)*.

799 386-425 av. 403 (Vaurie’ 387-432 av. 410).

i * The range in the IND. HANDBOOK, 382-417, appears to be in error. 2

There is considerable variation in the. plumage of apparently adult
birds and it has been customary to suggest thatthe species is polymor-
phic, some being all brown below and others almost white: ‘Stuart-
Baker stated that all ruficollis.when fully adult assume an all-brown
plumage. “Kirke Swann (MONOGRAPH OF BIRDS OF PREY 2: BB), also
indicates no colour differences between the sexes. It is, however, ‘note-
worthy that only one of the eight all-brown (kite-like) birds (with broad
black and grey bars-on the tail) ‘which-have: been - sexed-is marked a
female. Again, excluding ‘this “specimen: (No. ©:12718)} all the-‘other .
females are white below with streaks on thé breast and ‘with narrowly.

[34].

‘BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—-3 699

barred tails. All.the females have the pale bands on the tail more dis-
tinctly crossed by wavy lines, which are almost absent in the males.

The largest-winged (447) male, from Karwar, is a very pale (almost
white) rufous below, while two others (one 3, one unsexed) show brown
barring on the breast which appears to be a stage towards the all-brown
underparts, which latter together with the grey around the head I am
inclined to accept as the plumage of the adult male.

131 Milvus milvus milvus Coymmacus) (South Sweden) Kite |
nibs)
132 Milvus migrans migrans (Boddaert) (France) = © 5:121
429
1 Sheikh Saad, 1 Shaiba, 1? Mesopotamia ; 1 Kalat, Baluchistan.
The races of this species have been difficult to determine. The Meso-
potamian birds were identified as of the nominate form by Ticehurst but
in the summary of the specimens examined by him (JBNHS 28 : 425):the
sexes differ from those on the present labels. Only No. 12465 from
Kalat has a distinctly whitish head with black streaks. It has no white
under the primaries, as in /ineatus :
Wing 443, 458, 461, 463.

133 Milvus (migrans) govinda Sykes (Dukhun) Pariah Kite 5: 121
19:583 79270? (2 pull., 1 chick).
4 cha ae 1 Gir, 1 Bhavnagar, Gujerat ; 1 Panchgani, 10 Bombay, Maharashtra ;
1-Nilambur, Kerala; 1 Vizagapatnam, A.P.; 1 Jainagar, 1 Baghowni, Bihar :
1 Mussoorie, U.P.

There are many differences in colour between the specimens and it is
possible that a well-collected series would explain some of them. Hine
SEXES do not show much difference in size :

Wing 4 33 420-446 av. 436 6 99° 419-444 av. 431: 5)
Tail (233- 262 av. 249 243-276 av. 249

IND. HANDBOOK refers to its occurrence in the Andaman fatatide but
I have already (JBNHS 61 : 506) indicated that this is probably based
on birds carried down by boat.

134 Milvus (migrans) lineatus (Gray) (China) B Blackeared Kite Sis 134

9:6gd 29910?
1 Yarkand; 1 Chitral; 1 Simla; 1 Rtinaten: 1 Bhayanded Bae bay: 1 eats
1 Bhimashanker, Poona, Maharashtra ; et Annandapuram, Shimoga, Mysore ;
1 Burma.
<+ Wing 6 do 471-507 av. 487 299471,477..0 0 ine

The two females from Srinagar (No. 12470) ond abe (No. 19049)
are smaller than the males and may well be govinda as originally marked
[35]

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

on the labels. They are included here for the white patches under the
wings. The specimen from Shimoga, Mysore, is the southernmost
record of this species (JBNHS 65 : 774)

135 Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert) (Pondicherry) Brahminy Kite
5: 118
17:49 109230? (8 in adult plumage). |
2 Punjab ; 1 Kronthal; 1 Bhavnagar, 1 Baroda, Gujerat ; 2 Bombay, 1 Panvel,
Maharashtra ; 3 North Kanara ; 2 Kerala ; 1 Tiruchirapalli, Madras ; 1 Nepal;

1 Siliguri ; 1 Calcutta.

The white feathers of the head, nape, and breast have black shaft
streaks. In 7 adults obtained between 16 January and 25 May, the
feathers of the nape are worn at the tips, leaving bare shaft tips in some
cases almost an inch in length ; in three others collected in August,
September, and November these feathers are normal :

Wing 2 go 373, 380 (1H 359-394) 6 29 379, 390, 397, 403, 404, 408 (1H 379-403)

These notes and measurements include two specimens which are not
in the collection.

EL Accipiter gentilis gentilis (Linnaeus) (Dalscarlian Alps) Goshawk
5: 145

1 2 Pottenstein, Germany.
136 Accipiter gentilis schvedowi (Menzbier) (Transbaikalia) 5 : 146
nil.

137 Accipiter badius cenchroides (Severtzov) (Lower Syr-Darya ;

Russian Turkestan) Central Asian Shikra 5: 150
4:1 juv., 3 99
1 Shiraz, Iran (wing 201); 1 Ziarat, Persian Baluchistan (190); 2 Bombay
(220, 223).

The two females from Bombay (Nos. 12630 and 12645) were taken
in October and November and, together with the one from Ziarat, are
separable from the others by the paleness of the upper parts. The first
two were named cenchroides by H. G. Deignan when he examined them
in Bombay many yearsago. The juvenile male from Shiraz is no different
from others (dussumieri) from India. Though cenchroides is accepted
as larger than dussumieri the wing measurements overlap to a great
extent and, except for the above specimens, I am listing all the specimens
from Indian limits as dussumieri. The two specimens from Bombay
extend the known range of this race.

With a series of breeding birds, it may be possible to determine two
separate groups but I am unable to do anything with the present series.

138 Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temminck) (Bengal) Shikra 5: 149
69 :34 34 309950? oie
1 Kalat, Baluchistan ; 1 Wana; 1 Bhagat State, N.W.F.P. ; 3 Simla, 1 Pathankot, |
1 Jagadhri, 1 Patiala, 2 Ambala, 1 Jullunder, 2 Chandigarh, 1 Chamba;
[ 36]

BIRDS iN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3 701

1 Wazirabad ; 1 Delhi; 1 Jodhpur, Rajasthan ; 2 Kutch, 1 Jasdan, 7 Bhavnagar,
1 Anand, 1 Cambay, 1 Palanpur, Gujerat; 1 Melghat, Berar; 1 Saugor; 9
Bombay, 1 Kihim, Kolaba, 2 Khandala, 1 Ratnagiri, 2 Satara, 1 Nagpur,
Maharashtra ; 2 North Kanara, Mysore; 1 Palni; 1 Jamestown, Kanyakumari,
1 Madras ; 1 Kumili, 1 Edanad, Travancore, Kerala ; 2 Cuddapah, A.P.; 2
Bastar, M.P.; 1 Berbera, 1 Nayagarh State, Orissa ; 1 Tirhut, Bihar ; 1 Meerut,
2 Kanpur, 1 Bulandshahr, U.P. ; 1 Goalpara, 1 South Sylhet, Assam.

As indicated under the last species it is not possible to isolate any
size or colour in this large series. The wings of two groups north and
south of Bombay measure :

Males Females
Bombay and (6) 182-204 av.187 (10) 187-214 av. 202
southwards
Northern (19) 173-216 av. 187 (9) 191-219 av. 211

The seven males (4 north, 3 south) in adult plumage (grey above) have
wings 174-186 av. 183.

The specimens from Assam and porter India agree with these
rather than poliopsis (Burma) and nominate badius (Ceylon) respectively.

139. Accipiter badius badius (Gmelin) (Ceylon) 5: 147

1 2 Anigalli, Ceylon, wing 202.

This differs from the other shikras from peninsular India in having
the brown barring on the underparts as dark as in those from Burma.
Two females in similar phases from Kumili, High Range, Kerala, and
the Palnis are better grouped with dussumieri though a third from James-
town, Kanyakumari District, is almost as dark as the Ceylon bird. A
male from Edanad, Travancore, also agrees with dussumieri.

140 Accipiter badius poliopsis (Hume) (Northern Pegu) 5: 151

7:288 49910?
1 Pyawbe, 1 Seinban, Mandalay ; 1 Thani Chaung, Sandoway, 1 Ngaphaw, Prome ;
1 Toungoo, 1 Mindon, Thayetmyo ; 1 (col. J. P. Cook 1913) ? Burma.

Wing 3d 29
2 juveniles 220 * 204 *
2 adults, brown above ~ 216, 225
with grey heads
2 adults, all grey above 203 196 *

The three birds marked with an asterisk appear to be wrongly sexed.
In the juveniles the tail has only four dark bands; in the others the
barring on the underparts is a deeper rufous and the sides of the head
are concolorous with the crown instead of being tinged with brown or
ashy as in the other races. As indicated under 138, the two specimens
from Assam agree with dussumieri rather than this form.

141° Accipiter badius butleri (Gurney) (Car Nicobar) — 5.7 151
nil.
[37]

102 JOURNAL,.-BOMBAY-. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 @)

“142. Aecipiter badius obsoletus (Richmond) (Katchal) - 5: 152
‘1 juv. $¢ Camorta, ‘Central Nicobars. ‘Wing 166 (192), tail 128 (157), 5th primary
- longest.

_ This specimen has more of a. rufous wash both above and below than
any other in similar plumage, and resembles a juvenile of A. virgatus.
The irides were-noted by the collector as orange-yellow though the type
specimen had them crimson. ‘The subspecific identification is based on
the proximity of the type locality of this race.

143 Accipiter soloensis (Horsfield) (Java) Horsfield’s Goshawk 5: 153
nil. ; i | gh
The Andaman Islands are included in the range of this species
(IND. HANDBOOK) but I have been unable to trace the evidence.

144 Accipitr trivirgatus indicus eee (Nepal) Crested Gotnue
si Si: yee
jae 2 99 20?
1 Palkonda, 1 Lamnaeeniel 4 Wibaneeen District : 1 (col. C. M. inti) u Bihar
292 wing 255,267 (238-267) tail 202, 204.
20? 217, 222 (g 224-237) 172-179.

145 Accipiter trivirgatus peninsulae K oelz Srey N. rte

10°: 6 33° 4 99 (1 2 pull.).
1 Anantgiri, Vizagapatam ;.1 Devonellikottah 0), 8 Palnis.

— Though the sexes of this species are said to be similar in the FAUNA,
Mayr (Am. Mus. Novit. 1415, 1949) states that including the juvenile (in
which the sexes are similar) there are three distinct plumages. All the
specimens do not appear to be correctly sexed but, accepting birds with
dark grey heads contrasting sharply with the rest of ae Upp EE parts as
males, the specimens measure: - .

Wing — Seige “Tail
635 195-220 av.207 155-172 av. 165
392 220-232 av.226 174-182. av. 177

The male from Anantgiri. was named indicus by Whistler (JIBNHS
38 : 434) before peninsulae was described. It has a slightly paler and
greyer head.and a paler and more unbroken patch of earthy brown on
the. upper breast than the Series from the. Palnis but, as Mayr (loc. cit y
states that indicus i is darker than peninsulae, I prefer to leave this here.
A. fresh series from the eastern Ghats around Vizagapatam would be of
interest.

Teena. ihe anit. limnit of this race is North ‘Kanan Be
not Khandesh, an error in the FAUNA which was corrected by Whistler
(JBNHS 38 : 433). but. was Tepeated in-the syNopsis and is now. porerg:
ted in IND. HANDBOOK,

i 38 ]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3. 703

-146: -Accipiter trivirgatus layardi. (Whistler & Kinnear). (Gillymally,.
Peak Forest, Ceylon) ~~ y Pata APO TAO
nil.
EL Accipiter nisus nisus

499
3 Iraq, 1 South Persia.

Though this race is omitted from Indian literature, it may be worth-
while drawing attention to Vaurie (1965-: 168) who refers to its occur-
rence in Baluchistan. In series, they are darker than nisosimilis and
mneasure’:* SS CE ea aur ast

pee Wing 236-242 av. 238.75
Tail 173-176 = av. 173.75.

147 Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tickell) (Marcha, Borabhum) Sparrow-
Hawk - 5: 156
— 19:10 dg 9QP -(S imm. gd). : Seed LF 3
~ 1 Amara, 1 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Shiraz; 2 Boya, 1 Chaman, Baluchistan ;
2 Chitral ; 1 Kutch ; 1 Cambay, 1 Rajpipla, 1 Surat Dangs, Gujerat ; 1 Belgaum,
Mysore; 1 Munchacholy Swamp (J. P. Cook 1891=South India ?) ; -2 Palni
Hills, Madras; 1 Meerut ; 2 Peking, China. ae

No. 22283 from the Palnis is very heavily frayed above and paler than
melaschistos, though the 185 mm. tail suggests that race (q.v.).

148 Accipiter nisus melaschistos Hume [Interior of Himalayas. Res-
tricted to Kotegarh (Simla Hills) N.W. Himalayas] 5: 158

15:843 799 (1 pull., 1 juv.) ieee
12 Simla Hills ; 1 New Delhi ; 1 Wada, 1 Kalyan, Bombay.

When naming nisosimilis, Tickell (1833, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal
2 : 571) mentioned no measurements and laid down the description of
a single male obtained at Marcha, Borabhum. This form, however, is
now accepted as slightly larger and paler than the European nisus.
Hume’s description of melaschistos is more exhaustive, but he com-
pared his specimens with European birds, and made no reference to
nisosimilis. His measurements of the wings and tails of the specimens
examined. by him exceed .those determined by subsequent workers. An
adult female is said to have a 221 mm. tail; while:the largest available
is 188 ; a young male wing is measured as 248 mm. against 216 in. the
largest and one can only assume that they were handled in a different
manner.! Perio! avon boi iii eileuby wakiniags G2!

The type locality of melaschistos has been accepted in recent Jite-
rature (IND. HANDBOOK and -Vaurie’s PAEEARCTIC: BIRDS 1965) as-‘ the

epee ee

2 After this went to the press, I received specimens from the Smithsonian
Institution, said to be melaschistos including two females collected at Szechwan, China,
Mopin-Tibetan border, and Tinjujre, E. Nepal, which are almost black above and
have longer tails, 204 and 195 respectively. They appear appreciably different
from -all-the others available in Bombay, and agree more closely with the original
description. -This matter. will. require further, examination, as the series from the
Simla’: Hills: appears to be “neither -melasehistes nor. nisosimilis. .. The~ subspecific
grouping under serials: 147: and 148 may, therefore; please be ignored. ~ HA... ...0 2

[$91 -

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

interior of the Himalayas’. In the first description (My SCRAP BOOK
ON INDIAN OOLOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY OR ROUGH NOTES, 1869 : 128) these
words are used in a general manner but Hume specifically stated that
the only two specimens which he obtained were near Simla. In the
FAUNA (1929, 5: 158) Stuart Baker refers to Hume’s second note in
Ibis for 1869 (which is not available to me) and gives the type locality
as ‘ Kotegarh (Simla Hills—H.A.), N.W. India’. In spite of the fact
that Hume (loc. cit. p. 124) refers to a Capt. Thompson assuring him
that ‘two pairs of the true Sparrow Hawk breed yearly in Anandale,
just below Simla’ it would be advisable, as supported by the facts de-
tailed below to accept the restriction of the type locality of melaschistos
to Kotegarh, Simla Hills.

The collection includes 10 birds (7 $3: 3 99) from the Simla Hills and
the adult males can be separated from the other (nisosimilis) males by
their bright rufous under-parts in which the bars across the breast are
‘fused’ and scarcely visible. The upper-parts are much darker, almost
slaty black.

The three races measure :

Males
Wing Tail
nisus (BR. HANDBOOK 190-205) (BR. HANDBOOK 135-154)
nisosimilis 197-213 av. 203 (204-216) 137-154 av. 146 (151-161)
melaschistos 201-216 av. 211 (212-219) 145-172 av. 159
Females
Wing Tail
nisus 236-242 (BR. HANDBOOK 230-240) 173-176 (BR. HANDBOOK 166-176)
nisosimilis 227-248 av. 240 (243-257) 171-184 av. 175 (183-207)
melaschistos 236-257 av. 245 (245-260) 180-188 av. 184

149 Accipiter virgatus kashmiriensis Whistler & Kinnear (Murree) .
Besra Sparrow-Hawk
5:483 192 Qad. dd, 1 ad. 9, 2 juv. 3d).
3 Simla, 1 Ranikhet, 1 Koti State 7000’.
The two adult males are paler above than those of the next race.

Wing oo 164, 166 (IH 165-169) ; tails 124, 127 (ta 127°5-130).
Wing 2 201 (tH 196-207) ; tail 157 (mH 153-160).

150 Accipiter virgatus affinis Hodgson (Nepal) 5.: 16)

233
1 Karuprayag, Garhwal; 1 Nepal. Wings 162, 163 ; tails 125, 131.

151 .Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon (Soonda Jungles, south India)
5: 159
6:2.36392 10?
1 Bhavnagar, Gujerat ; 1 Salsette, Bombay ; 3 Palni Hills, Madras ; 1 no data.
The two males have wings 150, 150 and tails 113, 114. The 2 from.
Bhavnagar (wing 185, tail 142) which was recorded as besra agrees in.
[40]

w |

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION..3 705

size with the adult female (by plumage) from the Palnis, but it is a juve-
nile and much paler in colour and appears to be of a northern race.

152. Accipiter virgatus gularis (Temminck & Schlegel) (Japan) Eastern
Sparrow-Hawk Temes LOZ
4:2 46 2 99 (2 juvenile).
2 Middle Andamans, 1 South Andaman ; 1 Camorta, Central Nicobar.

The pair from Middle Andamans (wing ¢ 150, 2 187) in adult plum-
age have a broad mesial stripe (contra IND. HANDBOOK), while the other
two in juvenile plumage (South Andaman ¢ wing 159 and Camorta 9
185) have a fine mesial stripe. This difference in the width of the gular
stripe does not show in the other races.

153: Buteo rufinus rufinus (Cretzschmar) (Upper Nubia etc.) 5 : 137
Longlegged Buzzard
26:118679280? 10ad. with unbarred tails.
15 with brown tails, barred.
1 with brown unbarred tail.

1 Amdia Barrage, Euphrates, 1 Sheik Saud, Mesopotamia, 1 Gumazgi, 51 miles
west of Turbat, 1 South Persia, 2 Meirhum, Persian Gulf ; 1 Quetta, 1 Miranshah,
Kohat Dist., N.W.F.P., 1 Shali Peak, Bhajja State, 1 Keonthal State, N.W.
Himalayas, 1 Kashmir, 1 Rawalpindi; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Simla, 1 Bahawalpur
Town, 1 Ambala, 1 Mooltan, Punjab ; 1 Delhi; 1 Thar Parker, 1 Shah Hassan
Manchar Lake, Sind; 1 Tilwara, Jodhpur, 1 Kharagodha, 1 Bhavnagar,
Kathiawar ; 1 Rajaputla, Chupriah ; 1 Sarun, Bengal; 1 no data.

These specimens have all been listed under this species but without
certainly identified material, it is not possible with the literature avail-
able to confirm or deny the identification. Apart from the differences
in colour, the measurements of several specimens are either too large
(5 gd Nos. 12588, 12598, 12600, 12603 and 12608. Wing 435-478
cf. 3 415-431 and 2 428-487 in FAUNA and Vaurie) or too small (2 3d
Nos. 12594 and 12609, wing 390, 407, 2 22 Nos. 12605 and 19092, wing
405, 365).

154 Buteo hemilasius Temminck & Schlegel (Japan) Upland Buzzard

5: 140
1 ¢ Tibet. Wing 477, tail 235 (Sp. No. 12613, Collected by F. M. Bailey and

probably the basis of Kinnear’s note, JBNHS 19: 523). See also JBNHS
21: 182 and NIDIFICATION 4: 99.

This specimen was identified by Dr. Amadon.

155: Buteo vulpinus vulpinus (Gloger) (Africa) Desert Buzzard 5 : 142
4:246¢20? (Nos. 12610, 12611, 12612, 19065).
1 Bandar-e-Gaz, Astrabad, Caspian Province ; 1 Simla; 1 Abor Country, Mishmi

Hills; 1 col. by J.P. Cook in 1913=Burma (?) Wings 355, 370, 397, 430 ; tails
190, ——, 207, 216.

1 See footnote on p. 706 below.

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

.1561 Buteo buteo DURAIMEDS: Hume (Thayetmyo, Upper Pegu) Buz-
zard. ties Ui eB teas

nil.

157 Butastur teesa (Franklin) (Ganga-Narbudda) White-eyed Buz-

zard-Eagle , 5: 104

23:73 149220? (3-imm. with streaked underparts including one with
ie white. head and no gular stripe).

1 Qasrquand, Persian Baluchistan ; | Khojdar, Persia ; 1 Rodkan, w. Kale 1
Kilkaur, Baluchistan; 1 aewentodk Rajputana; 1 Gir,1 Patan, 1 Ajwa, 1 Cambay,
3 Bhavnagar ; 2 Bombay, 3, Thana; 1 Raipur, Melghat, 1 Jabalpur’; 2 Meerut,
1 Kanpur ; 1 Narhar, Darbhanga, Bihar.

The measurements of wings and tails are slightly larger than in the
FAUNA, with the birds from Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh appear-
ing smaller than the others. There is no material from southern India
for comparison :

Wing Tail
733 283-310 av. 297 (278-296) 161-180 av. 171 (151-169)
14.99 287-318 av. 297-5 (294-314) 151-176 av. 159

An unsexed juvenile (No. 19621) from Bassein, Thane, piknbay
with a white head, measures wing 308 and tail 187.

The females’ wings are about the same size as those of the males, but
their tails and tarsi measure slightly less. |

As most books indicate that this species does not extend beyond
Baluchistan, it may be mentioned that it has been recorded as far west
as Jask in the Gulf of Oman.

EL Butastur liventer (Temminck) (Java) Rufouswinged Buzzard-Eagle
222: 1 Oheme, Prome District, 1 Atran, Burma. " 8+ 106

158 Spizaetus nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Hodgson’ S
Hawk-Eagle 3 5: 89

6:132 9930? (2 adult 22)
1 Wazirabad, Gujranwala, Punjab; 1 Marnavli 7600’, 1 Bhadrawah 9000’, 1
Kashmir ; 2 Chin Hills, Burma.

The species is separated from Spizaetus® cirrhatus and limnaeetus by
the feathering on the tarsus extending on to the mid-toe.
~The wings measure 424(0?)-480 (2) (475-502 FAUNA. 440-480 adult
3 & C pe Ibis 1953 : 496) and tails 275-310 Gere,

aeapahennncbnman bm

See I ~ a

1 Some of these identifications may need revision—H:A.

[42]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT, HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 701

2: ‘Spizaetus nipalensis kelaarti Legge (Ceylon) Legge’ 's Hawk-Eagle

3: 91
4 4 Palni Hills, south India. Wing 412, tail 276.

Salim Ali (BIRDS OF TRAVANCORE COCHIN, 1953, p. 302) refers to a
male with a 402 mm. wing. Though treated with doubt by Amadon
(loc. cit.) and synonymised by Vaurie (1965: 181) with the nominate
form, this is retained in IND. HANDBOOK. The little evidence available
indicates a smaller bird in the south. —

160. Spizaetus (cirrhatus) limnaeetus aang (Java) Changeable
Hawk-Eagle SiS)
3:2g¢10? (1 juv., all white below).
2 Darbhanga, Bihar ; 1 Jalpaiguri, Bengal.
This is distinguished from the next species by the absence of any
crest. The upper parts are pale as in immature cirrhatus.
Wings 365, 392, 395 (400-438) Tails 246, 254, 260.
The smallest bird is in juvenile plumage. No specimen in the dark
phase is available.

161 Spizaetus cirrhatus cirrhatus (Gmelin) (India) Crested Hawk-
Eagle 3: 8)
15:6g93 422 50? (5 juveniles).

1 Dediapada, 1 Juna, Rajpipla ; 1 Khandala, 2 Ratnagiri, 2 Karwar ; 1 Palkonda
Hills, Cuddapah ; 1 Chatrapur, Ganjam, 1 Vizagapatam District; 1 Sepaya
Sevan, Bihar ; 1 Kheri, Oudh, 1 Gonda, 2 Dehra Dun.

The original reference is not available but according to Baker the
nominate form cirrhatus with India as the type locality was described
by Gmelin on page 274 of SYSTEMA NATURAE (1788), while ceylanensis
from Ceylon was described on the following page. :

In the SYNOPSIS (and the IND. HANDBOOK) the latter is not accepted
as different, but the type locality for the nominate form is changed to
Ceylon. I do not understand under what provision the change of type
locality has been made. If Baker is correct in his statement that
the description of S. c. cirrhatus preceded that of S. c. ceylanensis,
I presume the former would take priority over the latter (which would
at most be its junior synonym) and would retain its type locality.

Wing do 383, 388, 397, 405, 420 (405-430; tH 351-442).
Tail $¢ 260, 261, 267, 283, 285 (280-290 ; tH 229-285).
Wing 9° 413, 440; imm., 395, 432 (448-462; na 353-462).
Tail 99° 285, 292 ; imm. 269, 281 (tH 266-300).

161a Spizaetus cirrhatus ceylanensis (Gmelin) (Ceylon) $186
1d adult, Ceylon. Wing 351 (353-383) ; tail 223 (227-260). |
This race was described for its smaller size, and the single specimen
supports Amadon (Jbis 1963: p. 493). The white order to the crest is
_more prominent than in other specimens.
p43),

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)
162 Spizaetus cirrhatus andamanensis Tytler (Port Blair, South

Andaman Island) 5: 88
nil.

163 Hieraaetus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieillot) (Montpellier, France)
Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle 5.97
7:43329210?
1 Ormara, Baluchistan ; 1 Bahawalpur; 1 Fatehpur, Rajasthan ; 1 Mehsana, 1
Baroda ; 1 Akalkot, Sholapur ; 1 Baghowni, Darbhanga, Bihar.
The specimens available measure slightly less than indicated in the
FAUNA, and are corrected in IND. HANDBOOK.

Wing Tail
4 $$ 453-495 av. 468 (1H 458-520) 243-260 av. 252 (1H 246-266)
2 22 470, 495 (1H 490-550) . 255 (tH 254-285)

However, the key on page 265 of IND. HANDBOOK is copied from the
FAUNA and still shows a minimum wing of 480. .

The streaking on the underparts varies appreciably and one male
and a female are much darker below. Both this and the next species
can be separated from Spizaetus, by the primaries exceeding the secon-
daries by more than the length of the tarsus.

As the occurrence of this species in Assam and East Pakistan is
queried (IND. HANDBOOK | : 266) it may be mentioned that Woods, in
SHIKAR MEMORIES (1934) p. 30, gives its Manipuri name as Koruk-Cowbee
and states that it takes winged duck.

164 Hieraaetus pennatus (Gmelin) (No type locality given) Booted
Hawk-Eagle D219
12:7395922 (6 adult, 6 juv.). }
1 Chitral, N.W.F.P., 1 Jammu, Kashmir ; 1 Simla ; 1 Patan, Mehsana ; 2 Bombay,
1 Thana, 1 Ratnagiri ; 1 North Kanara ; 1 Benares ; 1 Bihar ; 1 Bhutan Duars.
The birds in adult and juvenile plumage do not differ in size and
measure :

Wing Tail
7 $3 375-390 av. 380 (370-412) 189-205 av. 198 (188-192)
5 22 370-415 av. 391 (tH 385-423) 190-220 av. 204 (IH 204-225)

All the specimens from peninsular India have been obtained between
November and March, and presumably represent non-breeding migrants.

165 Lophotriorchis kienerii kienerii (E. Geoffroy) (Himalayas) Rufous-

bellied Hawk-Eagle 5: 80

3:1¢1910? (1 3 juvenile).

1 Anaimalai Hills, Travancore ; 1 Coonoor ; 1 Yellambellary, south India.

Wing ¢ juv. 384, 2 398, 0 ? 372 (go about 380, 2 405-433).

Tail 9 juv. 185, 2 207, 0? 202 (3 about 204, 2 228-242).

The measurements of these southern birds are a little smaller than those
indicated in the FAUNA which are reproduced in IND. HANDBOOK (1 : 272).

[44]

BIRDS iN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3 709

166 Aquila chrysaetos daphanea Severtzov (Russian ‘Turkestan,
Mongolia, Himalayas, etc.) Golden Eagle 5 : 68
6:34661220? (3 imm.* with white in tails).
1 Quetta, Baluchistan ; 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Kishinjunga Valley, Kashmir ;
1 Simla, 1 Wazirabad, Punjab.

The measurements differ from those in the FAUNA and IND. HANDBOOK.

333 Me) 20?
Wing 610*, 622*, 660 (630-655) 617 (660-700) 615*, 670
Tail 311*, 324, 360* (315-335) 328 (350-365) 333*, 380
Tarsus: 117,. 117,118» (89-95) 118 (95-105) —_ —

167 Aquila heliaca heliaca Savigny (Upper Egypt) Imperial Eagle
| 5 : 69
12:44669220? (4 juv. streaked below).

1 Belad, Tigris; 1 Fateamah, Persia; 1 Lahore, 1 Wazirabad, 1 Hoshiarpur ; 2

Pithora, 1 Sind; 1 Little Rann of Kutch; 1 Bhavnagar; 1 Goona, C.I.; 1
Kurseong, Darjeeling.

The tail is barred in adults, and unbarred in juveniles. Before the
buff nape patch is acquired, the all-brown bird is difficult to separate
from nipalensis, for the measurements are not as distinctive as indicated
in most literature and overlap to a great extent.

3 Wing 2
heliaca 542, 565, 570, 570 (575-600) 575-620 av. 603 (605-630)
nipalensis 560, 570, 580 (510-595) 550 (602-625)

Tail ,
heliaca 262, 265, 274, 276 (253-270) 263-289 av. 280 (253-270)
nipalensis 265, 282, 289 (250-290) 252 (250-290)
Tarsus

heliaca 95, 100, 100, 104 (91-95) 100-107 av. 104 (91-95)
nipalensis 90, 90, 93, 98 (85-89) 83, unsexed 99, 103

168 Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin (Vindhya Hills, Central India)

Tawny Eagle ae
30:11 G5 15.9940?

1 Gidar,1 Hazariganj, Kalat, Baluchistan; 3 Hyderabad, Sind; 1 Lahore, 1 Ambala,

4 Wazirabad, Punjab ; 1 Fatehpur, U.P.; 2 Godwara, 1 Jodhpur, Rajasthan ;

1 Kutch; 3 Palanpur, 1 Mehsana, 1 Dabka, 1 Cambay, | Rajpipla, Gujerat ;

2 Greater Bombay, 1 Lonavla, 3 Panchgani, Maharashtra ; | Gwalior, Madhya

Pradesh.

As is well known, the birds show great differences in plumage. The
present specimens can be divided roughly into two groups, pale (13)
and dark (16). They measure :

Pale Dark
i bd Wing
(14 500-535 ; Vaurie 490-540 av. 520)
480-539 av. 505 475-498 av. 488

33 Tail (tH 242-258)
230-247 av. 241°6 221-246 av. 233

12 [45 ]

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

2° Wing
(tH 510-560 ; Vaurie 510-550 av. 530)
500-533 av. 515 508-530 av. 520

29 Tail GH 242-285)
236-250 av. 242°5 . 234-262 av. 248

Though the number available is admittedly small, it is curious that
the pale males, which represent a juvenile plumage as per Vaurie p. 184
(contra FAUNA loc. cit.), have slightly larger wings and tails than the
dark (adult) males. The dark females average larger and in series
are darker than the adult males.

Of the 4 specimens with unbarred tails, only one is in adult plumage
(dark), while of the 7 with distinct caps of brown or rufous, 6 are pale,
suggesting that the barred tail and the concolorous head and back are
adult characters.

EL Aquila rapax orientalis Cabanis (near Sarepta, SE. Russia).
20?: 1 Basra, 1 Kut, Mesopotamia.
Both have large oval nostrils and measure :
No. 12303 Basra Wing 520 Tail291 Tarsus 94
12306 Kut 538 260 83
Both were named Aquila rapax albicans Rupp. (Type locality Simen
Province in Abyssinia) by Sclater (JBNHS 28 : 421) which race is not
now accepted. No. 12306 has been identified as orientalis by Mr. Bond
and I am leaving both under this name.

169 Aquila nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Steppe Eagle.
, | 5 : 10
824-6392 29 20? (1 head only).
1 Sera, Tigris ; 1 Hissar, 1 Wazirabad, 1 Dharamsala Cantt.; 1 Pung Bet*, Little
Rann, Kutch ; 1 Gwalior ; 1 Gonda, U.P. ; 1 no data.

Several specimens have very distinct buffish wing bars, which is an
immature character (BR. HANDBOOK 3: 43), lacking in heliaca. The
measurements of the specimens are compared to those of heliaca above,
and shown to overlap to a great extent.

3 Specimen No. 12290 (Little Rann of Kutch) has its breast streaked
with buff and is very similar to the juvenile of heliaca [wing 550 (570
fresh), tail 276, tarsus 92]. It was obtained on the same day as an un-
doubted heliaca, but I am leaving it under this species, as it has been so
identified by Salim Ali and Meinertzhagen.

170 Aquila clanga Pallas (Russia and Siberia) Greater Spotted Eagle
5:74
9:6992,30? (3 spotted juvenile).
1 Baghdad ; 1 Ormara, Las Belas, Baluchistan ; 1 Gujranwala, Punjab ; 1 Bharatpur,
Rajasthan ; 1 Kaira, Gujerat ; 2 Lake Beale, Nasik, Maharashtra ; 2 Rajputtee
Chupra (Saran), Bihar.

[46 j

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3_ 711

692 Wing 500-540 (FAUNA 542-565, BR. HANDBOOK 500-550); tail 230-272
(240-260) ; tarsus 97-106 (103-106).

In IND. HANDBOOK, the measurements of four Indian females are elven as: wing
514-545 ; tail 242-272.

This and the next species can be separated from the other Aquila by
their round (and not elongated or ear-shaped) nostrils. The two from
Rajputtee Chupra have ‘ roundish’ nostrils and have been identified by
C. H. Donald. Others listed as A. nipalensis rapax are very similar. It
is also difficult to separate this species from hastata except by size—this
is generally larger, but the wing and tail measurements are said to over-
lap. In the absence of any other character, I have for the moment
transferred a spotted bird from Ormara to clanga leaving the sexed
specimens in both species, curiously all females (there is no sexed male
of either species !), in two distinct size groups.

171 Aquila pomarina hastata (Lesson) (Bengal) Lesser Spotted Eagle

5275
5:39220?, heads only*
1 Gonda*, 1 Gorakhpur*, U.P.; 1 Tirhut, | Binburn, Bihar (?); 1 Kalyan,
Thana, Maharashtra.
19 from Tirhut is a fledgling with pale longitudinal specks on the
head, contra 10 1: 283.
2 22 wing 470, 475 (493-508) ; tail 208, 234 (230-248) ; tarsus 93, 93 (100-104).

172 Ictinaetus malayensis perniger (Hodgson) (Nepal) Black Eagle

5: 83
4:243¢20?

2 Darjeeling, Bengal; 1 Nilgiris, Madras; 1 Wynaad, Kerala.

The four specimens do not vary appreciably in the size of their wing
(550-570) and tail (294-309) but two (1 0? Wynaad, 1 3 Darjeeling)
have their bill smaller (27 mm. from cere) than the other two—(30 mm.
1 $ Darjeeling, 1 0 ? Nilgiris).

In IND. HANDBOOK (1: 284) it is implied that north of Goa along the
Western Ghats only sight records exist, from Bombay and Jambughoda
in Gujerat. While there can be no doubt that some of these records
are good, it may be worthwhile drawing attention to a specimen which
was shot at Virar, a little north of Bombay, the head and legs of which
were identified at the Society (JBNHS 41 : 899).

172a Haliaeetus albicilla (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whitetailed Sea Eagle

5: 110
nil.

This species is a winter visitor to our area extending to the Punjab,
North West Provinces (Uttar Pradesh), and Sind. It was omitted in the
SYNOPSIS but is included in IND. HANDBOOK where it is spoken of as a
casual winter visitor to West Pakistan (Baluchistan, Sind, NWF. Province)
and of which there is only one reliable record from India (Kulu, Donald).

L47 |

712. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)
173 Haliacetus leucogaster (Gmelin) (Prince’s Island, Indonesia)

Whitebellied Sea Eagle Pee i ||

Bl Ss 20)2, (1 juv.*).
1 Chatrapore, Ganjam, A.P.; i* Port Blair, Andamans ; 1 Campbell Bay, Great
Nicobar.

174, Haliaeetus leucoryphus (Pallas) (Lower Ural River) Pallas’s Fishing
Eagle a
O37 6S 2°02 3 in adult plumage.

1 Kashmir ; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Bahawalpur, Punjab ; 1 Saran, | Tirhut, 1 Baghowni,
1 Lowa Chupra, Bihar ; | Kurseong, Bengal ; | no data.

175 Icthyophaga ichthyaetus ichthyaetus (Horsfield) (Java) Greyheaded
Fishing Eagle 5: 114
42209207 |
1 Kissenganga (Kashmir ?) ; | Melghat, Berar ; 1 Narhora, Madhubani, 1 Nawada
Lake, Champaran, Bihar.

No. 1247, a 2 fledgling taken at Narhora, Madhubani, by C. M.
Inglis, has the feathers of the head heavily marked with short streaks of
buff, a pale buff chin, and brown under-parts streaked with buff.

176 Icthyophaga ichthyaetus plumbeiceps Baker (Trincomalee, Ceylon)
Ceylon Greyheaded Fishing Eagle 5 : 156

nil.

177. Icthyophaga nana plumbea (Jerdon) (Northwestern Himalayas)
Himalayan Greyheaded Fishing Eagle eM |
1 ¢ Balasun 2000’, near Darjeeling, Bengal.

178 Torgos calvus (Scopoli) (Pondicherry) Black Vulture 3729
10? Gazipur, U.P.

179 Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus) (Arabia) Cinereous Vulture 5:79

1 0? Hoshiarpur, Punjab.

180 Gyps fulvus fulyescens Hume (Gurgaon, Punjab) Griffon Vulture
3 ee iri ||
1o? Kurla, Bombay. (February 1893).
This specimen, evidently a straggler, is, the southern-most record of
this species.

181 Gyps himalayensis Hume (Himalayas from Kabul to Bhutan)
Himalayan Griffon Vulture (32 13
nil. , |

[48 ]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 — 713

182 Gyps indicus indicus (Scopoli) (India) Indian Longbilled Vulture
S16

3: :1o0? 2 nestlings.
1 nestling, Karnala, Panvel, Kolaba Dt. ; 2?

The young in the nest are in colour similar to the adults which can be
separated from immature bengalensis (yet without white backs or under-
wings) by the longer cere.

183 Gyps indicus jonesi Whistler (Margala Range, Rawalpindi Dist.)
Sah
nil.

184 Gyps indicus tenuirostris G. R. Gray (Kahtmandu, Nepal) 5:17
nil.

185 Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin) (Bengal) Whitebacked Vulture 5: 19
8:449d3 9210? (1 nestling).

6 Bombay & Salsette, 1 Panvel, Kolaba Dist. ; 1 Gazipur, U.P. :

The nestling is almost as dark as the adult, but with no white on the
rump or under-wings. The breast is prominently streaked with white.
Nos. 12092 and 22697 were listed as G. indicus, but they are very similar
to others in the brown, sub-adult plumage of this species, in which I
have seen it breeding. The number of tail feathers is not 14, but this
character does not show even in the adult bengalensis available, and I
am, for the moment treating them as of this species on the basis of their
shorter ceres.

186 Neophron percnopterus percnopterus (Linnaeus) (Egypt) Egyptian
or Scavenger Vulture S922

187 Neophron percnopterus ginginianus (Latham) (Gingee, Coromandel)
Poe 728)
4:1829210? (1* immature 9).
1 north of Ornach, Baluchistan; 1 Datta Kehl, N.W.F.P.; 1 Lolab Valley,
Kashmir ; 1 Simla*.

Wings 3 455 22 455, 460 02 485 (474-506 ; ginginianus 443-482).

Tail 235, 235, 220, 230 (205-263 ; ginginianus 228-251).

Culmen 58, 62, 59, 66 (58-65 ; ginginianus 72-85 ?).

According to the distribution usually accepted, these birds should
all be of the typical race, but the measurements are closer to those of
ginginianus and the bills in all the adults are bright yellow. Whistler
(Ibis 1922 : 414) and Paludin ON THE BIRDS OF AFGHANISTAN (1959 :77)
have referred to these incongruities regarding size (Punjab) and colour
but in the absence of any material from further south, it is not possible
_ to determine to what race or races these specimens belong. IND. HAND-
BOOK (1: 311) suggests the possibility of both races occurring together
and interbreeding over marginal areas.

[49 ]

714. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

188 Gypaetus barbatus aureus (Hablizl) (Province of Gilan, northern
Persia) Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier 5:26
13:43¢ 19280? (2, heads only) (6 ad. 5 juv.).
1 Quetta (? Museum) ; 2 Chitral ; 2 Bhadarwar, Kashmir ; 3 Simla Hills, 1 Eastern
Himalayas ; 4 no data (2, heads only).
The three males in adult plumage measure :
Wing 777, 805, 820 ; tail 470, 542, 493 ; tarsus 93, 93, 104.

189 Circus cyaneus cyaneus (Linnaeus) (Vicinity of London, England) -
Hen-Harrier 3: fo8
11:59649920? (Gad. 3d 1 ad. 9).
1 Astrabad, Caspian Province ; 1 Bampur, Persian Baluchistan ; 1 Murghab, Herat,
Afghanistan ; 1 Gyantse, Tibet ; 1 Datta Kehl, Waziristan ; 1 Gilgit, Kashmir ;
1 Simla, 1 Patiala ; 3 Peking, China.
The notch in the outer web of the 5th primary separates this from
macrourus and pygargus. Thirteen specimens were wrongly listed under
these three species.

Wing adog6:337, 341, 347 ad.2 388
Tail 211, 218, 220 244
Tarsus 67, 69, 69 qs

190 Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin) (Voronezh, Southern Russia)
Pale Harrier 5: 123

34:20 66 1192930? (juv. 5 dd, 4 29).

3 Randa Tanhat, Yemen; 1 Sulaimaniya, 4 Mesopotamia; 2 Shiraz; 1 Chitral ;
1 Boya, N. Waziristan ; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Jagadhiri, Punjab ; 1 near Manchar Lake,
Sind ; 1 Delhi ; 1 Sunda Hills, Jaswantipura Dist., Rajputana ; 3 Cutch ; 1 Dohad,
1 Nadiad; 1 Pasola, E. Khandesh, 1 Nasik, 2 Bombay, 2 Thana, 2 Jeypore,
Vizagapatnam ; 1 Meerut ; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut ; 1 Calcutta Market; 1 no data.

Wing Tail Tarsus
15 ad. do 327-350 av. 338 (332-360) 197-213 av. 204 62-73 av. 65
(201-221) (66-70)
These include 8 birds in which the heads are yet brown and not grey.
5 juv.dd 322-334 av. 330 200-213 av. 209 65-70 av. 68°5

Tad. 92 362-381 av. 371 (tH 345-386) 226-241 av.233. «65-75 av. 71 (67-78)
(IH 229-247)

4 juv. 22 352-370 av. 363 220-244 av. 232 71-75

The Pale and Montagu’s Harriers differ from the other three species
in lacking the notch on the outer web of the 5th primary. In this species
the coverts normally conceal the notch in the outer web of the 2nd
primary, which remains exposed in Montagu’s. If the coverts are not
fully grown (?), the longer tarsus is distinctive.

191 Circus pygargus (Linnaeus) (England) Montagu’s Harrier 5: 130

8:549 3 92 (2 adult gd).

1 Murghab, Herat ; 1 Kronthal State ; 1 Belapur, Ahmednagar, 2 Nasik, 1 Talegaon
Poona, 1 Andheri, Bombay ; 1 Jubbulpore, M.P.

$3 Wings ad. 355, 385 ; juv. 334, 348, 356 (344-395).

[50]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 — 715

29 357, 367, 369 (344-395).
$$ Tails ad. 210, 222 ; juv. 205, 208, 209 (243-241).
29 215% 216,.227.

3d Tarsus ad. 57, 58, juv. 55, 56, 57 (55-65)

99 57, 58, 61.

This species can be separated from macrourus by the primary coverts
falling short of the notch in the outer web of the 2nd primary, and by the
shorter tarsus.

192 Circus melanoleucos (Pennant) (Ceylon) Pied Harrier S132
8: 734 (2 by plumage) 1 9* (missing).
1 Rajputee Chupra, | Baghowni, Tirhut, 1 Narkhar, Madhubani ; 1 Upper Burma,
3* Prome District ; 1 no locality (collected by F.J.R. Field=U.P. ?).
dS Wings 345-363 av. 353 (344-367).
3d Tails 196-218 av. 206 (197-217).
dS Tarsus 71-75 av. 73 (76-80).

As in C. cyaneus the 5th primary is indented on the outer web. Two
C. cyaneus in female plumage were listed under this species which has a
larger tarsus.

193 Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Marsh
Harrier | 5: 134
27:17 43 (1 by plumage) 6 9240? (10 ad. gd with grey wings and tail, 6
sub-ad. with pale heads, 1 juv. all brown,

with pale nape).
1 Amara, 2 Lake Akkarkuf, 1 Basra, Iraq; 1 Magos, 1 Gumazzi, 51 miles west
of Turbat, 1 Kaftarok, 11 miles east of Shiraz, Iran; 1 Chitral, 1 Wana,
S. Waziristan ; 1 Shah Hassan, Manchar Lake, 1 Sufi Talao, Pithora, 1 Dadin
Larkana, Sind; 1 Cutch; 1! Gwalior; | Bassein, 1 Karanja Is., Bombay ;
2 Kanara, 1 Mysore; | Gondia, C.P.; 2 Baghowni, 1 Saran, Bihar; 2 Prome,

1 Henzada, Burma ; 1 no data. .

Wing
33
10 ad. 364-399 av. 384 (385-405 ; BR. HANDBOOK 375-415) 6 sub-ad. 379-415 av. 393.
29
4 ad. 395-422 av. 407 (390-430 ; BR. HANDBOOK 390-420)
2 juv. 418, 423
Tail
3d
10 ad. 210-227 av. 216 (234-245 ; BR. HANDBOOK 210-230) 6 sub-ad. 213-231 av. 222.
oo
4 ad. 219-255 av. 231°5 (238-258)
2 juv. 233, 240
Tarsus
33 10 ad. 76-84 av. 81°5 (80-85) 6 sub-ad. 80-87 av. 83.
FL GS 4 ad. 81-87 av. 84 (85-90) 2 juv. 84, 86.

The males average a little smaller than the females, but it is curious
that the sub-adults, with pale caps similar to the females, are larger than
[51]

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 65 (3)

the adults. This is possibly due to incorrect sexing. One specimen
with a grey tail was marked female but has been measured with the males.
There is great variation in the tone of brown but I am unable to separate
any as spilonotus.

194 Circus aeruginosus spilonotus Kaup (Asia) =o We YS
nil.

195 Circaetus gallicus gallicus (Gmelin) (Astrakan, South Russia)

Short-toed Eagle | 5: 93
15:736 69220? (3 juveniles).

1 Wazirabad, 1 Madhopur, Punjab; 1 Kuno, Gwalior; 1 Deesa, 2 Baroda, 1

Daman ; 1 Ghoti, Nasik, 3 Thana, 1 Bombay ; 1 Ootacamund ; 1 Fatehpur, U.P. ;
1 no data.

Wing 33 510-533 av. 520 (520-536) 292 508-554 av. 536 (530-571)
Tail 248-284 av. 277 (252-288) 268-295 av. 270 (287-330)
Tarsus 83-94 av. 89 (92-97) 87-101 av. 93

In this small series, the barring on the underparts appears more
prominent in the females than in the males. The three juveniles show

white on the head and are on the upperparts slightly paler than the others, |

though they agree with them in their measurements.
Two males are pure white below except for fine shaft streaks on the
chin and upper breast.

196 Spilornis cheela cheela (Latham) (Lucknow) Crested Serpent
Eagle 5: 96
13:639 59220? ( 1 juvenile 9).
1 Patiala, Punjab; 1 Bhavnagar; 1 Malwa, C.I.; 1 Hoshangabad, M.P.;
1 Baghowni, Darbhanga, Bihar ; 1 Dehra Dun, 2 Salukapur, 1 Almora ; 1 Nepal ;
1 Kurseong, Bengal ; 2 Assam.

The nominate race can be differentiated from southern melanotis
by the barring on the upper breast, the black chin, and the almost-white
pale bar on the tail. This type occasionally occurs in the normal range
of melanotis and represents either an individual variation or a non-
breeding migrant. Nos. 12406 from Bhavnagar and 22376 from
Hoshangabad, both males are two such instances, which have been noted
as far south as Mysore (JBNHS 44: 21).

On the whole the males appear to have their underparts paler than the
females and are also slightly smaller.

Wing Tail Tarsus
6 33d 445-500 av. 476 255-309 av. 287 96-113 av. 104
4 92 458-505 av. 477 266-315 av. 291 © - 102-110 av. 106
32 (468-507) (295-315) (100-102)

This race is slightly larger than the southern melanotis. :
[52]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3 717

197 Spilornis cheela melanotis (Jerdon) (At the foot of the Nilgiris)
5: 98

15:5 46662940? (2 dd, 2 22 juveniles).
1 Palanpur, 2 Gir ; 2 Ratnagiri; 2 North Kanara; 1 south India; 1 Tenmalai,
Travancore ; 2 Vizagapatam ; | Bastar, M.P.; 1 Badrawa, 1 Berbera, | Chilka.
The brown upper breast and the grey band on the tail separate this

from the northern race. The black chin is also absent.
The adults measure : 7

Wing Tail Tarsus
3d 415, 419, 439 DIS 2585275 95, 100, 108
92 425, 431, 457, 465 264, 274, 275, 302 95, 99, 102, 107
198 Spilornis cheela spilogaster (Blyth) (Ceylon) 5: 100

nil. :

199 Shpilornis cheela burmanicus Swann (Jobin, Thayetmyo, Burma)

5: 99
Pais sien ye
Wing Tail Tarsus
36 Tonokmaw, Prome 447 260 98
2 Akyab 472 283 102

These two specimens could well be included with the nominate form
which they resemble in the barring on the lower parts, the pale patch
on the tail, and the dark chin (Akyab).

200 Spilornis elgini (Blyth) (South Andaman Island) Andaman
Serpent Eagle | 5: 103

1 2 Mannarghat, South Andamans.
Wing 380 tail 218 tarsus 80.

As indicated in my Andaman paper (JBNHS 61 : 509), this appears
to be very distinct from the paler Serpent Eagle davisoni which occurs
in the same area, and must be placed in a separate species.

200a Spilornis cheela davisoni Hume (Neighbourhood of Port Blair)

5: 103
2 92:1 Bakultala, Middle Andamans, 1 Pochang, South Andamans.

Wing 393, 393 ; tail 235, 245 ; tarsus 80, 82.
But for its smaller size, this form appears to be very similar to |
melanotis. In IND. HANDBOOK it is synonymised with elgini.

201 Spilornis cheela minimus Hume (Camorta, Nicobar Islands)

5:102
nil.

202 Spilornis cheela klossi Richmond (Pulo Kunyi, Great Nicobar
Island) 5 : 102
nil.
[53

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

203 Pandion haliaetus haliaetus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Osprey 5:3

9 5 3d 4 ele) \
1 Shaiba, Arabia ; 1 Tanb Island, Persian Gulf ; 1 Cashmere* : 1 Bahawalpur State ;
1 Chilka Lake, Orissa ; 1 Madhubani, 1 Tirhut, Bihar ; 1 Dehra Dun 4 no i

Wing Tail Tarsus
5 $3 460-490 av. 474 187-215 av. 201 59-61 av. 60
(452-495) (191-223) | (59-65)
4 22 470-491 av. 481 205-215 av. 210 58-65 av. 62
(468-508) (204-220)
IND. HANDBOOK adds the following measurements :—
233 481-481 201-210 —
392 482-537 200-251 60-61

* Only one specimen (No. 12082) has a complete brown band across the breast.

204 Milicrohierax caerulescens caerulescens (Linnaeus) (Asia = Bengal)
Redthighed Falconet 352

8:13492 *30? juveniles.

1 Nepal ; 3 Darjeeling, Bengal ; *4 Assam.

The male measures—wing 100, tail 59 and the females—105-114 ay.
110°5 and 57-67 ay. 61. The 3 juveniles, which are not dated, were
probably collected at the same time by C. M. Inglis. The breast is
whitish, but not quite white as the Burmese race.

Ripley has changed the long-standing English name of Redlegged
to Redbreasted. The first name was misleading for it is the thighs, and
not the legs, that are so coloured. I think it would be best to associate
the distinctive term with that part which varies in colour in the different
species, aS has been done by Smythies in THE BIRDS OF BURMA.

EL Microhierax caerulescens burmanicus Kirke-Swann (Thayetmyo)

Burmese Redthighed Falconet 5:53

32 09207
1 Kungulthana ; 1 Mt. Victoria ; 1 Taunggyi, S. Shan States.

The white breast and smaller size, wing: 94, 96, 101 (tails 55,
55, 61) distinguish them from Indian birds. The one bird marked as a
female has the smallest wing and may have been wrongly sexed.

205 Microhierax melanoleucos (Blyth) (Assam) Whitethighed Falconet —
5:54

pA aaron I

1 Haflong, Cachar, 1* Margherita, Lakhimpur, Assam.

The measurements of the male are not included in the FAUNA, and
the single specimen appears to be slightly smaller than the females:

Wing 108 (111-117), tail 66 (71-73), tarsus 20 (22).

As my measurements differed from those of the same specimen in
IND. HANDBOOK, I have rechecked mine. |

206 Falco biarmicus cherrug J. E. Gray (India) Saker or Cherrug

Falcon 5: 39

3° 26611 2
1 Baghdad, Iraq ; 1 Ahwaz, Iran ; 1 Waynabad, Kashmir.

2g Wing 334, 365 (348-370) ; tail 186, 195 (190-200)
12 Wing 410 (390-412) ; tail 222 (207-210).
[54]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 719

207 Falco biarmicus milvipes Jerdon (Umballa, India) Shanghar
Falcon 5:41
Bre Onto, 2,
1 Kashgar, China ; 1 Ladakh, Kashmir.
Wing 334 9, 363 ($d 340-351, 92 374-435)
Tail 186 2, 190 (188-236)

208 Falco biarmicus jugger J. E. Gray (India) Laggar Falcon 5 : 37

18:73 (2 by size) 11 99 (1 by size)

(1 * @ pullet, 2 d¢ 6 92 juveniles)

1 Dandar, W. Kolwa, 1 Chuttok, 95 miles south of Kalat, Baluchistan ; 2 Bhong,
Bahawalpur, | Jhelum, Punjab; 1* Bela Island, Kutch, 1 Deesa, Palanpur,
1 Dabka, Baroda ; 1 Jaswantpura, Rajputana ; 1 Mandu, Dhar State, C.I.; 2
Mira Road, Salsette, 1 Wada, Thana, 1 Bombay ; 2 Tirhut, 1 Rajputee Chuprah,
Bihar ; | Fatehpur, U.P.

IND. HANDBOOK has this as a race of F. biarmicus but Vaurie (1965)
leaves it as a separate species as has been customary.

In this series the males and females fall into two size groups in which
there is no overlap in the size of the wings. Three unsexed birds are
placed according to their size. The adults are no larger than the juve-
niles and their measurements are grouped together :

Wing Tail Mid-toe without claw
7 33 313-326 av. 319 162-182 av. 169 44-46 av. 45
(305-328) (167-175)
10 22 331-369 av. 354 173-201 av. 193°6 44-51 av. 48
(323-364) (169-198)
In IND. HANDBOOK (1 : 346), the measurements are :—
bd 316-335 164-183
92 «357-370 186-210

According to the literature available, the sexes are similar. Whereas
in the juveniles the sexes only differ in size, in the five adult males the
white of the chin and breast extends to the lower belly which is marked
with fine dark streaks, while in the four adult females the white is res-
tricted to the chin and upper breast, the lower parts being brown as
in the juveniles. In the pullet, the head is heavily marked with pale
buff and the tail is more broadly tipped with white than in any of the
others.

209 Falco peregrinus japonensis Gmelin (flew on board off Japan) Pere-
grine Falcon (5 : 32 as F. p. calidus)

14:9 gg 5-99 (5 ad. grey above)

1 Baghdad ; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Punjab; 1 Kutch; 2 Bombay, 1 Kihim, Kolaba; 1
at sea between Bombay and Aden ; 1 North Kanara ; | Malabar Coast; 1 Kon-
dakarla, Vizagapatam ; | Bihar ; 1 Peking, China ; 1 no data.

The subspecific identity of the real peregrine wintering in India still

appears uncertain. Jerdon and Blanford noted it as peregrinus and
[55]

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol.°65 (3)

the specimen from Kihim, Kolaba District, was said to be of the nomi-
nate form by Whistler, working in England in the mid-thirties. Stuart
Baker said they were calidus, and this is confirmed by Vaurie in 1965.
Ripley has called them japonensis. With the material available, it is
impossible to express any opinion, but I am leaving them as in the
SYNOPSIS and IND. HANDBOOK. This group includes all the specimens
which have their underparts white, excluding those either deep rufous
below with dark heads and cheeks (peregrinator) or a paler rufous below
with rufous on the nape and on the cheeks (babylonicus).

While they all fit into compact groups, this arrangement leaves no
juveniles of peregrinator, and it is possible that some adjustments are
necessary.

Specimen No. 12113 was taken at sea between Bombay and Aden,
and is possibly the bird listed in Blanford (3 : 416) as peregrinator.

Specimen No. 12114 a juvenile female from Peking, China, is left
among the peregrines as originally marked, but it differs from all the
others in the first primary on one side (it is broken on the other) being
shorter than the third and in all the tail feathers being unbarred brown
as in F. jugger. However, it has the heavy cheek stripe of peregrinus
and the bill (27 mm.) and mid-toe (58 mm.) are too large for jugger,
which further does not appear to have been recorded in China.

The measurements of the 3 races are :—

Wing Tail Tarsus
3d japonensis
309-319 av. 138-159 av. 48-54 av. (49-51)
(297-316 calidus) (134-145, BR. HANDBOOK
130-158) |
babylonicus
270 122 48
(273-284) (126-135) (45-46)
peregrinator
274, 285, 289 1205 277 138 47, 49, 52
(265-295) (128-162) (48-50)
22 japonensis
344-362 av. 354 162-169 av. 167 51-58 av. 54
(344-379)
babylonicus
319, 324, 329 148, 156, 158 52, $4, 55
(320-338) (151-158) (53-55)
peregrinator ,
333 153 54
(312-342)

[56 ]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—3 721

210 Falco peregrinus babylonicus P. L. Sclater (Oudh) Redcapped
Falcon 3 : 36
4:14 3 29 (one by size).
1 Ambala, Punjab ; 1 Radhanpur, | Gujerat ; 1 no data.
The three females were mixed up with the other peregrines, but all
have a varying amount of rufous on the nape and on the cheeks. The
measurements are tabled under the preceding form.

211 Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall (Indian Ocean, off the
Nicobar Islands) Shahin or Indian Peregrine 5: 34

4:3 $4 (one by size) 1 9.

2 Simla Hills, 1 Bokloh, Punjab ; 1 Karnala Fort, Pen, Kolaba.

The last bird which was evidently breeding is the darkest rufous on
the underparts and smaller than the other two from the Punjab—wing
274, cf. 285, 289 ; tail 121, cf. 127, 131. Other details of measurements
are tabled under japonensis. :

212 Falco subbuteo subbuteo Linnaeus (Sweden) Hobby 5: 42
11:2 $3 8 92 1 0? chick (4 juvenile 99).
1 Azizeih, Tigris, Mesopotamia ; 1 Chitral ; 3 Simla, NW. Himalayas ; 1 Mashobra,
Koti State ; 4 Bombay ; 1 Tiddin, Burma.
Wing Tail
3h 257, 271 (245-265) 131, 139 (129-142)
O2 261, 262, 265, 269 (273-280 ~— 115, 131, 136, 136 (146-148)
BR. HANDBOOK 265-280)
The two males show almost no sign of barring on the tail. In the
adult females the collar is more pronounced than in the males, which

are also more completely grey above.

213 Falco subbuteo centralasiae (Buturlin) (Baimgol, LET Bi) 5): 42
- 19 Langar, Yarkand.
Specimen No. 12153 is slightly paler above than the other females
and also has a larger wing 276 (277-236). The original label indicates
a weight of 8°3 oz. 7

214 Falco severus rufipedoides Hodgson (Nepal) Indian Hobby 5: 47
3:16 292 (one by size) |
1 Bhutan Duars; | Sibang, Darjeeling; 1 Tegu, Lohit Valley.
_& Wing 205 (211-219) Tail missing (94-95) |
29 240, 247 (237-248) 112, 114 (105-112)

215 Falco severus severus Horsfield (Java) Burmese Hobby 5: 45
5:3 gd (one by size) 292 (by size)
1 Cachar, Assam ; 1 Pokkoku, Upper Burma ; 1 Pegu, 2* Thaung Valley, Amherst,
Burma.
$3 Wing 216*, 218, 222 (not available in FAUNA or in IH) Tails 90, 95*.
92 «yg «=: 233*, 243 (am 221-245°5) Tails 108*, 109 (mi 95-115),
The two from Thaung Valley though not sexed are marked as shot
off a nest on the same day and are no doubt a pair. The birds north of
the Brahmaputra are said to be paler on their underparts (rufipedoides)

[57]

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

but I am unable to see any differences in the small number available
which are now separated entirely by their places of origin.

216 Falco concolor Temminck (Senegal etc.) Sooty Falcon
2 $3 Both with rufous on underparts, obtained from Muscat Museum.
These specimens were found listed with Falco subbuteo.

217 Falco columbarius insignis (Clark) (Fusan, Korea) Merlin 5: 49

218 Falco columbarius christianiludovici Kleinschmidt (Caucasus) 5 : 50

422383292" (hadult gy:

2 Wazirabad, Punjab ; 2 Peking, China.

The two birds from the Punjab, one of which died in captivity, though
originally correctly identified as to species were listed under Falco tin-
nunculus and F. chicquera. The subspecific identification is difficult, but
the Punjab female is slightly paler than that from Peking. It is prob-
able that the Punjab birds are christianiludovici and those from China
are insignis.

219 Falco chicquera chicquera Daudin (Bengal) Redheaded Merlin
3.3.47
21:10 33 (2 by size) 11 99 (2 by size) (1 pullet, 2 juvenile).
1 Waziristan, 1 Chaklala, N.W.F.P.; 1 Wazirabad, 1 Sadhoki, Gujranwala, 1
Dhulkot, Ambala ; 1 Delhi; 1 Gwalior ; 1 Radhanpur, 1 Kutch, 1 Ahmedabad ;
1 Thana, | Kolaba; | Palghat, Kerala; 3 Tirhut, 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 1
Upper Burma ; 3 no data.
Wing Tail
3h 194-204 av. 199 (1H 190-207) 120-132 av. 126 (iH 124-137)
29 221-236 av. 227 (IH 220-232) 143-155 av. 150 GH 148-156)

The two juveniles have their heads darker than the adults. The
females are a clearer grey above than the males.

220 Falco vespertinus amurensis Radde (Amur) Redlegged Falcon 5 : 58
Seago <
1 Ambarnath, Thana, Maharashtra ; 2 Cachar.
EL Falco naumanni naumanni Fleischer (Southern Germany) Lesser
Kestrel

333
1 Katunak, 8 miles south of Shiraz, Iran; 2 Ruauda, Tanhat, Yemen, Arabia

(Philby 1940).

These three birds are distinctly paler, both above and below, than
those listed pekinensis, and have been identified as C. naumanni naumanni
by Whistler. The Iraq and Persia specimens under 221 were recorded
(JBNHS 28 : 420) as of the nominate race, but cannot be separated from
birds from Manipur and Orissa which are presumably pekinensis. Both
races are accepted in Western Asia in Peters (1 : 298) but Vaurie (p. 234)
does not recognise pekinensis.

[58 ]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--3 — 723

221 Falco naumanni pekinensis Swinhoe (Near Peking, China) Lesser

Kestrel 5 : 66
10:6455 4 $9.

4 Felujah, 2 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Persepolis, Persia; 2 Balasore, Orissa ;
1 Manipur.

Specimen Nos. 12265, 12266, and 12267 collected by C. R. Pitman
are all in male plumage. Except for the date ‘25-6-1917’ on two of
them, there are no other data. In ‘The Birds of Mesopotamia ’
(JBNHS 28 : 420) reference is made to 3 females and a male collected
by Pitman at Felujah between 8 and 16 April 1917. A fourth bird of
this species in female plumage also bears the date * 25-6-1917’ and was
collected by Pitman. The date of Pitman’s other specimens show that
he was in Mesopotamia on 25 June 1917 and, though the sexes are wrongly
quoted, the present specimens which do not bear any field or original
(?) labels are no doubt identical with those referred to in the above-
mentioned paper as of the nominate race. Two females were incor-
rectly listed as Cerchnis tinnunculus.

222 Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus (Europe, restricted Sweden)
Kestrel 5:61

223 Falco tinnunculus interstinctus McClelland (Assam) 5:61

83:38 dd 4092 50?

2 Sheik Saad, 1 Amara, 2 Baghdad, 1 Razani, 1 Shatt-el-Adhain, | Hit, 1 Tobbat,

Mesopotamia ; 4 Mishim, 1 Tagoira, Persian Gulf ; 2 Shiraz, 1 Shustar, Persia ;
1 Quasarquand, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Boya, 2 Quetta, 1 Wana, 2 Chitral,
N.W.F.P.; 1 Kashmir ; 14 Simla, 1 Keonthal, 1 Patiala, 1 Dakuri (?) 8900’,
1 Bahawalpur, 1 Ludhiana, 1 Delhi; 1 Joshinathi, 1 Chamoli, Garhwal, U.P. ;
1 Kaira, 1 Dwarka, 2 Cambay, | Baroda, Gujerat ; 3 Nasik, 3 Bombay, 2 Thana,
1 Kolaba, 1 Poona, 3 Khandala, 2 Panchgani, 1 Malwan, 1 Sawantwadi; 1
Coonoor, 1 Kurnul, 2 Madras; | Baghowni, Tirhut, | Rajputtee, Saran; 1
Phalut, Darjeeling; 1 Dimapur, 1 Imphal, Manipur; 2 Upper Burma, 1
Yarkand, 2 Peking, China.

‘The two from Peking are both males, one in first year and the other
in adult plumage. The former is as dark as objurgatus but with a duskier
and more smoky effect. The adult can be compared with others from
India. With the material and literature available, I am unable to sepa-
rate interstinctus from tinnunculus in the large series.

Five of the females including specimens collected by Jones and Capito
have grey heads and cannot be distinguished from males ; this is a charac-
ter not accepted for the nominate race.

Three females from Panchgani and Madras (2) collected in March,
January, February are exceptionally red above.

224 Falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Baker) (Ootacamund, Nilgiris)
Indian Kestrel 34165

8:44¢6399 10?
2 Bhimashankar, 1 Lohgarh Fort, Poona ; 4 Kodaikanal, 1 Palnis.

These birds can be picked out from the large series by their darker
colour both above and below. The three males from the Palnis in
different plumages, differ from the others in having rufous thighs, a
character not visible in any of the others of this and other races.

(to be continued) [59]

A new Begonia from East Nepal

C. R. Rao

Botanist, Soil Conservation Research Demonstration &
Training Centre, Chatra (Nepal) '

(Communicated by Prof. P. V. Bole)

(With a plate)

Begonia tribenensis sp. nov.

Affinis B. modestiflorae Kurz, differt tamen inflorescentia breviore
ramosioreque, foliis omino orbicularibus, solitariis vel binis e tubere ;
caulibus aereis nullis.

Herba tuberosa generatim folio solitario. Tuber solitarium, oblon-
gum, 6-9 mm. diam., brunneum. Radices rarae, graciles, 2-3 cm.
longae. Folia 10°5 cm. diam. orbicularia, nervis palmatis et praecipuis
in medio furcatis ; petioli 2°5 cm. longi, rosei. Flores masculi: Sepala
2;7 mm. longa, carinata, glabra, marginibus subundulatis, nervis 8-10.
Petala 2};7x4 mm. alba, obovata, marginibus subundulatis, 3-nervia.
Pistillodium nullum. Stamina 28, monadelpha, clavata, paulum in-
aequalia, filamentis brevibus, antheris 1 mm. longis, bilocularibus,
pollinis granis linearibus. Flores feminei: ignoti. Fructus: Capsula
tribus alis ornata quarum una apiculatior ; alae 1°3 cm.x6 mm. loculi
3, singuli divisa placenta ornati ; tepala papillosa.

Typus, Rao 342 A. lectus in via a Barakshetra ad Tribeni ad altit.
130 m. in dist. Sunsari in Nepalia orientali die 6 julii anni 1963 et
positus in BLAT. Rao 342 B, isotypus positus in herbario Begoniarum
Asiaticarum Professoris E. Irmscher ad Hamburgum in Germania Occi-
dentali. Paratypi, Rao 832 A, 832 B, lecti eodem in loco die 30 julii,
1967, positi in BLAT.

Begonia tribenensis sp. nov.

Allied to B. modestiflora Kurz, but differs in having shorter and more
branched inflorescence, leaves all orbicular ; usually one or two from a
tuber. Absence of an erect leafy stem.

Mostly single-leaved tuberous herbs. Tuber single, oblong 6-9 mm.
diam., brown. Roots few, thin, 2-3 cm. long. Leaves 10°5 cm.

m
ij

J. BoMBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)
Rao: Begonia

Begonia tribenensis sp. nov.

A NEW BEGONIA FROM EAST NEPAL 725

in diam., orbicular, palmately veined, main veins forking midway ;
petiole 2°5 cm. long, pinkish. Male flowers : Sepals 2:7 mm. long, keel
Shaped, with slightly wavy margins, glabrous, veins 8-10. Petals
2;7x4 mm. obovate, white, margin slightly wavy, veins 3. Pistillode
absent. Stamens 28, monadelphous, clavate, slightly differing in
length ; filament short; anthers 1 mm. long, dithecous with linear
pollen grains. Female flowers: not seen. Fruit three-winged capsule ;
one wing more apiculate than others, wing 1°3 cm.x6 mm. trilo-
cular, each locule with a divided placenta ; tapels with papillae. (Plate).

Very rare, on rock-cut surfaces, in shade. Flowering: June-July ;
Fruiting : August-September.

Rao 342 A from Barakshetra to Tribeni (2130 m.) Sunsari District,
East Nepal, 6th July 1963 is the Holotype (Blatter Herbarium) ; Rao
342 B Isotype, Professor E. Irmscher’s herbarium of Asiatic Begonias,
Hamburg, W. Germany. Rao 832 A, 832 B Paratypes, Blatter Her-
barium, Bombay. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iam deeply indebted to the Ministry of Food & Agriculture, Govt. of
India, for facilities of work ; to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper, Central
National Herbarium, Howrah, for scrutinising the type material; to
Dr. E. Irmscher, Hamburg, W. Germany, for his critical analysis ; to
Rey. C. Saldhana, St. Joseph’s College for the latin diagnosis and com-
ments ; and to all the staff members of Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s
College, Bombay, for unfailing help in every way.

13

An Introduction to the Study of
Indian Spiders

BY

T. V. SUBRAHMANYAM
(With fourteen text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 65 (2) : 453]

HABITS AND HABITATS OF COMMON INDIAN SPIDERS

Mygalomorphic Spiders

Mygalomorphic spiders can be distinguished at once by the peculiar
articulation of their chelicerae, somewhat squarish and prominent cepha-
lothorax, transverse median groove, leg-like palpi and general sepia or
brown colour of the body. The Indian mygalomorphs are but poorly
known as these spiders are, without exception, nocturnal and remain
concealed in their shelters, under stones and rubbish or holes by the
buttress roots of trees, during the day. Many live in special burrows
lined with silken thread. Some are mere wanderers hiding amidst
debris or under stones. Some live in simple excavations lined or unlined

Fig. 1
A typical mygalomorph Trap door spider

with silk (Fig. 1). Others have deeper holes containing silk tubes which
remain open or are closed by trap-doors.

AN INTRODUCTION TC THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS — 727

Arachnomorphic Spiders

Any open garden or meadow in the country side, margins of rivers
or lakes, with thick vegetation fields and scrub jungles are all excellent
places for collecting spiders.

Family Filistidae. Cribellate spiders represented by the genus
Filistata. The general colour is brownish or yellow. The eyes are
compact, the integument is smooth and the legs somewhat: long and
tapering. These spiders are found in termite runs on tree ‘trunks and
under bark of trees ; also in the deserted nests of Dictynids.

Family Urocteidae. The family is represented by the genus
Oecobius. Members of this genus are small spiders weaving patches
of webs under stones or in holes and angles of walls. In habit they
resemble Dictynids and can be caught likewise. They feed on small
ants and insects. The spider circles round and round the prey and
completely winds it with silk before sucking the juice.

‘Family Eresidae. The large untidy webs of the Indian colonial
-eresids are a common feature along fences, over bushes or attached to
extremities of tree branches. These webs resemble shapeless masses of
‘bath sponge or irregularly folded white rags. From the central per-
“manent web, extensions are often made in the form of loose nets or
sheets. Hundreds of medium-sized spiders can be seen on the outskirts
of a nest especially towards the evening, industriously moving about,
‘some engaged in repairing the snares, others dragging their prey. The
threads constituting the nest as well as the sheet are highly sticky and
any bee or fly coming into contact with them can never escape. The
nest is hollow within and is reinforced by a number of silken strands
closely wound along with dry leaves and carcasses of dead flies. A
number of holes on the surface lead into the nest. When disturbed
‘the spiders immediately withdraw through the holes into the nest.

The fertilized female deposits her cocoon inside a small nest formed
of a few strands. On hatching the young ones enlarge the initial nest
-and the colony increases in number and size from fresh broods. ‘ As
‘the younger generations grow up the older members die or some of
them go off to found another colony ’.

For collection, pull the entire nest and after tearing it shake over
the open spirit jar ; you are sure to obtain enough specimens.

The only genus found in India is Stegodyphus and four or five species
have been recorded. Of these the most widely distributed species is
Stegodyphus sarasinorum. Members of this species are greyish white
With a median white line on the abdomen. Males are darker and smaller.
The size of the female is about 10 mm. and the first pair of legs measure
as much as the body length. This species is common in Kerala, Mysore,

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Madras and in western India. An allied species Stegodyphus socialis
slightly larger in size with the abdomen shiny yellow above and black
below has been recorded from south India, particularly Bangalore.

Two other species recorded from western India are S. mirandus and
S. pacificus. Both are large forms measuring 20 mm. in length. The
former has its carapace and limbs blackish covered with olive black
hairs and abdomen bronze-black above and golden red at the side and

below. The latter is yellowish red, clothed with greyish hairs, legs
banded black and abdomen with a pair of irregular longitudinal black

bands above and at sides.

Family Psechridae. Represented by the Genus Psechrus char-
acterised by the extraordinary length of the first two pairs of legs. P.

alticeps is the common species found in the damp jungles of Kerala.

It is a fairly large spider brownish in colour with long slender legs. It
spins a large, irregular web attached to trees or rocks and sits in the
centre in an inverted position. By the tapping method the spider can
be made to drop into the jar but if your approach is not quick the spider
escapes. |

Family Uloboridae. Represented by the Genus Uloborus. Several
species are included in this genus but a somewhat large one U. geniculatus
(Fig. 2) is very common especially below the thatched roofs of the out-
houses and stables in Kerala districts. U. geniculatus is a pale brown
species, with a tapering abdomen and thin long legs carrying distinct
black spines at the joints. The eyes are set on tubercles. The web is
circular like that of Argyopids with a beautiful flocculent lace-like centre.

Family Dictynidae. Represented by the genera Dictyna and
Amaurobis. Members of the genus Dictyna are small-sized spiders.
Some of them are brownish in colour while some are bright green with
whitish mid-dorsal line on the carapace and lateral lines on the abdomen.
They weave patch like webs of irregular strands on grass and herbage
or in the angles of walls. When disturbed they scurry away. In view
of their small size you cannot straightway tap them into the jar. The
best way will be to gently pluck the leaf on which the animal rests and
to transfer both into the jar. In the case of small forms found in corners
of walls, moisten a piece of cotton with spirit and press it gently over the
spider. The latter adheres to the cotton and it can be easily deposited
into the jar.

Some forms spin untidy webs on leaves and twigs round about their
lair. ‘ The lair is usually concealed in one or two curled leaflets of the
common jungle shrub Clycosmis ’.

Family Sicariidae (Scytodidae). A small group of six-eyed
spiders usually with weak legs and slow, halting, movements. Members

\

Pa

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 729

-of the genus Scytodes are common in India. They are small spiders
measuring 8 to9 mm. inlength. On the carapace there are five or seven
longitudinal dark lines and on the abdomen there are 3 or 4 transverse

Fig. 2

Uloborus geniculatus and its web

black lines. They generally live among foliage by spinning together a
few leaves.

Family Dysderidae. Represented in India by one genus Ariadna.
Often found under stones and on loose soil where they spin long tubes
of soft, but usually tough white silk. The cephalothorax is rather flat
and abdomen long oval ; integument is smooth and soft.

Family Palpimanidae. Characterised by the great develop-
ment of their anterior legs—generally used more for feeling than for
locomotion—are represented by the genus Saracellus—a bright orange
red spider found under stones or tree trunks. Members are small
measuring only from 3 to 5 mm.

Family Zodariidae. Medium-sized or small spiders with tarsus
having 3 claws. Hermippoides arjuna is a medium-sized, round, black
spider spotted white. Sufficia cingulata is a minute spider of 2°5 mm.
running about among dead leaves. Storena bilunifer is a medium-sized

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

dark brown species with conspicuous ochraceous marking on abdomen,
Found among soil and stones under shady trees in jungles.

Family Hersiliidae. Represented by the species Hersilia savignyi,
(Fig. 3) very common on the trunks of avenue and jungle trees. The
colour of these spiders matches that of the tree trunk and they closely
adhere to the tree trunk with spread-out legs thereby concealing their
presence. The collector can detect them by their prominent spinnerets.
At the sight of man the spider moves sideways and when chased circles
around the tree trunk and disappears into some crevice. It is very
difficult to catch a hersiliid by tapping. By spraying a strong insecticide
like ‘ flit’ you can make the spider fall down. It can also be caught
in the fold of your kerchief.

Hersiliids feed on moths and ants and smaller spiders. I have once
noticed the common Garden lizard Calotes versicolor preying on a
hersiliid. As in other hunting spiders the web is also made of a few
threads woven irregularly in the form of a patch over fissures of tree
bark. The cocoon is generally laid in holes and crevices of trees. '

‘ | Hi Weer"
| \ pet | A/T B
! Ni \( Hh Re Ay
| INN iy J He
mh ( tl 1 Sy (I Lf
XS ‘ Gk

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I “4 vif]. » \\
EATON

Fig. 3
Hersilia savignyi A pholcid spider with cocoon

Family Pholcidae. The Indian Pholcids (Fig. 3) comprises of
four well-known genera : Pholcus, Artema, Smeringopus and Crossopriza.
They are very common in unfrequented corners of roofs and rafters of |
outhouses, in caves and hollows of trees etc. Their exceedingly thin
and long legs, prominent abdomen, expansive, untidy webs and the

inverted position in which they suspend themselves, are all characteristi¢

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 731

of this family. In habits all the four genera are alike. The shape of
the abdomen, however, shows great variation. In Artema the abdomen
is fairly round, in Crossopriza short, oval, but prominent posteriorly
above the spinnerets, and in Smeringopus and Pholcus, cylindrical. On
the web being touched, the spiders oscillate their body up and down
like the garden harvestman (Phalangidae) and try to escape by running
or even:shamming death. They can be easily tapped into the jar but
one should do so with care as their legs are extremely brittle. Cocoons
are Spherical and are generally carried in the mouth.

Family Theridiidae. A large but heterogeneous group contain-
ing many small-sized spiders. In many important points of structure
they agree with Argiopids but their webs are always irregular. Theridiids
are common both in corners of houses and among foliage (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
Therid spider and its web

Some curl up dead leaves or construct an inverted wine-glass like silken
tube for their shelter. Several forms belonging to the genus Argyrodes
are commonly parasitic on the circular snares of Epeirid spiders between
the rays of which they spin their own irregular webs. Theridiids are
timid and shy and they can be easily secured by tapping.

Families ,Tetragnathidae and Argiopidae. In these two
families of orb-weaving spiders we come across several interesting and
curious genera which present great variation in size, shape, coloration
and habits. Some species are so small that they cannot be studied
without a lens. On the other hand there is the well-known species
Nephila maculata whose body-length measures more than 2 inches,

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Most of the members weave plain, circular snares suspended vertically,
obliquely or horizontally among plants and shrubs or between branches
of trees. These orb-webs vary considerably with different genera.
Some webs are small with a few radii and spirals ; some are large orna-
mented in the centre with silken lace work and zig-zag lines (Argiope) ;
some have a diametrical line of debris (Cyc/osa) and some are perfect
domes with accessory reinforcements and suspensions (Cyrtophora).
Some genera, e.g., Araneus, Tetragnatha etc. are nocturnal in habits,
whereas Argiope, Cyrtophora, Nephila, Leucauge etc. remain in their
webs permanently and get away from them only when disturbed. In
species like Nephila sexual dimorphism is ‘ greatly pronounced’. There
are long legged forms and short legged ones. Smooth skinned, prettily
coloured species and also those with hard integuments drawn into spines,
tubercles, and prominences. Altogether in view of such wide variations
the collection of Tetragnathids and Argiopids is difficult in some cases
and easy in others.

The more important genera that are commonly found in Bombay
and other districts in western India (including Kerala) are Tetragnatha,
Orsinome, Eucta, Leucauge, among Tetragnathidae and Nephila, Argiope,
Cyrtophora, Cyclosa, Araneus, Herennia, Ordgarius, Gasteracantha
among Argiopidae.

The Tetragnathidae are moisture loving spiders which resemble each
other in general structure and habits. They are common among plants
and hedges especially on vegetation fringing pools, tanks and wells and
among grass and herbage growing in water-logged localities.

The extraordinarily developed chelicerae, the cylindrical abdomen
and the long, slender legs stretched fore and aft in linear fashion dis-
tinguish the genus Tetragnatha. Generally nocturnal, the spider leaves
its orb-web during the day and hides on the underside of a leaf or grass
blade. At dusk, however, it comes out of its hiding place, repairs and
reinforces the web with fresh threads and occupies the centre.

There are about ten species of Tetragnatha recorded from India and
Tetragnatha gracilis (Stoliczka), T. mackenziei Gravely, T. mandibulata
Walck., T. viridorufa Gravely, and T. cochinensis Gravely are commonly
found in western India.

The disposition of the eyes, the nature of the chelicerae and the
arrangement of the spines over them vary widely in the different species
and are of taxonomical value.

T. gracilis has its lateral eyes prominent and the fangs and the mandi-
bles comparatively short. The ‘total length (carapace and abdomen)
does not exceed 12 mm. Common in jungles, and even during the dry
months of April and May they are found in large numbers on the wither-
ing twigs of garden plants. One peculiar habit of this species is that it
constructs its web on either side of a small twig, the twig itself forming

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS _ 733

a diametrical reinforcement of the web. The colour of the spider
invariably matches that of the twig and it is difficult to spot the creature
‘when it sits stretched along the twig. But as these spiders are chiefly
nocturnal they can be seen towards sunset actively repairing the old or
constructing new webs around the small terminal branches of plants.
It appears that this species prefers plants with sparse leaves to those
with thick foliage for the construction of the webs.
<In T. mackenziei the abdomen is greyish and carapace and legs
yellowish green.

T. mandibulata (Fig. 5) is another common species found on plants
overhanging pools and tanks. The spiders generally hide under grass
blades or along twigs, stretching their legs in the characteristic
tetragnathid fashion. Fully grown specimens measure 13 mm. The
fangs are well developed and provided with two small teeth. The general
colour is brownish yellow.

Fig. 5

Tetragnatha mandibulata

T. viridorufa is a nocturnal species found among leaves and twigs
of jungle trees. The abdomen is long and tubular, more or less squarish
in cross section. The sides of abdomen are coloured green whereas the
dorsal side and legs are reddish brown. Males and females do not
differ much in size. While mating they grasp each other by their
chelicerae. The female tucks her abdomen towards her mate while the
latter injects the sperms into her orifice applying his right and left palpal
organs alternately during the act of copulation,

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

T. cochinensis has a slender but long body measuring about 12 mm.

A common species found usually hiding under plantain leaves is
Eucta javana Thorell (Fig. 6). It has a pair of weakly toothed chelicerae,
long slender legs and a very remarkable abdomen produced behind the
spinnerets into a long tapering ‘tail’. Ariamnes similans recorded from
Calcutta resembles E. javana in general shape but its tail and abdomen
are green in colour with silvery and yellowish brown markings. The
general colour of £. javana is pale brown.

Orsinome marmorea Pocock resembles E. javana but has a rounded
abdomen. About the habits of these spiders Dr. Gravely states
‘O. marmorea spins large and more or less horizontal webs between rocks
above rapidly running streams at an altitude of about 1500 ft. in the
Cochin Ghats. Several webs are usually grouped together ; often they
are stretched above waterfalls. When the spiders are disturbed they
fall into the water, which washes them away. When they reach a rock
they cling to it, and remain an inch or two below the surface till danger
is over. Males and females were sometimes found together in the middle
of a web with their heads in contact. Presumably they were pairing
but I had not time to investigate this fully ’.

The genus Leucauge includes several interesting species measuring
6 to 12 mm. in length. All of them possess a row of long hairs on the
femur of the 4th pair of legs. The body is beautifully coloured with
shining silver over a greenish black background. They are chiefly grass
spiders building oblique or horizontal webs and sitting at the centre in
an inverted position. They are mostly diurnal and their mating habits
are similar to those of Tetragnatha. Cocoons are long and egg-shaped
and are attached to leaf blades or leaves on which the spider sits.

The following species are recorded from India: Leucauge fastigata
(Simon) ; L. tessellata (Thorell) ; L. celebesiana (Walck.) ; L. ventralis
(Thorell) ; L. culta (Cambr.) ; L. decorata (Blackwall) ; and L. bengalensis
(Gravely). :

In Bombay L. decorata (Fig. 6) is found in large numbers in shady
places among bushes and herbage. The abdomen has a pair of black
coloured tubercles, or shoulders at the anterior end. The posterior
end of the abdomen is also black. Rest of the dorsal side, and the flanks
are silvery with a few longitudinal black stripes. In fresh specimens
_the silver tint is sometimes mixed with an additional pubescent tinge
of yellow giving it a golden appearance. On the ventral side the anterior
portion is bright green and posteriorly there are silver dots over a black
background. Legs and carapace are light green, striped black at the
joints. The spinnerets, claws, and the hairs on the legs are, black.
Chelicerae are brownish yellow. |

The Argiopidae includes some large-sized forest dwelling forms of —
the genus Nephila, Under this genus four species are recognised but

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 735

the one commonly found in western Indian jungles, especially during
the rainy months, is Nephila maculata or the Giant Wood Spider (Fig. 7).

/

WA Me

Fig. 6

Leucauge decorata Above: Different types of abdomen of Leucauge sp.
Below: Eucta javana

The female is verily a giant among spiders, with a body measuring more
than 2 inches in length and #? inch in breadth. When the legs are
stretched fore and aft they cover a length of about 6 to 7 inches. The
abdomen is an elongate, truncated cone, black with longitudinal yellow
stripes on the dorsal side or orange patches on the ventral side. The
spinnerets are prominent and form a brown rosette. Above this there
is a deep red rosette. Legs are also black, decorated with yellow dots
at the joints. Mandibles are brownish-black or reddish. Males are
insignificantly small and dull-coloured. In no other group of spiders
is the disparity in size between the sexes so greatly marked. The web
of the female is a giant wheel with a hub, radii and spirals, geometrically
woven within strong boundary lines attached between trees. The spider
generally sits in the centre of the web. To catch a Nephila is not very
difficult. With a long hook pull the web and down comes the spider.
Being a slow runner it can be seized in the folds of a kerchief and dropped
into the spirit jar. Mating and other habits of N. maculata are
elaborately described by Hingston (1922)?.

1 Hingston, R. W. G. (1922) The Snare of the Giant Wood Spider (Nephila
maculaia). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28; 642-649, 911-923 ; 29; 70-76,

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

N. malabarensis Walck. (Fig. 8), is common in Malabar but rare in
Bombay. This species stands between N. maculata and Araneus. The

Fig. 7
Nephila maculata Gasteracantha brevispina

total length of this species is only 25 mm. The abdomen is oval with
orange or yellow dots. Spinnerets stout and black and carapace is
slightly raised and reddish in colour. Sternum V shaped and yellow.
Legs—femur and tibia yellowish, tarsi blackish covered with fine hairs,
joints striped black and brown. The first pair of legs about four times
as long as the carapace whereas in Nephila maculata it is about six times
as long. The spiders construct expansive orb-webs obliquely suspended
at the angles of tree branches or on the exterior angles of country houses.
Like Araneus, during daytime they remain concealed but at dusk come
out to the centre of the web. The webs are permanent structures not
renewed every night as in the case of Araneus.

Fig. 8
Nephila malabarensis Gasteracantha remifera

The genus Argiope is the most important genus under Argiopidae.
Some eight species are recorded from India and they differ little in
habits. They are found in large numbers soon after the rainy months,
sitting head downwards in the centre of their splendid orb-webs. The
webs are vertically suspended over fences and vegetation, The spider

papeiowales >

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE- STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 737

stretches its legs in the form of a letter X along four rays of the web.
At least two of these rays are ornamented with flossy zig-zag bands.
The size and shape of the abdomen and the colour design on it vary
with different species although as a rule, in all cases the abdomen can
be described as truncate in front and tuberculated at the sides
posteriorly.

Argiope pulchella Araneus hiding in a leaf

In A. pulchella (Fig. 9) which is the commonest species met with in
Bombay, the abdomen is pentangular and banded alternately with brown
and yellow. In A. catenulata the abdomen is truncate oval and orna-
mented with round spots instead of bands.

The male Argiope is considerably smaller than the female and is of
a uniform brown colour. One or two males are often seen in the centre
of their small webs built on the upper outskirts of the female web.

The cocoon of an Argiope is somewhat pentagonal in shape and
slightly yellowish in colour. It is generally attached to the upper side
of the web. Eggs hatch in about three weeks.

The commonest genus of Argiopidae, and the most abundant on
trees and vegetation is Cyrtophora. This genus is closely allied to
Araneus, but differs from the latter in some structural details and habits.
Araneus, (Fig. 9) as a rule, has a round or oval abdomen and normal
and strong legs. In Cyrtophora the abdomen is longer than wide and
provided with four tubercles on the back. The abdomen is beautifully
decorated with silver markings on a greenish black background, and
slightly produced beyond the spinnerets. The legs are thinner and

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

longer than in the case of Araneus and further, they are coloured green.
Araneus iS nocturnal in habit and its snare is a plain orb-web woven
afresh every evening and destroyed early in the morning. Cyrtophora,
on the other hand, is diurnal and its web is a complicated structure of
a permanent nature.

Although two or three species of Cyrtophora are recorded C. cicatrosa
is the commonest of them all. This species is of gregarious habits,
several of them build their webs in the same place, each member with
its individual web remaining a separate entity. The web of C. cicatrosa
can be described as a perfect dome of fine mesh-work suspended hori-
zontally in the midst of a clumsy, irregular tangle of supporting threads
(Fig. 10). The irregular threads are woven first and over these the radii
of the orb are built and then the spirals. From time to time inter-
radials and inter-spirals are laid which account for the fine and closely
woven appearance of the web. The work of raising the centre of the
web is done before the completion of the spirals. Cyrtophoran webs
are described by Dr. Gravely thus *“ Members of the genus Cyrtophora
are remarkable for the extreme complexity of their webs which are
probably more elaborate than those of any other spider. Instead of
all the radial strands extending outwards from the hub, with interspaces
consequently much wider near the periphery than near the centre, addi-
tional strands are inserted so as to produce a web of exceedingly fine
and uniform mesh. Nor is this all, for these webs are supported in a
horizontal position by an extensive network with the help of which the
centre of the circle is more or less greatly raised above the periphery,
thus forming a sort of tent or dome’.

The spider remains at the centre of the dome in an inverted position.
The cocoons are egg-shaped. Eggs are laid in a small silk sheet some-
what greenish in colour, about an inch long and half an inch wide.
The sheet is rolled in the form of an oval cocoon and suspended vertically
right above the centre of the dome. Sometimes several cocoons are
noticed serially suspended one above the other, but these do not belong
to one and the same spider. The lowest one is the property of the
spider living in the central web. Why the other spiders should deposit
their cocoons in the same place where the first spider has placed hers,
is baffling.

The genus Cyc/osa includes several small species, measuring $ inch
and less in length with colour varying from jet black to fine silver. They
have all the characteristics of typical argiopids but can be distinguished
by the raised nature of the caput separated by a groove, the two or more
prominences on the abdomen and a line of debris arranged diametrically
across their vertically suspended orbs (Fig. 11). Their webs are common
in bushes, sometimes near the webs of other spiders. In Malabar their
webs are a common feature among the foliage of mango trees.

gees

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 739

The immense genus Araneus (= Epeira) includes many common forms
for the most part more or less nocturnal and having the same general

l
Gass

Fig. 10
Cyrtophora cicatrosa and its web

form and coloration as the common European garden spider of the
same genus. The colour is often variable, the structure of the vulva
affording the safest means of identification. Members are common

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

among plants and herbs. The best time to collect them is at dusk when
they come out to spin their webs. With sunrise they dismantle the

| m Wyant aN ZEA
) Mage

Fig 214
Cyclosa confraga and iis web

radials and spirals and keep a few radials, the hub and boundary lines
alone intact. I have several times noticed Araneus eating their webs.

During daytime Araneus remains concealed in a crevice, curled up
leaf, or a special shelter built by it near its orb-web. The cocoon is
white and flat, and generally placed near its hiding place. The mother
invariably sits over its cocoon presumably as a protection.

Genus Herennia is another arboreal genus distinguished by the flat
pentagonal abdomen with sharply defined lateral edges. HA. ornatissima
is the common species found in Malabar. The abdomen is yellowish,
ornamented with black spots. The carapace is blackish with yellowish
margin. Legs are long and yellowish. Its orb-web is generally spun
close to tree trunks.

Members of the genus Ordgarius have habits similar to those of the
above or Argiope. The abdomen in this case is very prominent with
a large protuberance on either side. The carapace is convex, armed
above with a few symmetrically placed tooth-like tubercles. Two species
have been recorded, O. hobsoni and O. sexspinosus. In the former the
posterior end of the abdomen is rounded and in the latter it is tubercular
and conical. 3

The genus Gasteracantha includes medium-sized spiders easily recog-
nised by their peculiarly shaped abdomen covered with hard integument,

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 74\

and the comparatively short legs. Abdomen varies in shape, and the
hard integument is drawn into spines of varying sizes in the different
species. Some ten species of Gasteracantha are recorded, and in habits
they all agree with each other. G. brevispina (Fig. 7), G. remifera
(Fig. 8) and G. arcuata are very common in Malabar. They build small
orb-webs in a vertical plane among low plants and sit in them through-
out the day. The spines of G. arcuata and G. remifera are exceptionally
long. Their dull colour and the long spines and integument protect
these spiders from their enemies.

Family Thomisidae. Field spiders dependent on plants and
bushes. Some of them are beautifully coloured. Members are com-
mon inside flowers. The one species commonly found in Bombay is
yellow or orange coloured with pentagonal body. The eyes are curiously
arranged on a ridge. The abdomen posteriorly presents a laminated
appearance. The tarsus of the first pair of legs which are used in’
gripping the prey are strongly spined.

Family Lycosidae. Hunting spiders of dull brownish general
colour. An abundant group common on the ground in open fields,
water-logged low-lying pastures and moist debris. Hippasa, Pardosa
and Lycosa are the three important genera. Lycosids move about in
a zig-zag manner and are difficult to collect. The common Hippasa
pantherina (Fig. 12) unlike the other lycosids builds a conical tubular
web in holes and natural crevices at the bases of trees. They generally
sit at the mouth of their webs but retreat into their holes at the first
sign of danger. For capturing them it is necessary to scoop out the
entire tubular nest.

Fig. 12

Hippasa pantherina Peucetia viridiana
14

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Family Sparassidae. A cosmopolitan family. Many species
occur on tree trunks, under logs, stones, underside of leaves, in moist
debris, in unfrequented corners of houses, in the nooks of almirahs
and shelves etc. The common large House Spider found on walls and
behind photo-frames, carrying a round biscuit-like cocoon, Heteropoda
venatoria (Fig. 13) belongs to this family. Many other heteropodids
are either of outdoor or cavernicolous in habits. Palystes flavidus
(a green species) and Olios tener (light cei are commonly sciatth:
among leaves.

ORE

Fig. 13) ,
Heteropoda venatoria

Fainily Cc lubioni fda €. Common ini ‘bushes residing in curled a
leaves. Some are also found among dead leaves and debris and inside
fissured bark at-bases. of ts ees,

Family Oxyopidae. >. group of grass spiders easily detected by
their conical abdomen, strongly spined legs, and raised head. Two
species of the genus Peucetia, P. elegans and P. viridiana (Fig. 12) the
former with abdomen yellowish brown with white streaks and the latter
greenish’ dte very Common among herbage and ears of grass.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS 743

Family Attidae. Jumping spiders of medium size presenting dif-
ferent coloration and forms. They occur everywhere. On tree-tops
and trunks, along walls and fences, on open ground, inside houses,
sometimes inside garden flowers, and in hundreds of other places. Genus
Plexippus (female brown and male ornamented with blackish design
on the carapace and abdomen) is very common on walls. Many arboreal

Fig. 14 |
Ant mimicking attid Plexippus sp. Scorpion mimicking attid —

forms are protectively coloured in metallic blue or green. Some are
excellent mimics. In one species the abdomen is elongate and thin and
the first pair of legs enormously developed so that it resembles a minia-
ture scorpion. The famous ant mimic spider Myrmarachne is included
in this group. Attids can be easily recognised by the protuberant
anterior median eyes directed forwards and the elevated cephalothorax.

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov. from
Subansiri District, N.E.F.A., India

BY

A. R. K. Sastry 3, 8S. K. KATAKI?, PETER Cox, PATRICIA Cox,
AND P. HUTCHISON 3

(With two plates)

A new species of Ericaceae, Rhododendron santapaui, is described from
Subansiri, North East Frontier Agency.

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov.

Affinis R. kawakamii Hayata, a quo differt forma et apice foliorum
subverticillatorum ; inflorescentia 2-flora ; ovario dense lepidoto ; capsula
multo longiore, lepidota. does

Frutex epiphyticus, 0°5-1°5 m. altus ; ramuli graciles, 'patentes,
teretes, scabridi ; rami juniores dense lepidoti, squamis albidis, circu-
laribus c. 0°25 mm. in diam., deciduis, internodia 3-8°5 cm. longa ;
cataphylla 1-2 infra folia, c. 5 mm. longa, subulata, lepidota, decidua.
Folia subverticillata, 8-12 (15) in verticillo, subsessilia, elliptica vel
elliptico-lanceolata, 2-4°5<0°5-2°0 cm., coriacea, ad basin attenuata,
ad apicem acuta-subobtusa, breviter apiculata ; folia juniora utrinque
dense lepidota ; folia matura supra nigro-viridia, rugulosa, subtus albo-
Virentia, sparsim infra brunneo-punctato-lepidota, ad margines integra,
hyalina, recurva cum sicca; costa eminente, supra impressa, subtus
porcata; nervi laterales 3-4-jugi, supra impressi, subtus obscuri ;
petioli c. 3 mm. longi. Jnflorescentia terminalis, umbellata, 2-flora,
bracteata ; bracteae plures, ciliatae, 5-8 x 3-6 mm., exteriores parvae,
ovato-lanceolatae, longe aristatae, interiores magnae, deltoideae, cupu-
lares, glumaceae, cuspidatae ; pedicelli 1-2 cm. longi, graciles, leviter
arcuati, dense lepidoti. Alabastra albida, pyriformia, c. 12 mm. longa.
Calyx patelliformis, 1:5 mm. longus, 2 mm. latus, extus dense lepidotus,
undulate 5-dentatus, persistens. Corolla cereo-candida, carnosa, cam-
panulata, 1°5-2°5 cm. lata ad os, tubo 3°5-8 mm. longo, 3-6 mm.
diam., sparsim extus lepidoto, intus glabro, piloso ad faucem ; lobis 5,
sparsim lepidotis extus, rotundatis vel late oblongis, 6-8 5-8 mm.,

1 Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey of India, 76 Lower Circular
Road, Calcutta-14.

2 Kastern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Shillong-3.

3 Sandyhall, Glendoick, Perthshire, Scotland.

a) a

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I
Sastry : R. Santapaui

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov.

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE II
Sastry : R. santapaui

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov.

a. Habit. b. Flower. c. Bracts: outer and inner. d. Stamen. e. Pistil.
f. Capsule, dehisced. g. Scales on the lower surface of leaf, enlarged.
(a-e A. R. K. Sastry 45720; f. A. R. K. Sastry 42112A.)

RHODODENDRON SANTAPAUI SP. NOV. : 745

subacutis vel obtusis, erecto-patentibus gradatim evadentibus reflexis.
Stamina 10, subaequalia, 12 mm. longa, exserta ; filamenta albo-pubes-
centia ad medium ; antheris eburneis, oblongis, 2°5 mm. longis, 2-poris
ad apicem, poris brunneo-annulatis. Ovarium ovoideum vel ovato-
oblongum, 52°5 mm., 5-porcatum, dense lepidotum; stylo crasso,
5 mm. longo, declinato, sursum leviter ampliato, glabro; stigmate
truncato ; disco annulari, 10-lobato, glabro. Capsula oblonga, 3 cm.
longa, gracilis, stricta, parietibus tenuibus praedita, 5-valvis, sparsim
_ lepidota, longe pedicellata; pedicellis capsula longioribus.

Holotypus, A. R. K. Sastry 45720, lectus ad Begi in distr. Subansiri,
ad alt. c. 1540 m. die 23 maii, 1966, positus in Herbario Nationali
Centrali (CAL). Paratypi, A. R. K. Sastry 42112 A-C, lecti inter
Saling-Hakhetari in dist. Subansiri, ad alt. c. 2300 m., die 21 apr. 1965,
positi in Herbario Kanjilal ad Shillong (ASSAM).

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov.

Allied to R. kawakamii Hayata, from which it differs in the shape
and apex of the subverticillate leaves ; 2-flowered inflorescence ; densely
‘scaly ovary ; much longer, scaly capsule.

Epiphytic twiggy shrub, -0°5-1°5 m. high ; twigs slender, spreading,
terete, scabrid ; young shoots densely scaly ; scales white, circular, c.
0°25 mm. in diameter, deciduous ; internodes 3-8°5 cm. long ; cataphylls
1-2 below the leaves, c. 5 mm. long, subulate, scaly, deciduous. Leaves
subverticillate, 8-12(15) in a whorl, subsessile, elliptic or elliptic-
lanceolate, 2-4°5 x 0°5-2'0 cm., coriaceous ; base attenuate, apex acute—
subobtuse, shortly apiculate; young leaves densely scaly on both
sides ; old leaves dark green, rugulose above, pale green, sparsely brown
punctate-scaly beneath ; margins entire, hyaline, recurved when dry ;
midrib prominent, impressed above, ridged beneath ; lateral nerves 3-4
pairs, impressed above, obscure beneath; petiole c. 3 mm. long.
Inflorescence terminal, umbellate, 2-flowered, bracteate ; bracts many,
ciliate, 5-8 x3-6 mm., outer small, ovate-lanceolate, long aristate,
imner large, deltoid, cupular, glumaceous, cuspidate ; pedicels 1-2 cm.
long, slender, slightly curved, densely scaly. Flower buds white, pyri-
form, c. 12 mm. long. Calyx saucer-shaped, c. 1‘5 mm. long, c. 2 mm.
broad, densely scaly outside, undulately 5-toothed, persistent. Corolla
waxy-white, fleshy, campanulate, 1:5-2°5 cm. wide at mouth; tube
3°5-8 mm. long, 3-6 mm. in diameter, sparsely scaly outside, glabrous
inside, pilose at throat ; lobes 5, sparsely scaly outside, rounded or
broadly oblong, subacute, or obtuse, 6-8 mm. x 5-8 mm., erect
gradually becoming reflexed. Stamens 10, subequal, c. 12 mm. long,
exserted ; filaments white-pubescent in the middle; anthers creamy,
oblong, c. 2°5 mm, long, 2-pored at apex; pores ringed in brown,

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Ovary ovoid or ovate-oblong, c. 5X2°5 mm., 5-ridged, densely scaly ;
style stout, c. 5 mm. long, declined, slightly enlarged upwards, glabrous ;
‘stigma truncate; disc annular, 10-lobed, glabrous. Capsule oblong,
c. 3 cm. long, slender, straight, thin-walled, 5-celled, sparsely scaly,
long pedicellate ; pedicel as long as capsule.

Holotype, A. R. K. Sastry 45720, collected from Begi, c. 1540 m.
alt. in Subansiri district, on 23 May, 1966, is in the Central National
Herbarium (CAL). Paratypes, A. R. K. Sastry 42112 A-C (A & Bin
fruit, C in flower) collected in between Saling-Hakhetari, c. 2300 m. alt.
in Subansiri district, on 21 April, 1965, are in the Kanjilal Herbarium,
Shillong (ASSAM).

This new species is dedicated to Rev. H. Santapau, as a token of
our regard and appreciation of his devoted service in the cause of taxo-
nomic research and promotion of floristic exploration in India.

This rare epiphytic species was first collected in late fruiting stage
(Sastry 42112 A & B, C & H 459) from Subansiri during April 1965
by a joint expedition of Botanical Survey party of A. R. K. Sastry and
S. K. Kataki and the 3-member British team of Peter & Patricia Cox
and P. Hutchison. The latter have noted this find in their account of
the expedition in THE RHODODENDRON AND CAMELLIA YEAR BOOK
(1966: 73). Alive plant (Sastry 42112 C) was introduced into: the
‘Woodlands > Compound, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle,
Shillong, and flowered during September, 1965. A preliminary study
‘showed this to be a new species, allied to R. kawakamii Hayata from
Formosa. On a subsequent exploration during May, 1966, a careful
search for more plants of this species yielded just two in the vicinity of
Begi, which were introduced and reared in ‘ Woodlands’ in as near a
natural habitat as possible (except for its epiphytic nature). One of
these flowered during July, 1967 (45720), enabling confirmation of the
earlier tentative inference of its being a novelty. In the meanwhile
Mr. Peter Cox also reported in a letter that plants of this species intro-
duced in 1965 into his garden in Glendoick, Perthshire, flowered about
September, 1967.

Flowering in this plant is a protracted process, the young flower
buds covered with bracts appearing in October, 1966, and ultimately
flowering in July, 1967. The bracts fall off, revealing the white pear-
shaped flower buds which later on open into a waxy white campanulate
corolla, with the prominently ringed anthers protruding in its centre.
The corolla lobes later become reflexed and after anthesis the entire
corolla readily drops off. Though lacking the flamboyance of large
flower trusses of other Rhododendrons, this midget shrub with its young
shoots pinkish in contrast to the older dark green foliage and the gemi-
nate waxy white, starry flowers, holds promise of an elegantly ornamental
Rhododendron,

RHODODENDRON SANTAPAUI SP. NOV. 747
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely thank Prof. H. Hara, Tokyo University, for his kind
and prompt supply of the type photograph and the original description
of R. kawakamii Hayata ; Mr. R. H. Davidian, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Edinburgh, for scrutiny and confirmation ;,and Dr. S. K. Mukherjee,
Keeper, Central National Herbarium, for preliminary comparison. We
are indebted to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of
India, for the Latin translation and to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist,
Shillong, for his valuable suggestions. 7

Reviews

1. THE BIRD FAUNAS OF AFRICA AND ITS ISLANDS. By
R. E. Moreau. pp. viii+424 (15x25 cm.), with numerous maps, tables
and photographs. Academic Press, London & New York, 1966,
Price 100s. 3

This is a comprehensive ecological geography of Africa based on
the bird faunas inhabiting the various climatic and vegetational zones,
interpreted mainly in the light of geological evidence, whose value in
recent years has been so vastly enhanced by radiocarbon and other
dating techniques. The author’s personal experience and intimate
familiarity with African birds and natural environments, and his erudi-
tion and power of incisive analyses, have combined to make the book
a truly classical achievement. The multifarious factors relating to the
different physical features and habitats and their characteristic bird
faunas are critically analysed, the general discussion in the book resting
mainly upon the composition of families and the number of species in
each. It is postulated that most of the present-day genera probably
already existed by the Pleiocene, but many species may have been
different. The absence of bird fossils in Africa, as elsewhere, is the
greatest handicap in ageing species. Though the continent has been
one of the most stable land masses of the earth, vast ecological changes
have evidently occurred here repeatedly within the last 20,000 years due
to alternation of glacial and interglacial periods and consequent vicissi-
tudes in climate.

The twenty chapters cover a very comprehensive range of topics :
the geography and environments of Africa and past history of the con-
tinent, followed by descriptions of the bird faunas of Mediterranean
and Saharan Africa, the composition and affinities of the Ethiopian as
compared with extra-Ethiopian bird faunas, the montane and lowland,
forest and non-forest bird faunas, etc. Two chapters—one dealing with
bird migration within the Ethiopian region (chiefly controlled by the
rainy season and food supply) and the other, the Immigrant Palaearctic
Bird Fauna—are of special interest and fascination. The former is
reminiscent of much of the local migratory movements that take place
within our own area—the Indian subregion. As regards Palaearctic
migration, the view formerly held that birds to and from southern Africa
avoided the hazardous Sahara crossing by flying along the coasts or
along the narrow corridor of the Nile Valley is fast being dispelled. .
There is accumulating firsthand evidence now of regular migration on

REVIEWS 749

a broad front, at all longitudes, over more than a thousand miles of the
inhospitable waterless Sahara desert—even by water-birds. This again
is in conformity with what we are realizing in India today in the case
of the High Himalayas, 6nce postulated as an impassable barrier for
central Asian migrants—thus somewhat discounting the ‘ river-valley
route ’ theory which formerly held sway.

The penultimate three chapters discuss the bird faunas of Mada-
gascar and the other east coast islands of Africa, and the subject of
insular avifaunas in general. The final chapter admirably sums up the
author’s views and conclusions, chapter by chapter.

Moreau’s contributions on African ornithology are all characterized
by refreshing originality and ecological approach, by their thought-
provoking and suggestive quality, and the fascinating way in which he
marshalls, analyses and synthesizes his data. The present book is an
epitome of these virtues, though it must be admitted that to one un-
familiar with the physiography of Africa it often makes rather heavy
going ! To appreciate its excellence, the help of a good physical map
of Africa at the reader’s elbow for ready and constant reference is indis-
pensable. Numerous distribution maps of Africa interpolating forest
types and various bird species, and tabulated lists analysing the presence
or absence of bird families in the compared regions, help to clarify the
topics discussed; the several excellent photographs, especially in
Chapter 1, of typical African biotopes will bring home to the Indian
reader a graphic realization of the close similarity that exists between
African environments and many of his own.

S. A. -

2. KHUMBU HIMAL, Volume 2: Beitrage zur Okologie der
Vogel zentral-und ost-Nepals. By Gerd Diesselhorst. With 40 black-
and-white photographs and figures, and a loose folding map. pp. 420
(26x19 cm.). Universitatsverlag Wagner Ges. M.B.H., Innsbruck-
Miinchen, 1968. Price DM 36.00, US $ 9.00.

There was a long hiatus in the ornithology of Nepal after Hodgson
ended his two decades of classical collection in 1843 or thereabout.
For nearly a century thereafter Nepal virtually remained a closed book
to outsiders and only the advent of a more liberal regime permitted an
upsurge of the pent-up interest in the avifauna of the country. Within
the last two decades or so the birds of Nepal have enjoyed the special
attention of a succession of competent investigators, among whom
Mrs. Desirée Proud, Walter Koelz, Dillon Ripley, Biswamoy Biswas,
‘and Robert L. Fleming deserve particular mention. The significant
contributions on Nepal ornithology by Ripley, Fleming (jointly with

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

Rand and Traylor), and Biswas went a long way in bringing the post-
Hodgsonian record up-to-date. The volume under review is a further
addition to the basic literature on Nepal avifauna though it covers
more particularly only the Sherpa province, of Solu and Khumbu in
NE. Nepal and the central and south-eastern parts of the kingdom.

The basis of the present report is one of the series of German scientific
expeditions under the ‘ Research Scheme Nepal Himalaya’ undertaken
to study the ecology of this selected area in its widest aspects—glaciology,
geography, meteorology, botany, zoology, and ethnography. The entire
project, spread over a six-year period (1960 to 1965), was planned and
organized by Prof. Dr Walter Hellmich of Miinich (who is also the general
editor of the various volumes), and sponsored by the Fritz Thyssen Foun-
dation. The ornithological party led by Dr Gerd Diesselhorst was in
the field for about nine months between February and November 1962,
and collected and/or acquired some 2000 bird skins in all. The main
body of the report is in German, but a useful English summary at the
end gives the general background for those not too proficient in the
language, and indicates the main topics dealt with—Climate, Past and
Present Vegetation, Vegetational Zones, Forest Fauna, Non-Forest
Fauna, Alpine Fauna, Altitudinal Distribution, Bird Populations, Breed-.
ing Seasons, Moult, and Migration : in other words the complete ecology
of the birds of Nepal.

The opening chapter introduces the country and its physiography,
giving reference to recent ornithological investigations, the itinerary of
the Diesselhorst expedition, description of the various collecting localities,
and analyses of the bird life by vegetational and altitudinal zones and
on zoogeographical considerations—percentages of components of the
avifauna as Palaearctic, Oriental, and so on. The systematic list which
follows covers 31 families and some 361 forms. Valuable data are
provided particularly on Habitats and relating to the specimens collected,
such as the state of gonads and plumage, moult, and in many cases the
stomach contents and weights. Therefore it seems all the greater pity
‘that measurements have been omitted. It is not often that opportunities
are vouchsafed for handling such fine series of authentically sexed speci-
mens particularly of proved breeding birds. Measurements, it is felt,
would have added very considerably to the value of the data. ©

_ Calls of birds transcribed on paper usually only accentuate the in-
adequacy of this method for those who have never actually heard them.
Moreover, the same call rendered by a German-speaking and an English-
speaking observer often tend to be so vastly different that the two versions
are difficult to reconcile even for those familiar with the call. Tape-
recording is of course the only answer, but how to co-ordinate tape-
recordings in a meaningful way with printed text for the layne ds a
problem that continues to defy solution, : .

REVIEWS at 751

Among the bits of new information tucked away here and there in
the text is the first definitive proof concerning the breeding biology of
the Indian Honeyguide, Indicator x. xanthonotus, of which nothing was
definitely known. A specimen collected by the author on 7 May had
a mature ovary with a distended oviduct indicating that the bird had
laid. An unshelled egg in the oviduct and enlarged ovarian follicles
further suggested that probably five is the total number of eggs laid by
the bird. The Honeyguide is believed to be brood-parasitic on barbets,
but no first-hand information as regards its breeding biology in India
is available.

_ Happily the nomenclature employed in the list is agin that of
Ripley’ S SYNOPSIS, our latest checklist, to which Indian ornithologists
are gradually becoming acclimatized. Two notable departures are
Casmerodius for Egretta in the case of the Large Egret, and Cecropis
for, Hirundo in that of the Redrumped Swallow. Whatever may have
been considered the overriding claim of these names over the ones
adopted in the sYNopsis and generally understood, they will certainly
help to confuse the lay reader !

‘The report is, in many ways, a model of what such reports should
be. It will stand as a very useful reference source and a welcome
addition to the existing literature on Nepal ornithology. The illustra-
tioris of biotopes typical of the various altitudinal zones are purposeful
‘and well chosen. Many of the photographs are superb, and all ‘are
excellently reproduced in the text though the art paper on which it is
printed throughout makes the volume rather weighty and inconvenient
to handle without a rest.

SA...

3. FLOWERING SHRUBS. By B. P. Pal and S. Krishnamurthi.
pp. xiii+155 (21x13 cm.). 41 plates, in colour and monochrome. New
Delhi, 1967. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Price Rs. 20.

_.FLOWERING SHRUBS, by B. P. Pal and S. Krishnamurthi, belongs to a
series of books on ornamental gardening now under publication by the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Dr. Pal, at one time Director
of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute and an ornamental horti-
culturist by predilection, and Dr. Krishnamurthi, who retired from ser-
vice as Director of Agriculture, Madras, come to the task with ample
qualifications. 7

: ..The authors confine themselves to enumerating a number of orna-
mental plants suitable for growing in Indian gardens, giving brief parti-
culars about them, such as their origin and distribution, a general des-
‘cription, information about methods of propagation, hints regarding

7152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

cultivation, &c. They say nothing about gardening processes, assuming
that their readers will either be acquainted with them already or have
access to books dealing with the subject ; this was perhaps inevitable in
a book of this size.

About 90 plants are dealt with under their specific or generic names,
but numerous other species are referred to in the text, making probably
more than 200 in all. Anyone wishing to put a splash of colour into his
garden, therefore, has a plentiful selection of plants to choose from.

There are 41 illustrations, all but 5 of them in colour. I would have
wished for many more illustrations, even if only line drawings, to in-
dicate not only the form and nature of the inflorescence but also the
shape and size of the plant itself, information that is very important when
one is planning a garden. The reproduction of colour, unfortunately,
leaves much to be desired.

For quick reference, Appendix I lists among other points : flower
colour, season of flowering, and method of propagation. A second
appendix lists the English and regional names.

D.E. R.

4. FIGS OF HONGKONG. By Dennis S. Hill. pp. viii+130
(17°5x24°5 cm.) with 178 diagrams and 65 plates. Hongkong 1967.
Hongkong University Press. Price HK $60.

This is a most informative book on Ficus species of Hongkong and
is based on data collected by the author during his entomological re-
searches on Fig-wasps for about three years in Hongkong. Both the
insects and the host trees were studied in great detail by the author from
systematic and ecological stand-points. This necessitated keeping many
plants under regular observation and examining many samples of figs
in making the insect collection. In total, several hundred fig samples
were examined from nearly two hundred different plants, during 3 year
period.

It was found that each species of Ficus had its own species of Agao-
nidae in its figs. A preliminary examination of the wasps found, in-
dicated that the vast majority were completely host specific.

This book embodies the thesis for Ph.D. degree submitted by the
author. It gives the objective of the work—the systematic and ecological
study of the Figs and Fig-wasps of Hongkong ; the methods used and a
general account of the genus Ficus together with a list and key to. the
species of Ficus occurring in Hongkong. Each species and variety,
following the treatment of celebrated E. J. H. Corner—an internationally
‘renowned authority on the systematics of the genus Ficus, is described
under the headings—habit, habitat and distribution, with the help of

REVIEWS | 753

excellent drawings, pie-diagrams and distribution maps. Phenological
observations are given very carefully and vividly. The insects recorded
or reported earlier or absence of such records are clearly indicated.
Photographs of each species of Ficus together with comparative diagrams
of fruits and leaves of all the species together at a glance, provide very
useful data for identification. Synonymy given in a tabular form—not
quite traditional—does serve the purpose quite adequately. Two of the
chapters give synoptic reviews of Fig-wasps in general and in Hongkong
in particular.

There is an extensive bibliography of 337 references covering most
of the important literature of figs and fig-wasps. This is undoubtedly
an ideal model for similar studies in many other regions where figs are
distributed. It is of special significance to India where similar careful
studies of figs can be undertaken. It is an inspiring work for those who
would like to undertake studies of interdependence of plants and insects.

BP. Vi.B.

5. HANDBOOK OF ROCK GARDENING ON THE HILLS.
By P. Kachroo. pp. 90 (20x14 cm.). New Delhi, 1968. Indian
Council of Agricultural Research. Price Rs. 5.20.

This book, meant for the amateur gardener, consists for the major
part of a descriptive list of plants for the rock garden, preceded by ten
short chapters dealing in general terms with the subject of rock gardening.
{Some useful hints are given under the chapter-headings: Planting and
Care.] The list is very comprehensive. A short description is given of
each plant, with particular attention to the size of the plant, the time of
flowering, and the nature and colour of the flowers, together with occa-
sional gardening hints. The illustrations, in colour and monochrome
and line drawings, are well chosen to give an idea of the foliage and
inflorescence. _ | ; |

D. E. R.

6. INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL BOTANY IN INDIA.
Vol. I By G. V: Chalam and J. Venkateswarlu. pp. xiv-+460 (16 x 24 cm.)
with 68 line drawings and 45 photographs. Bombay, 1965, Asia Pub-
lishing House. Price Rs. 34.

As Dr. M. S. Swaminathan in his excellent introduction to this pub-
lication states, it is but appropriate to express our gratitude to Dr. G. V.
Chalam and Prof. J. Venkateswarlu for the trouble they have taken to

754. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

provide the student: and the research worker a-window into. the fascinat-
ing world of agricultural botany. The book-is blessed by the Central
Minister of Agriculture in an appropriate foreword and dedicated to
Dr. B. P. Pal— the doyen of Agricultural Botany in India’ as a-token
of regard for his significant contributions to agricultural. botany. |

The first three chapters of the volume explain the process of repro-
duction in plants, principles of genetics with .reference to plant. breed-
ing and plant breeding procedures in general. This very valuable in-
formation is explained in a simple way for all students of Botany. © The
remaining seven chapters deal with cereal crops like Rice, Wheat, Barley,
Oats, Maize, Sorghum, Bajra, Ragi and other millet crops... Each ‘crop
is treated comprehensively dealing with morphology, anatomy, floral
biology, physiology and genetics of various varieties under. cultivation
in India.. At the end of each chapter, important references.on the topics
treated in the chapter are listed for research workers. . The topics. are
very well illustrated by line drawings which are well conceived and care-
fully executed. The photographs are also clearly reproduced. |

This volume thus presents excellent—undoubtedly the best so far—
consolidated botanical account of a very important section of agricultural
cropsin India. Considering the importance of agriculture in our country,
this publication fulfils a sorely felt lacuna. This book must.be read by
all students of Botany as well as by others in order to understand the
complexities of the problems of crop improvement in India. Indeed
this publication is the most welcome addition to the literature on agri-
cultural botany and the authors and publishers deserve: our congratula-
tions for bringing it out. 7

The second volume dealing with Oil seeds, Pulses, Fibres, Spices and
Tubers announced to be published in 1966 is anxiously awaited.

oP VoBr

7. SALINITY AND ARIDITY—NEW APPROACHES. TO- OLD
PROBLEMS. Edited by H. Boyko. pp. viti+408 (17°5x24°5 cm.).
Frontispiece and 37 figures. The Hague, 1966. Dr. W. Junk Publishers.
Price $16.65. Dutch Florins 60.

_ This publication is the 16th Volume of MONOGRAPHIAE BIOLOGICAE
published under the general ceroieyle of P. van Ove by the samé
publishers.

The arid and semi-arid areas cover Ree niaee one- thitd of the landa mass
of our globe. With aridity is generally associated saline soil and saline
waters, but the problem of salinity is not restricted to arid zones alone.
This book embodies some experiences in productivising deserts and
browing of plants by irrigation: with sea water.. ‘The experiments

REVIEWS Sem TE NADS ogg 5

described in the book show that tolerance of most plant species is raised
several times if the soil, is dune sand. Salt water of high concentration
and in some cases even sea water can be used to productivise vast areas
of shifting dunes and other sand covered areas. A few examples from
the many described in this book show the possible economic and social
influence of these experiments. Of interest to us in India are the results
achieved with wheat and also experiments with various plants in Israel.

This book is divided in three parts. Part I—General—contains-3
articles. The first gives an introduction, a summary and an outlook
on Salinity and Aridity by Dr. H. Boyko, an authority of world renown
on desert ecology, who has been connected with UNESCO and other
international bodies. The second article is a review of Vegetation and
Salinity by V. J. Chapman, another international authority on the subject -
of physiology and distribution of plants of saline regions. - The third
article by P. C. Raheja deals with a survey of soils and land use which
ends with a very optimistic picture of improving saline soils. All these -
articles contain very valuable lists of references. ah

Part II contains nine articles on principles and experimental. work.
The first article deals with ecological principles of plant growing -by
irrigation with saline water and the second with observations on plant
growth under saline conditions. Six more articles in this part deal with
experimental work in Israel, India and W. Germany. The last article
in this part is a summary of the UNESCO-WAAS symposium held in
Rome in September 1965. ,

Part III of the book contains a study of plant and animal life in a
salt lake region in Utah, USA. This is followed by an index of plant
and animal names and agricultural products.

This publication, an excellent production, leaves one with a feeling
ofthe stupendous task that still remains to be accomplished to solve the
problems of population pressures on the saline and arid land mass on
the surface of our earth. One cannot help feeling that it would be more
beneficial for us to direct more man-power and finance to this work
rather than land some one on the moon. a

(Pi y

8. OF PREDATION AND LIFE. By Paul L. Errington. pp.xii+
277 (15°5X23°5 cm.). With numerous drawings. Iowa 1967. Iowa
State University Press.

The author’s observations relate largely to bobwhite quail, grouse and
muskrats of North Central U.S.A. which he studied over several de-
cades, but it appears reasonable that the conclusions he reaches must
apply equally to life and predation in general. . Pye :

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Cyclic population explosions have been recorded among snowshoe
hares, grouse, muskrats, meadow mice etc. These follow periods when
food is plentiful and weather conditions favourable. Similarly, severe
winters affecting food supply, diseases, floods etc. seriously reduce the
population. However, most species of animal life that do suffer such
depletion have the resilience to recoup in numbers in a fairly short time.

The increase in population in a territory which can provide cover
only for a certain number results in territorial fights and the have-nots
deprived of shelter, and consequently exposed, become easy prey for
predators. The effect of predation is marginal on a population that has
adequate habitat.

Overcrowding leads to a rapid decline in the birthrate. Overcrowded
muskrat females produced one litter in a breeding season compared to
four litters under ideal conditions. Muskrats. which are generally tole-
rant, during these population explosions become highly irritable, and
even cannibalistic.

‘Most predators are adapted to exploit a wide variety of prey. The
Horned Owl for example is not averse to taking a young fox or acat when
it has not succeeded in finding more innocuous prey and that predators
have to work quite hard for a living will be evident from Gustav Rude-
beck’s observations in southern Sweden. For the bird-hunting European
Sparrow Hawk, he recorded a total of 22 victims taken in 500 completed
attacks and attempts at seizure. |

The relative scarcity of predators is illustrated by a study made in
an area of southern Michigan which showed ninety-six hawks of six
species and sixty-three owls of four species that had below them in the
‘Pyramid of numbers’ about 360,000 small to medium sized mammals
and birds.

Through in-built population control mechanisms and predation,
nature maintains a balance. This balance is upset when there is human
interference leading to the destruction of cover resulting in the exposure
and consequent extermination of various species of birds and mammals.

Sentimental animosity to certain predators, like for example wolves
which play an important role in controlling the Caribou population in
northern America, has led to their mass destruction by employing air-
craft to drop poisoned bait in remote areas. Golden Eagles, although
legally protected are nevertheless subject to persecution even in Scan-
dinavia where people are so conservation-minded. No predator is so
numerous as to be a menace to justify such senseless persecution. Fan-
ciful ideas of transferring species to regions where they are exotic have in
many instances been harmful to the native species.

An interesting opinion that the author expresses concerns his doubt
whether biological control on a large scale will be as successful as it is
convincingly shown to be in some controlled experiments.

REVIEWS | 757

Dr. Errington quite rightly deprecates the tendency to justify the
existence of this or that species solely on economic grounds and feels that
it is a public responsibility to safeguard what can be saved of wilderness
areas before the great push of humanity.

This informative book would have been more readable if the statis-
tics in it, of which there is a fair amount, could have been presented in
tabular form instead of being narrated which makes it somewhat soporific.
The pen ink illustrations are quite attractive.

GS, R.

9. THE TERRITORIAL IMPERATIVE. By Robert Ardrey.
pp. 390. Delta book (paper back) TM 755118. New York, 1968. Dell Co.,
Inc. Price $ 2.45.

Mr. Ardrey’s first career was writing plays. Later he was sent to
Africa to write a series of magazine articles and while there became in-
terested in discoveries made by anthropologists on the early evolution
of man and his ancestors. The result was his first book, AFRICAN GENE-
sis, in which he drew not only from information gathered by anthro-
pologists studying fossils, but also by zoologists studying live animals.
His interest continued and deepened and resulted in the publication of
THE TERRITORIAL IMPERATIVE which bears the subtitle A Personal inquiry
into the Animal Origins of Property and Nations.

He has read a great many books and papers dealing with animal
behaviour and attempts to put this information together in a way which
demonstrates his thesis on the origin of property and nations. It has been
said by some reviewers that he has an economic or political axe to grind.
That is so. It is also true that at times he allows his strong feelings on
the subjects to mar the objectivity and continuity of his argument. And
occasionally he becomes overwhelmed by his sense of the dramatic, or
the humorous, and loses the sympathy of the critical reader.

But the book should not be dismissed merely because of these faults.
His ideas are interesting and provocative.

His thesis is this: Man’s behaviour, since he is an animal, is basically
that of other animals (this idea is not far from that of Sigmund Freud,
although he reached different conclusions). Further, Ardrey continues,
one of the basic behavioural traits of most higher species is territorialism
and this traitisshared by man. Territorial animals defend an area against
intrusion by members of the same species. The size of the territory, the
duration of its defence, and the number of individuals involved in the
defence vary greatly from species to species. The male Uganda Kob,
for instance, defends only a small area of a few hundred square feet, and
that only during rut. Some primates, such as the howler monkeys, live

15

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)

in bands which occupy and defend larger areas On-a more or less per-
manent basis.

The Darwinian idea of males competing with other males for mates
has been modified (as discussed by Wynne-Edwards in his ANIMAL DIS-
PERSION IN RELATION TO SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR). It is now generally recog-
nized that males, be they Uganda Kob or robins, are competing for a
territory, a space which contains, or will contain, a female, or as Ardrey
puts it, they are ee for real-estate:

_Ardrey sees man’s territorialism expressed on the individual level
(‘my house’, ‘ my farm,’ ‘ my coat’), on the family or group level, and
finally on the national level. Modern nations have Le counter part
in some species of primates. — Mi
...-Along with man’s innate. fesFitérlakismn te displaced: man’s ebay
innate tendency to intrude upon his neighbour’s territories;. the biological
basis of war. Like several other people who have thought about the
subject, Ardrey believes that if-a trait is innate; or instinctive; we cannot
tid ourselves of it: The only hope is to offer alternative outlets for
man’s aggressive tendencies. He calls for tire ritualization of v war ‘so
that it becomes harmless.
~~ Even the most vociferous’ critics ‘of Ardrey will admit that there are,
if fiothing else, parallels between the behaviour of other animals and man
‘regarding territory. The real question is, of ‘course, is ‘man actually
‘territorial 7 ~Ardrey is ‘convinced that he is and he has, I believe, voiced
an opinion, no matter how shaky his logic might’ be at tintes; which
‘has been held nebulously ‘and silently by many ethologists for the last
‘decade or 80. When I look at the jealousy with which I guard my desk,
my home, my family, my nation, I suspect’man is territorial. Pérhaps
| Ardrey’ S book will help’ to stimulate more e intensive examinations of the
question.

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10. TRACKS. By E. A. R. Ennion and N. Tinbergen. pp. 63
(28X21 cm.). With numerous photographs | and drawings. : Oxford,
1967. Oxford Wales sibs. Press. Price 25s. net, U.K.

The title TRACKS, in its ‘brevity. and clarity, is in keepitig’ with the

: brevity and clarity ‘of the text that accompanies the beautiful photo-
graphs of Professor Tinbergen and the delightful coloured drawings of
Dr. Ennion that help to make them more readily ‘intelligible: A’ fore-
taste of the feast i in store is given by the natterjack toad Painfully’ sci aiw-

ling his picturesque ‘tfail across the dust cover: ~

4 One, cannot watch” animals—I use thé term in its’ ‘widest Serise—all
the time arid in‘all places.” This book shows how much oné Cait, Tearn of

REVIEWS Ba “. -9§9

their doings and of their ways by merely studying the little traces they
leave behind them in their movements, in the day and particularly during
the night.
Less than 30 words ee to give meaning to a trail across a Ging:
rippled sandflat and help us to picture exactly how it was formed by a
gait we all know, a rabbit hopping slowly along. About 40 words, aided
by a coloured drawing, bring to life the track of a rabbit moving quietly
forward and scared away by a sudden alarm. A similar track left by
an oystercatcher on wind-rippled sand indicates a change of direction of
the wind since the ripples were formed. Sometimes the drawing alone
suffices and words are unnecessary (pages 24 and 25).

This is a book that should be in the hands of all young persons, to
rouse their interest in nature and, if they are already interested, to guide
them towards intelligent observation. And it should be carefully perused
by every grown-up also.

D. E.R.

11. MIMICRY IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. By Wolfgang Wickler. Tran-
slated from the German by R. D. Martin. World University Library
pp. 153 (19x12cm). With 52 illustrations. London, 1968. Weidenfeld
and Nicolson. Paperback. Price (in UK only) 16s net.

Since Henry Bates in 1862 first formulated his ideas on the pheno-
menon of mimicry, the concept of mimicry has been much developed.
In addition to Batesian mimicry, the mimicking of a protected by an un-
protected form of life, we now speak of Millerian mimicry where two
or more protected forms resemble one another, Mertensian mimicry in
which a deadly form mimics a less dangerous form, and aggressive or
Peckhammian mimicry. Or mimicry may be of an unprotected form,
for example certain trematode larvae mimic a water-flea in order to be
swallowed by a fish and so continue their cycle of life. In another form
of mimicry the male of an African Cichlid fish, by means of a pattern of
eggs on its anal fin, induces the female to swallow water in which he has
spawned and so to fertilise unfertilised eggs which she has already taken
into her mouth for brooding. The subject is vast and full of compli-
cations and- overlapping. The -signals by which deception is effected
may be of various kinds, visual; acoustic, tactile, behavioural. Mimick-
‘ing may even be by a group, for example a group of Fulgorid bugs mimics
an inflorescence, or a collection of marine worms a sea-anemone. -In a
mimicking species the males may: be non-mimetic and at the same time
‘the mimetic females: may be polymorphic and modelled upon more than
‘one protected species.-- Several signal transmitters may mimic a com-

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

mon model or models, the mimicry being Batesian at one end and
Peckhammian at the other. Several signal receivers may be involved,
each responding to a different signal or combination of signals. Often
it is difficult to decide which is the signal receiver concerned, and to deter-
mine which of the signal transmitters is the model and which the mimic.
These are only some of the possibilities. Hence, it is difficult to estab-
lish the theory by rigid proof and mimicry is still a matter of controversy.
The subject, together with the allied phenomenon of camouflage or
cryptic colouring, is discussed by the author in all its complexity, and the
manner in which the phenomenon may have evolved is considered.
Numerous illustrative and instructive examples are cited and an account
is given of the research done towards establishing the theory. The
book is tough reading for the layman but is intensely rewarding. The
text is accompanied by numerous good illustrations.

D. E.R.

12. GALAPAGOS. ISLANDS OF BIRDS. By Bryan Nelson. pp. xx+338
(23 x15 cm.). 57 Photographs in 24 plates, a map and numerous text-
figures. London, 1968. Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd. Price 50s.

A trained birdwatcher can spend his time usefully anywhere. The
seemingly unco-ordinated movements of flocks of sea birds wheeling
over the ocean, or the peculiar postures adopted by individuals when
they settle on land are all pointers which lead him along the road of
discovery. He does not know in the beginning, whether the data he
is collecting can be assembled into an integrated essay at the end of his
study, or whether it will be an unconnected series of observations. The
more perspicacious the observer, the less his observations will be wasted,
and everything he sees will become grist to the mill of his keen mind.
This is the feeling one gets while reading this entertaining and scienti-
fically written account of the birds of the Galapagos islands. Eighteen
months of arduous work on a waterless island could only be sustained
if the author knew that he was doing something valuable, and adding
substantially to the existing knowledge of world ornithologists.

Many naturalists would be incapable of doing the work they do
unless they were both emotionally and physically supported by their
wives during their expeditions, and Bryan Nelson acknowledges that
without the aid of a wife who was ‘field assistant, cook, secretary,
companion and critic’ he could not have continued his work for so
long on an uninhabited, waterless Galapagos Island. So dry is this
place, surrounded by the oceans, that mocking birds were very often
seen pecking at the cloaca of boobies, and blood drinking by these

REVIEWS Cu 761

passerines showed how short they were of liquids. The plight of the
ornithologist couple can be imagined. |

The Sulidae, gannets and boobies, are a family belonging to a large
order Pelecaniformes (Pelicans, boobies, gannets, cormorants, darters,
tropic birds, frigates). This book deals mainly with the redfooted,
white, bluefooted and Peruvian boobies, but there are most interesting
accounts of other birds like albatrosses, gulls, mocking birds as well.
The author’s erudition sits lightly upon him, but his easy style cannot
entirely conceal the arduous grind which these studies must have involved.
Banding, weighing, measuring, recording hundreds of nestlings before
breakfast every morning, waiting for hours on end to see how often the
nestlings are fed and handling unpleasantly oily gannet nestlings, can
become unbearable chores after the initial excitement of the first few
days are over. The author’s capacity to sketch as ably as he writes is
a great asset. Many situations which can be conveyed to the reader
by a sketch cannot adequately be expressed in words: for example
‘A male red-foot momentarily aggressive to the female, eliciting slight
withdrawal ’, ‘ Blue-foots mutual sky pointing’; ‘frigate up-ending a
white booby’. A few strokes of the pencil give an excellent represen-
tation of a Galapogos hawk carrying off a Darwin finch, while a dozen
sketches, of the waved albatross and white boobies, and swallow-tailed
gulls reveal their courtship patterns and threat postures in just one
double page each. These sketches make the book lively and interesting
in a way which the fine writing alone could not have done, and this
again goes to show how many qualities a naturalist must have before
he can produce a really worthwhile book.

The most interesting part of a book of this nature, at least to this
reviewer, are the generalisations, the formulating of ecological principles,
the determining of the relationship between birds and their specific
environments. Why has the Redfooted Booby for instance, evolved
into an arboreal bird in spite of its webbed feet ? Was it because of its
short tarsi which makes it easier for it to hop on branches rather than
progress on the ground? What is the advantage of whiteness to a sea
bird ? Apparently it is less visible to fish than a dark form, but then
why have dark forms survived at all, and are the dark forms predo-
minantly nocturnal or crepuscular in their hunting habits ?

Being surrounded by vast numbers of gannets and boobies the author
had an excellent opportunity to see the differences in their habits, and
to find out which of these species were better adapted to their harsh
environment. In spite of the so called abundance of the seas there were
‘days when a young booby had to wait five days before its parents returned
from their foraging expeditions (This incidentally means that the author/
wife had to keep between them a round-the clock vigil for 5 days to see
what was happening.) The death rate is absurdly high and in one case

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VWol. 65 (3)

92% of the eggs failed to produce an adult bird. The author suggests
that the lack of food is responsible for nature’s harsh scheme of keeping
only so many birds alive in any particular area.

Bryan Nelson has set a standard of ornithological writing which not
ny will be able to achieve. . :

Zk.

13. PESTICIDES AND POLLUTION. By Kenneth Mellanby.
pp. 221 (22x15 cm.) 14 illustrations. London, 1967. Collins.
Price 30s net.

The problem of pollution of the air, water and land has received,
as it should, increasing attention during the last decade. Rachel Carson,
apparently, overstated, the case against synthetic chemicals, but there is
no room at all for complacency, and in arriving at a balanced view, this
book, written by the Director, of the Nature Conservancy’s, Monks:
wood Experimental Station, will play a valuable part. :

It is cheering to learn that the Oxygen content of the air is so high
that smoke, dust and overcrowding cannot lead to'serious consequences
for the human race. The housewife will be driven to desperation by
soot blackening curtains and furniture, and white sheep will become
black around smoke infested industrial zones, but the damage does not
go any deeper than this. The 2111 recording instruments spread. over
Britain indicate that in heavily industrialised areas about 2 Ibs. of grit
and dust fall on every square yard. In rural areas the figure may be
less than a tenth of an ounce. Sulphur dioxide produced by burning
oil is more of a health hazard, but the worst offender is the 3000 tons
of lead emitted with the exhaust gas of cars in Britain.

Carbon dioxide is another gas which can cause serious damage. At
the present rate of burning of ‘fossil fuels’ the Co, content of the
atmosphere may be raised by 25%, and this may have the catastrophic
consequence of melting the polar ice cap and submerging a great part
of the land surface of the world. Not enough is yet known, however,
about this factor, to justify an alarmist view. An interesting side effect
of pollution of the atmosphere by man is the evolution of melanic races
of moths which are adapting themselves to their new dark environments.
The Peppered Moth (Bison betularie) is a case in point.

As far as wild life is concerned, generally, man has to be more bavartil
with keeping the water from contamination for the quantity of oxygen
in water is much less than in the air, and any damage has deleterious
effects on all aquatic forms. |
_ Though atomic radiation is a factor which has caused the atest
concern to the human race in recent years, it appears from what: the

=

REVIEWS 763

author writes that the present quantities of radio-active pollution is on
a very small scale compared even to the intensity of solar radiation.
In terms of rads the total radiation from cosmic, rays, from rocks, and
from within the. body amounts to. about 0°1000, while the radiation
from atomic explosions and waste disposal amounts to only °0016.

The author discusses in a very convincing’ manner the effects of
pesticides and insecticides on various forms of wild life, and on the
environment in general, and pleads for more scientific research as well
as for more positive action by all citizens to arrest the growing pollution
of our environment. | '

Zak.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. TAXONOMIC STATUS OF ROUSETTUS SEMINUDUS
(GRAY): (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPIDAE)

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Fulvous Fruit Bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest,
i820) and the Ceylon Fruit Bat, R. seminudus (Gray, 1870) are very
difficult to separate. Jerdon (1874), Dobson (1876) and Blanford
(1891) considered them as conspecific. On the other hand, Andersen
(1912), Wroughton (1918), Tate (1943) and Ellerman & Morrison-
Scott (1951) treated them as separate species. Recently, Brosset
(1962, p. 10) was uncertain of their correct taxonomic status and
wrote, in reference to R. leschenaulti, ‘conspecific with Rousettus
seminudus.’ 7

In an attempt to settle the taxonomic status of R. seminudus, I
made a thorough study of all the specimens of these two species
available in the Zoological Survey of India and my findings are
presented below.

MATERIAL

The following material was examined :—

Rousettus leschenaulti: 9 33, 7 22 (preserved in spirit) and 8 dd, 6 99 (skins
from India and Burma. ;

Rousettus seminudus : 1g, 2 99 (preserved in spirit) and 1g, 13 99 (skins) from
Ceylon. )

OBSERVATIONS

Rousettus leschenaulti and R, seminudus are said to differ from
each other on coloration, amount of fur on the nape and shoulders,
length of the forearm and the presence or absence of the upper first
premolar.

Coloration :
According to Gray (1870), in R. seminudus the coloration of the
upper side is chestnut brown (grey brown of R, leschenaulti), and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 765

that of the upper chest white, tower chest and belly pale brown (fulvous
ashy of R. leschenaulti).

In the dry skins of both species, however, the coloration of the
upper side varies from yellowish brown to dark brown and that of
the underside wood brown. As the coloration observed by the
earlier authors and myself do not agree with one another, it seems
that this variation may be individual or due to sex, age, season, age
of skin, etc.

Amount of fur on the nape and shoulders:

Andersen (1912) stated that the nape and shoulders are semi-
naked in R. seminudus, but in R. leschenaulti the fur in these regions
is not unusua!ly scarce.

An examination of my specimens reveals that the amount of fur
on the nape and shoulders is variable, and that semi-naked nape and
shoulders are found in specimens of both species.

Lensth of the forearm:

The length of the forearm in R. seminudus has been given as
79-85 mm., and that of R. leschenaulti 80:5-87°5 mm. (Andersen
1912). However, as may be seen from the measurements given by
Andersen (1912) and those of my specimens (Table), there is
complete overlap in the length of the forearm of the two species,

The Table also shows that there is no difference in the measurements
of other external characters of the two species.

Upper first premolar :

Andersen (1912) found that the upper first premolar was present
in the adult of R. leschenaulti but absent in that of R. seminudus.
Although Wrouvhton (1918) did not say anything about this tooth in
R., seminudus, Phillip (1935) found it present in his specimens of this
species. From an examination of my specimens, however, I find that
this tooth is present in all my examples of both the species except in
one of R. seminudus (Z.S.1. Reg. No. 16684, 9, Kandy, C. P., Ceylon)
and one of R. leschenaulti (Z. S. 1. Reg. No. 17952, co, Kumaon,
U. P., India).

Furthermore, the shape and size of the skulls of the two do not
differ and their cranial measurements (Table) are exceedingly close.

From the above cbservations it is clear that there is no character
by which the two species can be separated from each other.
Rousettus seminudus (Gray 1870) should, therefore, be considered a
synonym of R. leschenaulti (Desmarest 1820),

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

766

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ACKNOWLEDLGEMENTS

IT am grateful to. the Director, Zoological Survey. of India, for

facilities for this work.

I am also greatly indebted to the Bombay.

Natural History Society, for lending me their material of R. seminudus
for study, and to Dr. B. Biswas for kindly going through the manu-
Script and offering valuable suggestions.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
8, Linpsay STREET, CALCUTTA-16,
November 20, 1967.

Y. P. SINHA

REFERENCES

ANDERSEN, K. (1912): Catalogue of
the chiroptera in the British Museum. I,

Megachiroptera. British Museum,
London.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1891): The fauna
of British {ndia. Mammalia. Taylor

and Francis, London.

BrosskT, A. (1962) : The bats of Central
and Western India. Part I. J. Bombay
nat, Hist. Soc. 59 : 1-57.

Dosson, G. E. (1876): Monograph
of the Asiatic Chiroptera. Indian
Museum, Calcutta.

ELLERMAN, JR. & MorrIison-SCoTT,
F.C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

Gray, J. E. (1870): Catalogue of
monkeys, lemurs and fruit-eating bats.
British Museum, London.

JERDON, T. C. (1874) : The mammals
of India. John Wheldon, London.

PuHILLips, W. W. A. (1935): Manual
of the mammals of Ceylon. Colombo
Museum, Colombo.

TATE, G. H. H. (1943) : Pteropodidae
(chiroptera) of the Archbold collections.
Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist., 80: 331-347.

WROUGHTON, R. C. (1918) : Summary
of the results from the Indian Mammal
Survey. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 25:
547-598.

and Indian mammals. British Museum,
London,

2 NOTES ON BARKING DEER. MUNTIACUS
MUNTJAK (ZIMMERMANN)

In the July-August issue (1967) of Hornbill Newsletter some
comments on the coloration of newly born barking deer aroused my
interest and brought back to mind: some observations, of nearly fifty
years ago! In the distant past I frequently observed and collected
barking deer in several parts of India and frequently kept them as
- In the Western Ghats my observation go back many years, in the
Naga Hills, Assam and: Northern Burma (Chindwin Expedition, 1935),
the base of the Himalayas and in some areas of southern India my
observations were more restricted in time. |

Normally, the Muntjac is a.solitary animal ae the ene part of
the year, both by day and by night, but the sexes come together for
a short interval during the breeding season. I have seen family

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

parties composed of a pair of adults with one, rarely two, young
(one young at a birth appears to be more normal) moving round
together. While in Burma in 1935 1 shot a specimen in January (1935)
at Nanyasaik which, I discovered later, contained a well advanced
foetus. A couple of days later I secured a fine male with excellent
antlers for Burma—I believe, just short of the record head. At the
time I was sitting under a fruiting Banyan Tree (Ficus bengalensis)
waiting for specimen to ‘turn up’, this method I always found the
most profitable when co!lecting specimens whether mammals or birds
when time was available instead of crashing through the jungle.

Barking Deer appear to be more crepuscular or even nocturnal in
their habits, seldom moving round during the day unless disturbed.
When on the prowl, for specimen at night with a powerful electric
headlight, I have frequently put them up in the beam of the torch,
their eyes glowing like large rubies. For a time they would stare,
inquisitively, trying to discover the source of light, then, with a sudden
loud bark dash away—warning the whole neighbourhood. On
occasion the anima's would just slink away noiselessly and vanish
into the darkness. In addition to the well-known bark Muntjac
produce a faint, but distinct whistle, like some other deer do; lastly,
there is the controversial ‘clicking’ sound which some observers suggest
is produced) by the canine teeth; my own belief is that this last sound
is made by the tongue on the palate for I have heard it made by
captive animals when I have been quite near, the jaws were not
moved at the time the sound was uttered, however, the point still
needs further investigation and observation.

I have had many young Muntjac brought to me by villagers and.
also caught by the ‘Kathkaris’ when out with them hunting—young
of all ages, but never have I seen spotted young. The large foetus
obtained during the Chindwin Expedition is probably available and
could be examined. Young deer and antelope are frequently very difficult
to determine and could, at times, be easily confused, particularly when
secured in the absence of the adults.

Spotting, as is well-known, is a disruptive colouring and. occurs
under varied conditions in adults or young (or both) of many species
which inhabit the spangled light of open jungle or dense grass country.
The behaviour of animals displaying such patterns is generally in
keeping with their colouring—‘sudden freezing’ when alarmed. How-
ever, camouflage is a complex subject and I do not propose to discuss
it at length here—it is best understood by those who have experienced
it and understood the biotics of the animals so protected.

However, it must be remembered that the Muntjac and the Four-
horned antelope (Tetraceros) frequently border one another’s terrain

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 769

and the identity of the young presents a problem. Likewise the
muntjac and chital frequently become close neighbours and here again
the uninitiated could frequently confuse the young in the absence of
the parents.

The Muntjac also inhabits the same terrain as the Sambar (Cervus
unicolor): in both these animals, as far as my own experience goes
the newly born are not spotted. However, the young of these two
could not possibly be confused because of size and texture of hair.
Spotting in dense forest dwellers would tend to endanger the young
and expose them more readily to predators. Without labouring the
subject any further, I believe that the newly born young of the
Muntjac are unspotted. I have not observed anything to the contrary.
The photograph of two young taken at Khandala, W. Ghats in May
of 1918 supports my view the young are immaculate at birth in the
_ W. Ghats. 3

8, Kiwi STREET,
HERETAUNGA, CHARLES McCANN
NEW ZEALAND,
March 20, 1968.

3. THE NILGIRI TAHR, HEMITRAGUS
HYLOCRIUS OGILBY

(With two plates)

The Nilgiri Tahr is found in the high hill ranges of south India,
the main area being the Nilgiris, Anaimalais, and the Western Ghats
south to Cape Comorin, at elevations of 4,000-8,000 feet. In the Nilgiris
they are now more or less confined to the south-west edge of the
Kundahs from Sispara Pass along the edge of the escarpment north
to Mukurti and Nilgiri Peaks.

Here an almost sheer ciiff drops 2,000-3,000 feet down from the
plateau of rolling grass covered hills to the thick jungle clad
valleys below. In the early morning small herds of Tahr numbering
anything up to twenty, may be found grazing on the grassy slopes at
the edge of the escarpment, and if left undisturbed may lie up on
these hills throughout the day and continue feeding again in the late
afternoon. However, if they are disturbed they will quickly move
over the edge of the escarpment, scrambling and leaping down the
steep gullies to lie up on some sheltered ledge below. In areas where

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

there is continued disturbance it is rare to find them lying on the
high ground during the day. These herds consist of young males,
females and kids of all ages as there is no set breeding period, the
kids being dropped throughout the year. The old ‘Saddlebacks’
are solitary animals, preferring to feed and lie-up on-their own away
from the main herds, particularly during the hot season. |

The exact status of the Tahr is somewhat uncertain. In 1963 the
Nigiri Wild Life Association carried out a, survey in the Nilgiris and
arrived at an estimate of 400 animals, and since that time they
believe they have at least held their own, and that there might have
been a slight increase in numbers. A rough estimate of just over
4000 has also been made for the other areas of this range. These
figures may be inaccurate, and it seems essential that an up-to-date
census should be undertaken to establish their true status so that
appropriate action can be taken to ensure their survival.

At the present time they are reasonably safe in certain areas of
their range in the Nilgiri Hills. Approach from the south and west
is practically impossible due to the steep escarpment with its thick
jungle clad lower slopes, whilst from the plateau itself a four to
five hour walk keeps out those who like to poach from car or jeep,
and so there is little poaching in these areas. The few ‘Saddlebacks’
taken out under licence by sportsmen have little impact on the herds,
and their reports on what they seé are of great value to the Nilgiri
Wild Life Association. Unfortunately this state of affairs is not
likely to last long. In the last few years dams have been erected
in the Nilgiris for irrigation and hydro-electric schemes. New
villages created for the construction gangs and their families remain
in spite of the work having been completed. A policy of afforestation
of the hills with wattle and eucalyptus is altering the habitat, and
far worse, forest roads are being extended nearer and nearer tahr
areas.

In one area I visited, planting had reached the agit of the
escarpment, spoiling the tahr feeding grounds. Whilst on our way
we passed over one hundred people constructing a toad to within
half-a-mile of this area where temporary hutments had been erected.
The only hope for the survival of tahr in these areas is to persuade
the State Government and Forest Department to leave a belt of
grassland along the edge of the escarpment and to keep the areas
as inaccessible as possible.

For us to see the tahr to their best avenge: in January 1968.
‘afrangements had been made to camp in one of the more remote
tahr areas. We drove out from Ootacamund, passing Emerald Lake
and on to Avalanche, where a further lake has recently been damméd,

J. BompBay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) PLATE I

Willett : Nilgiri Tahr

Above : Shola Forests below Tahr habitat ; Below : Typical Tahr country.
(Photos: J. A. Willett)

J. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) Prare; Tt

Willett : Nilgiri Tahr

Above: A tahr ‘sentinel’; Below: A herd on the grazing grounds.
(Photos: J. A. Willett)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 774

the surrounding countryside either being under cultivation or planted-
up with wattle. Soon we came to the end of the track where we
were met by our Shikari “Old Joe’ and his helpers. Loading our
equipment on their heads we moved off in single file down a narrow
track and soon left the wattle behind. The country consisted of grass
covered rolling hills, with dense woods running up the steeper and
more sheltered valleys. ‘These sholas afford cover for the black
Nilgiri langur, sambar and muntjac. At one point we found some
old pug marks of a tiger, and were told by “Old Joe’ that one had
been seen in the area about ten days previously though they are
now comparatively rare. After a three hours walk, camp was
pitched in the lea of a shola and some.trout were caught and cooked
for supper. As we set off in the cool of the dawn a reddish tinge
in the sky was soon giving way to brighter light, and by the time
we reached the.edge of the escarpment the tops of the hills seemed
ablaze in the first red rays of the morning sun whilst three thousand
feet below the jungle was still hidden in mists. We spotted our first
tahr grazing near the edge of the cliff and as he had sighted us
he soon moved off out of sight. After a stiff climb we located a
herd of fourteen dozing in the sun, whilst three hundred yards beyond
another group was still grazing. Eventually they moved up and lay
down with the others. There were no ‘Saddlebacks’ present, though
‘there were several younger bucks, and does with kids of varying
ages. :

On a rock overlooking the abyss below an old doe was acting
as sentinel always alert for any approaching danger. After a couple
of hours they got up and started grazing again, and whilst some of
the younger kids playfully chased each other round a rock, two older
bucks sparred together, gently butting their heads, and then suddenly
rearing up to strike out at each other with their forelegs.

Gradually the herd drifted past us and disappeared from view
over the edge of the escarpment. Moving down to get another view
of them I must have been winded by them as suddenly they dashed
past only twenty yards away, leaping on to a rock and away up the
hill as hard as they could go. It was a wonderful experience to see
them so close, and to visit such glorious country before it is completely
ruined by advancing civilization. 7

"MANOR FARM, : : | his Efe
BISHOPSTONE, ~~ JOHN WILLET
SEAFORD, SUSSEX, IATA al
October 21, 1968.

772, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

4. THE GREAT INDIAN RORQUAL BALAENOPTERA
MUSCULUS (LINN.) NEAR PASNI (MEKRAN
COAST), WEST PAKISTAN

A specimen of Great Indian Rorqual was stranded about 5 miles
west of Pasni in June, 1967. The scattered bones of the skeleton
(a few missing) were brought to Karachi by the staff of the Zoological
Survey Department in their Launch TJalash from Pasni with the
assistance of the Provincial Fisheries Department staff stationed at
Pasni. The skeleton is being articulated (the missing bones being
made and fitted) and will be put for display in the Natural History
Museum of the Department at Karachi.

The various measurements of the skeleton are as follows :—

Length of entire skeleton «4 00"
Length of skull without maxilla and mandible ei Me be
Length across Zygomatic arch se Oe ee
Length of ramus of lower jaw PP Ale tro’
Radius of ramus otgits (23 Ae
Length of coronoid process then! “cual 2
Length of Rib—(maximum) vagy LO%
No. of Ribs cyignnel i)
No. of vertebrae aes if

Previous records from West Pakistan: |

Murray ? had indicated that a skull (17’-8” in length and 7’ across
Zygomatic arch) of the Indian Rorqual was stranded on Clifton
beach in 1879.

In 1965, through the courtesy of the Provincial Fisheries Depart-
ment at Pasni, the Zoological Survey Department was able to collect
some pieces of skeleton of an Indian Rorqual from Juddi (near
Pasni), Mekran Coast. The length of ramus of lower jaw is 10°

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Zahid Hussain,
Deputy Director of Fisheries, West Pakistan, Pasni, and other staff
of the Provincial Fisheries Department as well as the officers, staff
and crew of the Zoological Survey Department for their co-operation
and assistance rendered in several ways.

DIRECTOR,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT, M. S. U. SIDDIOI
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN,

KARACHI,

i

September 20, 1968.

1 Murray, J. A. (1884): The Vertebrate Zoology of Sind, P. 41.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES VT

LoS)

5. REDNECKED GREBE PODICEPS GRISEIGENA
(BODDAERT) AGAIN SIGHTED IN WEST
PAKISTAN

With reference to our sighting of the Rednecked Grebe (1967), it
is interesting to record that two birds of this species were sighted
on Nammal Lake in the Punjab Salt Range on September 24, 1967.
They were studied at a hundred yards range through a powerful
telescope. One was in almost full summer plumage while the other
was half into winter plumage though stil! having white cheeks and
throat.

It is interesting to note that this species was first recorded in
Afghanistan on September 17, 1966 (one bird in summer plumage)
at Kargah Lake near Kabul (Niethammer 1967). Also two grebes
im winter plumage believed to be of this species had been seen at
the same place on February 10, 1966 (loc. cit.).

WILDFOWL SURVEY,

11-F GULBERG, Cc. D. W. SAVAGE
‘Post Bac 704,

LAHORE, WEST PAKISTAN,

March 8, 1968.

REFERENCES

NIETHAMMER, VON G. & NIETHAMMER, SAVAGE, C. D. W. (1967): Rednecked
J. (1967) : Neunachweis fiir Afghanistans Grebe Podiceps griseigena (Boddaert)
Vogelwelt. Journal fur Ornithologie sighted in West Pakistan. J. Bombay
108, Heft 1, (1967). nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3) : 555-557.

Houmes, J. R. S., Roperts, T. J. &

6. COTTON TEAL NETTAPUS COROMANDELIANUS
(GMELIN) AND WATER SNAKE

On January 4, 1968, at about 5 p.m. in the evening IJ visited the
village pond at Kihim (Taluka Alibag, Kolaba District). It is a
comparatively small pond, circular in shape, with a diameter of perhaps
a hundred yards. It contains some weeds all round and a great many
white water-lilies. ‘There was a variety of bird life on it, including
a couple of jacanas, dabchicks, coots and a few sandpipers. There
were also 5 or 6 whistlers and 4 cotton teals.

- Watching the cotton teal, I found them playing about with some-
thing that swam in the water. Using my binoculars (Zeiss, Deltrintem,
8 by 30); I saw a water snake swimming round to each one of them,
and as they ducked or swam away, he went to the others in turn.
He made almost a full circle and then disappeared.

16

774. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

I wonder if any of your readers has observed wildfowl playing
about with water snakes in this fashion; and whether they fraternize
with any living things other than their own species.

‘BOMBAY, A. A. A. FYZEE
January 24, 1968.

7. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE LARGE INDIAN
KITE MILVUS MIGRANS LINEATUS (GRAY)

Ripley in the synopsis (1961, p. 43) refers to the Large Indian
Kite [Milvus migrans lineatus (Gray)| as wintering in the plains, but
does not indicate its southern limits, It has been known to occur
around Bombay, and Koelz (1942; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43:29)
obtained 3 females (wings 459, 491, 510) at Londa near Castle Rock,
North Kanara, between 7 January and 13 March 1938.

A few years ago, the Virus Research Centre at Poona sent to
the Society a number of bird skins obtained in Mysore. We now
notice that they include a male (wing 503) of this form obtained at
Annandapuram, Shimoga District, Mysore, on 22 February 1960, by
P. K. Rajagopalan of the Virus Research Centre.

Though North Kanara is now in Mysore, the present record is a
small southward extension of the known range of this bird which is
not included in Sdlim Ali’s BIRDS OF MYSORE.

BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY.

TIORNBILL HOUSE, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD, BOMBAY, J. G. NAIR
April 27, 1968.

8. THE CHICK OF THE RED SPURFOWL
GALLOPERDIX SPADICEA (GMELIN)

(With a plate)

As the chick of the Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin),
_ does not appear to have been described, the following may be of
interest : —

On the evening of 20 May 1968, while we were walking home
from Dhobi’s Waterfall, Mahableshwar, 4000’. Western Ghats, one
of the boys (Azeem Sheikh) in the party drew my attention to a bird
lying among dry leaves in the gutter by the side of the road. An
examination revealed two downy chicks, obviously of a game bird,
lying on their sides and kicking in the air. When picked up they

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 65 (3)

Abdulali

Red Spurfowl

Right, Red Spurfowl

om™m
2
oO
Sq
5
past

z 6

[ we
oO &

(oY 8)

gs
= 3
irs
(oa
Pm
aA
bh]
ae

o)

A
a.

Q
om”
ate
D

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1s

were incapable of standing on their legs and spasmodically threw
back their heads in the way that diseased poultry chicks do. They
were not much more than a day old, and though we took them home,
for no parent was visible, they did not feed or survive. The
specimens have been preserved in the collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society and bear Nos. 22947 and 22948.

No Grey Junglefowl chick is available for comparison, but accord-
ing to Stuart Baker (FAUNA 5: 300) it is similar to the Red Junglefowl
(see figure), which he describes as having ‘a broad central plum-brown
streak from crown to tail and a streak of the same colour through the
eye’ (FAUNA 5:297), except that ‘the lateral bands (are) almost white
and the sides and lower parts dull grey’.

The present specimens have no markings on the head which is
cinnamon-brown. There is a dark sepia-brown band over 10 mm.
wide, along the whole back, bordered by pale cream-coloured stripes
about half the width on both sides. These are again edged with
_ thinner lines of dark sepia-brown on the sides. The wing stubs and
an undefined band across the upper breast are similar to the head,
while the chin and underparts are paler tinged with yellowish. This is
so different from the Grey Junglefowl Chick as described by Stuart
Baker above that I take these to be chicks of the Red Spurfowl.

This also serves to warn us that game birds are subject to diseases
afflicting domestic poultry—see note in Journal, 51:747-748.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,
BoOMBAY-3, | HUMAYUN ABDULALI
July 3, 1968.

Note

Since writing this note I have seen the following description of
'a ‘chick by Sykes (1832) Proc. zool. Soc. London p. 154, which has
so far been overlooked.

Pullus. Fusco-ferrugineus, vittis tribus dorsalibus latis, intermedia
saturate rufo-brunnea, lateralibus flavescenti-albidis. H. A.

9. A FURTHER NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF
CUCULUS CANORUS LINNAEUS

I heard the unmistakable call of the cuckoo (Cuculus canorous
Linnaeus) in a lovely teak forest near Sathanpalli, Khanapur Block,
Adilabad District, Andhra Pradesh on July 24, 1968.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Sathanpalli is just north of the Godavari River, east of Nirmal,
and is at about the same latitude as the Abdulali record of 1954?
in adjacent Maharashtra. According to Ripley, (SYNoPsIs, 1961) the
C. c. canorus Linnaeus form may occur in the hills of neighbouring
Madhya Pradesh and Orissa but to my knowledge this is the first
record of the bird in northern Andhra Pradesh in non-wintering
range.

“TREETOPS’,

MEDCHAL, ‘GEORGE F. NEAVOLL
HYDERABAD DISTRICT,

ANDHRA PRADESH,

August 4, 1968.

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE EUROPEAN BEE-EATER
MEROPS APIASTER LINNAEUS, AT METTUR DAM,
SALEM DISTRICT, MADRAS

While working out a small collection of birds from Salem District,
Madras, made in February 1952 by Dr. K. K. Tiwari of the Zoological
Survey of India, I found two specimens of. the European Bee-eater
(Merops apiaster Linnaeus) from the Mettur Dam area. The
specimens, both adult females, were taken on 20 February 1952.

Standard literature on Indian avifauna does not include southern
india within the range of the species. The present record would,
therefore, extend its range as far south as Mettur Dam area in
Madras State.* !

1 am thankful to the Officer-in-Charge, Bird Section, Zoological
Survey of India, for providing facilities, to study the material.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM, MONISHA BASU ROY
CALCcUuTTA-13,

June 24, 1968.

1°J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 210.
2 These are more correctly, vagrants—Eds.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ' 777

11. TERRITORY IN THE HOUSE CROW,
CORVUS SPLENDENS VIEILLOT

During the past four years, 1964 to 1967, I had an opportunity
to study the territorial behaviour of House Crow, Corvus splendens
Vieillot in and around Poona. As many as 67 pairs (4 of them ringed
ones) were observed for the purpose of this study. It was observed
that in the case of House Crow :— )

1. The territory is claimed after the nesting site has been selected.

2. The occupation of territory is announced by the mere
presence of one or both of the pair.

3. Courtship and copulation usually takes place inside the
territory.

4. Most of the food is obtained from outside the territory.

5. The territory is defended by both sexes by warning note,
pursuit and attack.

6. Territory is occupied and defended during the breeding
season only. |

7. A well-marked social defence system is employed whereby
several nesting pairs of the neighbourhood join the defence efforts of
a threatened pair against predators.

8. The territorial limits (area of defence) vary according to tis
type of intruder. Intruders like others of the species and sex and
small harmless birds of the other species are permitted to come
up to a couple of metres without any show of hostility. Many a
times a House Sparrow, Passer domesticus was observed to perch
within a few centimetres of the nest proper while the owner (s)
sat inside the nest. Raptors are assaulted on sight when within 50
to 60 metres of the nest and are chased as far away as 200 to
300 metres. Koel is attacked even when heard within 100 metres of
the nest and is pursued till the pursuers are convinced of their
inability to catch up with the offender. Other intruders like human
beings, monkeys and carnivora are attacked only when they try. to
qlimb the nesting tree and are not left in peace till they put 200 to
300 metres between themselves and the nest, or reach a place of
shelter.

It follows Fiexetore that ihe House Crow, Corvus splendens
Vieillot : — |

(i) Sustains a territory which is intermediate between types
B and C of Hinde’s (1956 : 342) classification. It is therefore suggested
that one more category may be added in between Hinde’s types B

7178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

and C to cover such birds who occupy large nesting territories with-
in which courtship, copulation and nesting takes place but which do
not furnish most of the food.

(ii) Occupies and defends it after the pair’s selection of the
nesting site, employs warning note, pursuit and assault as the chief
means of defence. Defends it mainly for nesting site, nest, eggs and
brood only. The main functions of the territory in Corvus splendens
is to afford protection to nest, eggs and young, that is, the
functions proposed by Nice (1933), Mayr (1935), Lack (1935),
Noble (1939) and Tinbergen (1939).

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,
1182/2, F. C. Roap,
Poona-5,

November 16, 1967.

B. S. LAMBA

REFERENCES

HINDE, R. A. (1956): The Biological

Nice, M. M. (1933): The Theory of
significance of ‘the territories of birds.

Territorialism and its Development. In

Ibis, 98 : 340-369.

Lack, D. (1935): Territory and Bale
gamy in a Bishop-bird, Euplectes horde-
acea hordeacea (Linn.). Ibis, 1935:
817-836.

Mayr, E. (1935): Bernard Altum and
the territory theory. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.Y., Nos. 45-46 : 24-38.

‘Fifty years Progress of American Orni-

thology 1883-1933’, Lancaster, Pa:
89-100.
Nosie, G. K. (1939): The Role of

Dominance in Social Life of Birds. Auk.

TINBERGEN, N. (1939) : The behaviour
of the Snow Bunting in Spring. Tran.
Linnaean Soc. N.Y. 5: 1:95.

12. THE BROWN FLYCATCHER, MUSCICAPA
LATIROSTRIS RAFFLES IN KUTCH

Once again I had the good luck to come across a new bird in
Kutch and that too in the same place where I have seen most of
the other new birds; the grounds of Vijaya Vilas Palace, Mandvi.
On November 21 and 22, 1967, I saw the Brown Flycatcher
(Muscicapa latirostris Raffles) in the garden which surrounds the
palace. On both occasions only one bird was observed. At first
slance an inexperienced observer could easily mistake it for the Red-
breasted Flycatcher (Muscicapa parva Bechstein) a regular winter
visitor in Kutch which is met with in all suitable localities. Obviously
the Brown Flycatcher is an extremely rare visitor in this part of the
country, Dharmakumarsinhji (BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA; 428) does not

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 779

make any reference to its occurrence in Saurashtra but says it was
recorded by Littledale at Saran (Dungarpur State, now in Rajasthan)
and that it is presumably resident in the Dangs (Gujarat). It appears
that, at least up to the time the BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA was published,
this bird does not seem to have been firmly recorded in Saurashtra.

JUBILEE GROUND,
BuHuJ, KUTCH, M: K. HIMMATSINHSI
April 12, 1968.

13. NEW WINTERING LOCALITY OF THE SPOTTED
BUSH WARBLER BRADYPTERUS THORACICUS
(BLYTH)

On 24 November 1967 whilst netting migratory birds in the
phragmites reed beds at Nalbani, North Salt Lakes, Calcutta, with
Mr. S. S. Saha & Mr. D. K. Ghosal, a Spotted Bush Warbler,
Bradypterus thoracicus (Blyth) was collected. It is of interest that this
constitutes the first Calcutta area record and appears to be the only
record of the species’ occurrence away from the Himalayan foothills
on ‘Sylhet, E. Pakistan which Ripley in his SYNOPSIS states to be its
Winter range. The bird was therefore inexplicably some 300 miles
south of its usual wintering areas.

The Spotted Bush Warbler is a great skulker and the specimen was
virtually pushed into the net by chevying it along with the hands from
only two or three feet away. This may account for its not having
been collected before although netting) has been carried out fairly
regularly in this area since 1962.

Since the above record, two other specimens have been caught at
the same locality (on 28 January 1968) indicating that the species is
not necessarily scarce. On no accasion, however, has the bird been
observed in the field prior to its being caught in the nets.

Measurements (in mm.) of the birds collected and now in the Indian
Museum, Calcutta, are as follows :—

24.xii.67 14, wing 54, tail54, bill14. Primaries 2nd=10th
26.i.68 13, wing 52°5, tail 49°5, bill14. Wing tip—2—
Wing-tip damaged.

26.1.68 1 3, wing 51°3, tail 52. bill 13°5. Primaries 2nd=—11th.

(on the latter two birds the spots on the chest are more pronounced).

I wish to record my appreciation for the help of Dr. B. Biswas
of the Zoological Survey of India, India Museum, Calcutta. for his
confirming the identification of the above specimens,

780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

Bradypterus thoracicus (Blyth) is illustrated in Salim Ali’s BIRDS
OF SIKKIM.

'THE CHARTERED BANK,
CaALcuTTa-1, J. R. S. HOLMES, M.8.0.v.
March 26, 1968.

14. DUST BATHING BY COMMON BAYA
(PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS)

Recently, going through the chapter on Feather Maintenance in
A NEW DICTIONARY OF BIRDS, I came across a statement by K. E. L.
Simmons, who, while writing of Dusting says, ‘Dusting is also found,
for example, in sparrows (Passerinae—-but not in other Ploceidae).

On the afternoon of May 4, 1962, Julian Donahue and I had gone
out along Agra Canal beyond Okhla to watch a large wagtail roost
which Julian had discovered the previous evening. Stopping the car
on the road, we spotted a family of Bustard Quails. The land was
parched and dotted with dry Zizyphus bushes and other kinds of
thorny bushes, clump of grass and a few keekar trees.

A few Common Bayas (Ploceus philippinus) were ane in the
dust. Others were feeding on some kind of seeds from the ground.

Dust bathing by the Common Baya has since. been corroborated
by Mr. S. K. Kanjilal from Lucknow.

32, CHHATRA MARG,
DELHI-7, (MRS.) USHA GANGULI
August 28, 1968.

15, SOME NEW BIRD RECORDS FOR DELHI

On 2 June 1968 I found the Collared Pratincole (Glareola pratincola
maldivarum) nesting on the grasslands on the south-western side of
the dried-up Najargarh jheel, about 20 miles south-west of Delhi.

This is the first nesting record we can trace for Delhi, although
the Pratincole has been seen in every month of the year.

There were many Pratincoles in the area, some flying and others.
standing or sitting on the| ground. As I drove my car slowly towards
one it suddenly rose and threatened the car with outstretched wings.
I then found two eggs resting on the ground in the short grass.
There was little sign of the bird having hollowed the ground at all,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 781

Investigation disclosed some six nests in the vicinity, and there
were probably more spread over the area. I was able to bring my
car within six feet of sitting birds to take photographs.

A week later Mrs. Usha Ganguli accompanied me to the spot and
we found more nests. Pairs were occasionally displaying. The
males, which we noted were distinctly darker at the lores and fore-
head, approached the females bowing low and then circling as though
hollowing out a nesting place. The females were rather indifferent
and usually moved away. It appeared that only females sat on the
nests.

Dr. Dillon Ripley in the SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND
PAKISTAN says the Pratincoie breeds irregularly in India, East Pakistan
and Ceylon. My impression is that they regularly haunt the Najafgarh
area during the hot weather and it is possible that they breed there
regularly.

The eggs were strongly marked in the fashion of the Redwattled
Lapwing (Vanellus indicus),

On, June 23 Mrs. Ganguli and I found a number of chicks a few
days old. They were very active, and generally ran away when
approached. But the smaller ones would crouch and become almost
invisible because of their protective speckled down.

A few House Crows (Corvus spiendens) which flew over the area
were harried by the Pratincoles.

The area is also favoured for nesting by the Indian Courser
(Curscrius coromandelicus), and I have regularly seen pairs with young
in May and June there.

In passing I might also mention the presence of six Blackbuck
(Antilope cervicapra), females and young, near some pools on the
dried up jheel—seldom seen nowadays and a sad reminder of the
herds which once roamed the area.

Two other new records for Delhi were established in May when
I was out with Mrs. Ganguli and Mr. Holmes. Among the waders
feeding on 4 May where a sewage drain runs into the bed of the
Jumna about one mile below Okhla weir we spotted Terek Sandpiper
(Tringa terek). It kept apart from the Stints (Calidris minutus and
C. temminckii) and its yellow legs showed up well. The upturned
bill could only be seen when it was favourably positioned for light
and background. Both here and at other wader resorts we saw fair
numbers of Curlew-Sandpipers (Calidris testaceus) in breeding plumage.

Breeding between Finland and Lake Baikal and the Caspian Sea
at the mouth of the Terek River, Terek Sandpiper is recorded as
wintering in coastal and tidal areas of South Asia, and so it is
interesting to have found it in the centre of India,

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

On 5 May Mrs. Ganguli, Mr. Holmes and I were at Pindwala
jheel near Najafgarh when we saw the White-winged Black Tern
(Chlidonias leucoptera) in the company of Whiskered Terns (C.
hybrida). This Tern is a winter straggler which Ripley says has been
recorded from Calcutta, Tripura, East Pakistan, South Andamans,
Ceylon, Burma, Bombay and Saurashtra.

A few years ago Dr. Salim Ali raised the possibility that some
herons we saw at Shamaspur jheel, west of Najafgarh, might be the
Great White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis), which has a range from
Nepal and Sikkim terai eastwards to Assam, ‘East Pakistan, North
Burma and Arakan. This year Mrs. Ganeguli, Mr. Holmes and I saw
several of these herons again at Shamaspur, and from the bright
white of the breast and belly and the distinctly larger size than the
Grey Heron (A. cinerea), which was also to be seen, we concluded
that they were almost certainly A. insignis.

27 PRITHVIRAJ ROAD,
NEw DELHI, PETER JACKSON
July 9, 1968.

[The record of the Terek Sandpiper, largely a littoral species in
India, is particularly interesting. It has been supposed to be a purely
coastal migrant along the western and eastern seaboards of the
Peninsula, and until quite recently had evidently not been met with
far inland. The above record, and that of one netted and ringed in
Bharatpur, Rajasthan, in October 1966 suggest that odd birds may
now and again get mixed up with migrating flocks of other small
waders and get carried along with them overland. Birdwatchers will
please note to examine inland flocks of stints and spotted sandpipers
more critically, especially the early arrivals and late departures.
Whether this is an occasional occurrence or a more or less regular
happening, but so far overlooked, needs to be established—-Eds.]

16. SOME NEW BIRD RECORDS FOR NEPAL

While going through the manuscript notes on birds collected in
Nepal by the late Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey, British Envoy Extraordinary
from 1935 to 1938, I found records of examples comprising several
species previously unreported from Nepal. Since the publication of
the instalment of “The birds of Nepal’ series in which those notes
have been fully utilized (see Biswas, 1963, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
60: 388, note), will take some more time, it is thought worthwhile

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 783

to publish the new records in the mean time. Numbers as in Ripley’s
SYNOPSIS, 1961.

58. Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Latham). Black Bittern.

WESTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Kanchanpur dist., Bilauri: 1 ¢ (5 Feb. 1937).

The Black Bittern is already known as resident in the Indian
territories adjacent to Nepal.

119. Mergus albellus Linnaeus. Smew.
WESTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Kanchanpur dist., Bilauri: 1 9 (22 Jan. 1937).
Lt.-Col. Bailey observed several Smews in mixed flocks of teals
and pintails on a lake at Bilauti.
The Smew is a sparse winter visitor to both eastern and western
Uttar Pradesh, not fur from western Nepal.

329. Rallus striatus albiventer Swainson. Bluebreasted Banded
Rail.
EASTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Morang dist., Haraincha: 1 3 (16 Feb. 1938).
This rail is already known as resident in the Indian territories
adjacent to Nepal.

1543. Locustella certhiola rubescens Blyth. Eastern Grasshopper
Warbler.
EASTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Morang dist., Kosi River : 1 3 (12 Feb. 1937).

1544. Locustella lanceolata (Temminck). Streaked Grasshopper
Warbler.

EASTERN NEPAL : TARAI: Morang dist., San Pakwa: 1 3 (23 Feb. 1938).

The specimen was found ‘in tall marsh grass’.

Both these grasshopper warblers are known as regular winter
visitors in the plains of northern Bengal, not far from Morang
district of Nepal.

1581. Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. Olivaceous Leaf Warbler.
CENTRAL NEPAL : NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu (c. 1372 m.): 1 3 (13 Apr. 1938).
This leaf warbler has earlier been recorded on passage in the

Kumaon Himalaya (Mussoorie and Almora in Uttar Pradesh) in

March, April and October.

‘From the notes it is further found that he had also collected a
female Greyheaded Lapwing, Vanellus cinereus (Blyth), ‘in a fallow
rice field’ at Gauchar, Kathmandu, Nepal Valley, on 6 April 1937,
and a female Chinese Bush Warbler, Bradypterus t. tacsanowskius
(Swinhoe), ‘in very thick forest? at San Pakwa, Morang district.

J84. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

eastern Nepal tarai, on 23 February 1938. These two species have,
however, been already recorded for Nepal by Fleming and Traylor
(1964, Fieldiana, Zool., 35:519, 541) on the basis of collections made
by Mrs. Proud in 1959 and Dr. Fleming in 1961.

CALCUTTA, BISWAMOY BISWAS
June 17, 1968. : |

17. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

Ring No. | Date and place of | Date and place of
and species | ringing | recovery Remarks
|
B-4633
Philomachus 26.10.1967. Bharatpur, Mid. Dec. 1967. Moga Reported by
pugnax 3 Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’ Ferozepur Dist., Pun- Cadet A. S.
Nai/ 7S B20 BD jab. (c. 30° 58’ N., 74° Gill
37’ E.)
AB-15004
Philomachus 24.10.1967. do. 10.1.1968. Kasrak vill- Reported by
pugnax 2 age, Katra P.O., Shah- Harbax Singh

jahanpur Dist., U.P. D.S.P., Shah,
(c. 28° 2’ N., 79° 40’E.) jahanpur U.P.
C-4527

Anas crecca @ 1.12.1967. do. 15.12.1967. Agra, Bich- Reported by
puri Station (c. 26° Trilokpal
45’ N., 77° 26’ E.) Singh

B-16096
Philomachus 31.3.1967. Mitpukur, 5.5.1967. Yakut A.S.S.R., Reported by
Pugnax 0? 24 Parganas Dist.,16 near Nyurba (c. 63° Bird Ringing
km. east of Calcutta. 20’ N., 118° 21’ E.) Centre, Mos-
(622° 34 ING. Soe 22, cow, U.S.S.R.
Ee.)
C-4409

Anas crecca 8 30.11.1967. Bharatpur, 11.2.1968. Gurdaspur Reported by
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’ Dist., N. Punjab A. §8. Sooch,

IN phd Bev) (c.32° 3’ N.,75° 25’E.) Pharmacology
Dept., Medi-
cal College,
Amritsar
F-2369
Anas \ 20.11.1967. do. 3.2.1968. Near River Reported by
clypeata 0? Sutlej, Amritsar Dist. Kashmir
(c. 31° 10’ N., 74° 30’ Singh, Amrit-
E.) sar
C-4288
Anas crecca @ 24.11.1967. do, 24.22.1968. Gorakhpur, Reported by
U.P. (c. 26° 45’ N., 83° Mohan Singh,
2205.) Gorakhpur
B-1602 !
Philomachus 3.10.1965. do. 20.2.1968. Hasanpur Reported by
pugnax 0? Village, Kanayta, Mora- Fazal Shah

dabad Dist. (c. 28° 44’ Khan, Hasan-
Ni... 78" 177 Ee) pur

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 785
RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)
Ring No. Date and place of Date and place of Remarks

and. species

F-3161
Anas acuta 2

C-4975
Anas crecca °

F-3425
Fulica atra o ?

AB-14809

Philomachus
pugnax @°

AB-13368

Tringa glareola 0? 6.10.1967.

C-2543

Anas querquedula 2 16.10.1966.

C-2657
Anas crecca $

C-3483
Anas crecca

C-3557
Anas crecca 3

C-3643

Anas crecca 3

C-3692
Anas crecca 2

ringing

recovery

14.12.1967. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
IN il 3 2 ka)

1.1.1968. do.
21021967. do.
26:10 1967; do.
do.
do.
19.10.1966. do.
28.10.1967. do.
3011-1967. do.
Sal PalO Te do.
6.11.1967. do.

22.2.1968. Shankerpur
Lake, Fatehpur, Bara
Banki Dist. (c. 25° 43’
N., 80° 38’ E.)

14.3.1968. Saidu Sharif,
Swat State : W. Pakis-
tan. (c. 34° 40’ N., 72°
6’ E.)

5.4.1968. Amritsar
City (c. 31° 38’ N., 74°
53a)

31.3.1968. Satellite

Town, Sargodha, W.
Pakistan (c. 32° 4’ N.,
72° 43’ E.)

23.4.1968. Salorijhalpar,
Samundri, Lyallpur Dt.,

W. Pakistan (c. 30°
50’ N., 72° 39’ E.)

+ 10.9.1967. Kazakh
S.S.R., near Vozvy-
shenka (c. 54° 28’ N.,
70° 56’ E.)

+ 25.10.1967. Tyumen
Region, near Nizhne-
vartovsk (c. 60° 56’
N., 76° 39’ E.)

+ 8.3.1968. Uzbek S.S.R.

near Ilich (c. 40° 52’
N., 68° 30’ E.)

+ 2.3.1968. Samar-
kand Region, near
Dzhuma (c. 39° 44’ N.,
66° 35’ E.)

+ 10.1.1968. Tashkent
Region, Chirchik River
(40° 62’ N., 69° 19’ E.)

+ 3.3.1968. Tadjik
S.S.R., near Ordzhoni
Kidzeabad (c. 38° 33’
N., 68° 58’ E.)

Reported by
Naresh Singh,
Wildlife
Warden, (P
& S) U.P.

Reported by
Veterinary
Officer, West
Pakistan

Reported by

Tarlok Singh,
Amritsar

Reported by
Mian Khizar
Hussain

Reported by
Amram

Reported by
Bird Ring-
ing Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.
do.
do.

do.

do.

786

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(conid.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Ring No. |
and species |

C-4730
Anas crecca §

C-4819
Anas crecca 2

F-1384
Anas acuta 2

F-3698
Anas clypeata 0?

F-4949
Anas clypeata §

F-5248
Anas acuta

66-300
Sarkidiornis
melanotos 0?

C-4848
Anas crecca 2

C-435
Anas crecca 2

C-1252
Anas querque-
dula 3

Date and place of
ringing

3.12.1967. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

IN ee ee)
10.12.1967. do.
17.10.1966. do.
31.12.1967. do.
16.2.1968. do.
26.2.1968. do.
4.1.1968. do.
13.12.1967. do.
28.11.1964. Manjhaul,

Monghyr Dist., Bihar
(025212377. N;, 86-30,
E.) ee

13.10.1965.
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
ING IT coe ka)

Bharatpur, + 0.9.1967.

Date and place of
recovery

+ 11.3.1968. Kazakh
S.S.R., Kyzyl Orda
Region, near Dzala-
gash (c. 45° 08’ N., 64°
44’ E.).

+ 0.3.1968. Tadjik S.S.R.

near Regar (c. 38°
330 NE 68° 1472)

+ 11.3.1967. Kazakh
S.S.R. Dzhambul
Region, near Dzham-
bule(c, 422.527 Ne 71°
20’ E.)

+ 20.3.1968. Tadjik
S.S.R., near Asht (c.
40° 41’ N., 70° 21’ E.)

+ 10.3.1968. Samar-
kand Region, near
Aktash (c. 39° 55’ N.,
65° 55’ E.)

+ 14.3.1968. Kazakh
S.S.R., Alma-Ata
Region, near Chund-
zha (c. 43° 30’ N., 79°
27’ E.)

12.2.1968. Sahaswan,
Budaun Dist. U.P.,
India (C2) 285° 27 Ni:
19° 7 -E.)

8 .5.1968. Mastuj, Chit-
ral, Peshawar, W. Pakis-
tan (c: 362-157. Neo /2>

35’ E.)

+ 5.9.1967. Buryatian,
A.S.S.R., the mouth
of the Selenga-delta
Se 20’ N., 106° 30’
BE;

Tyumen
Region, near Yaluto-
rovsk (c. 56° 40’ N.,
66° 19’ E.)

Remarks

Reported by
Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

Reported by
Mir Hafeez
Ali

Reported by
Israrud - Din.
Sr. Lecturer,
Dept. of Geo-
graphy, Uni-
versity of
Peshawar, W.
Pakistan

Reported by
Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 787

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.
and species

C-1493
Anas querque-
dula 3

C-1628
Anas querque-
dula 3

C-3096
Anas querque-
dula imm.

C-3258
Anas querque-
dula °

C-3424
Anas crecca 3

C-3875
Anas crecca

C-3973
Anas crecca &

C-4036
Anas querque-
dula 3

C-4116
Anas crecca 3

C-4117
Anas crecca 3

C-4141
Anas crecca 3

C-4397
Anas crecca 3

Date and place of

ringing

Date and place of

r
recovery Remarks

10.10.1966. Bharatpur,
Pi Pon ey:

Rajasthan (c.

INSTT: 32 ES)

11.10.1966.

7.10.1967.

13.10.1967.

27.10.1967.

TAT1967.

9.11.1967.

10.11.1967.

12.11.1967.

12.11.1967.

13.11.1967.

30.11.1967.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

+ 13.5.1968. Tomsk Reported by
Region near Teguldet Bird Ringing

co 57° 21’ N., 88° 07’ Centre,

E.) Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

+ 12.5.1968. Tomsk do.

Region, near Francev-

skii (c. 57° 40’ N., 86°

24’ E.)

+ 8.5.1968. Tomsk do.

Region, near Krivo-

sheino (c. 57° 24’ N.,

83° 56’ E.)

+ 11.5.1968. Tomsk do.

Region near Tomsk
(e. 56° 30’ N., 84° 58’ E.)

+ 14.4.1968. Semipala- do.
tinsk Region, near
Kokpekty A 48° 45’

N., 82° 24’ E.)

+ 11.5.1968. Tyumen do.
Region, near Hizhne-
vartovskoe (c. 60° 55’

Ns 1093940 Es)

+ 9.3.1968. Tashkent do.
Region, near Chirchik
ie 30’ N., 81° 30’

+ 5.5.1968. Altai Region, do.
near Tyumentsevo (c.
53% 200 N.,.31- 73070 EB.)

+ 5.5.1968. Tomsk do.
Region, near Zyryan-

skoe (c. 56° 50’ N.,

86° 38’ E.)

+ 7.5.1968. Tyumensk do.
Region, near Tobolsk
eee 16’ N., 68° 18’

+ 3.5.1968. Krasnoy- do.
arsk Region, near

Eniseisk (c. 58° 27’

Ne, 92712" BE.)

+ 4.5.1968. Krasnoy- do.
arsk Region,near Kem-

chug (c. 56° 12’ N., 91°

Le 8)

788

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.
and species

C-4605
Anas crecca $

C-4607
Anas crecca &

C-4643
Anas crecca 3

C-4886
Anas crecca 2

C-5574
Anas crecca 2

F-1767
Anas clypeata 0?

F-1931
Anas clypeata 3

F-2584
Anas clypeata 3

F-2840
Anas penelope 3§

F-2919
Anas acuta 3

F-5261
Aythya ferina 3

Date and place of

ringing

Date and place of |
recovery |
|

65 (3)

Remarks

6.12.1967. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
N., FB B,)

6.12.1967. do.
6.12.1967. do.
21.12:1967. do.
4.3.1968. do.
17.10.1967. do.
2 t L967: do.
25.11.1967. do.
52 Ore do.
8.12.1967. do.
26.2.1968. do.

+ 9.5.1968.

+ 17.4.1968. Altaisk
Region, near Kosikha
(¢. 55522) N84 4
E.)

+ 10.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, Vasyugan
River (c: 58°077 Nu.
TT 00" EY)

+ 10.5.1968. Krasno-
yarsk Region, near
Kezhma (c. 58°) 00’

N., 101° 06’ E.)

+ 14.5.1968. Tuva
A.S.S.R., near Tora-
Khem *(e.:52? 29’ N:,
96° 09’ E.)

+3.5.1968. Novosibirsk

Reg., near Severnoe

SG 56° 22° N., 78° 20%
5)

+ 5.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Kozhev-
nikovo (c. 56° 17’ N.,
84° 00’ E.)

+ 9,.5.1968. Krasno-
yarsk Region, near
Uzhur (c,.55" 18" N:.
89° 49’ FE.)

+ 9.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Kozhev-
nikovo (c. 56° 17’ N.,
84° 00’E.)

Irkutsk
Region, near Bratsk
(C5648 NOL Ae
E.)

+ 3.5.1968. Tyumen
Region, near Repo-
lovo (c. 60° 40’ N.,
69° 45’ E.)

+ 6.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Kozhev-
nikova (c. 56° 17’ N.,
84° 00’ E.)

Reported by
Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

TAPE LN IT TNT LT TS a LT SD EE TE I EE TELE TOT CE TS LET ATS: PT BS ER ERE TF a LE NEA TD

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(conid.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

789

Ring No.
and species

F-5322

Aythya fuligula 2 26.2.1968. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
N., 77° 32’ E.)

F-5342
Anas clypeata 0 ?

C-4632
Anas crecca

AB-14641
Philomachus
pugnax &

B-4071
Philomachus
pugnax 3

B-4078
Philomachus
pugnax 3

B-4223
Philomachus
Pugnax 3

C-1223
Anas crecca 2

C-3038
Anas querque-
dulao?

C-3537
Anas crecca 3

C-3540
Anas crecca 2

—

Date and place of
ringing

26.2.1968.

6.12.1967.

25.10.1967.

28.9.1967.

29.9.1967.

9.10.1967

8.10.1965.

28.9.1967.

29.10.1967.

29.10.1967.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

Date and place of
recovery

+ 7.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Anasta-
sievka (c. 56° 48’ N.,
83° 32’ E.)

+ 9.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Kozhev-
nikovo (c. 56° 17’ N.,
84° 00’ E.)

23.5:1968s ) Shot on
Astor River, Kashmir
(C235 920 Nes 145 526
E.)

+ 22.5.1968. Yakutian
A.S.S.R., near Nyurba
(64,632) 150 Ne Ss
00’ E.)

+ 29.5.1968. Yakutian
A.S.S.R., near Ten-
keli, the Tenkeli River
ee 14’ N., 141° 00’

+ 17.5.1968. Tyumen
Region, near Surgut,
(C261. 467, Ne 785 28%
E.)

+ 0.5.1968. Yakutian

A.S.S.R., near Ust-
Kuigu (c. 70° 00’ N.,
135° 38’ E.)

+ 13.5.1968. Tyumen
Region, near Nizhne-
vartovskoe (c. 60° 55’
N. 76° 40’ E.)

+ 20.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Rybinsk
ee 25’ N., 84° 42’

+ 20.5.1968. Krasno-
yarsk Region, near
Turukhansk (c. 65°
48’ N., 88° 00’ E.)

+ 4.5.1968. Krasno-
yarsk Region, near
Kansk (c. 56° 15’ N.

Remarks

Reported by
Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

Reported by
Mr. Khan,
Contractor,
Gilgit Agency,
W. Pakistan
Reported by
Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

95° 42’ E.)

790

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

Ring No.
and species

C-3896
Anas crecca 6

C-4115
Anas crecca 3

C-4175
Anas crecca 6

C-4185
Anas crecca 2

C-4889
Anas crecca 2

C-5145
Anas crecca $

C-5163
Anas crecca 2

C-5277
Anas crecca

F-1813
Anas acuta 3

F-1839
Anas acuta 3

F-1870
Anas acuta 0?

‘Date and place of

ringing

7.11.1967. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
N., 773265.)

12.11.1967. do.
14.11.1967. do.
1419677 AU do!
21.12.1967. do.
4.2.1968. do.
4.2.1968. do.
1.3.1968. do.
23.10.1967. do.
25.10.1967. do.

26.10.1967, do.

Date and place of
recovery

4

+. 12.5.1968. » Tomsk
Region, near Kurgasok
oo. O17 N:;"805 507
Ee

+ 5.5.1968. Krasno-
yarsk Region, near
Kansk (c. 56° 15’ N.,
95° 42’ E.)

+ 14,5.1968. - Irkutsk

Region, near Cherv-
yanka (c. 57° 41’ N.,
99° 30’ E.)

+ 16.3.1968. .Fergana
Region, near Altyar
(es 40° 23°N2, 71° 305
E.)

+ 23.5.1968. Yakutian
A.S.S.R.,Lenskii Dist.,
near Orto-Nakhara

: Remarks

Reported by

Bird Ringing

Centre, |

Moscow, © :

U.S.S.R...
do.

do.
do:

‘do.

(c. 60° 48’ N., 114° |

12’ E.)

+ 1.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near . Asino
(c. 57° 04" Ni? 86° 08" =
E.)

+ 16.5.1968. Irkutsk

Region, the Kochengu

River ‘(c. 56° 007 N.3

1037517 EB.)

+ 16.5.1968. Jakutsk
Region, Lenskii Dist.,
near Khamra (c. 60°
£3" Ni d14° 09% By)

+ 15.5.1968. Irkutsk

Region, Taishet Dist., © ~

do.
do.
do.

do. ie

near Kondratievo (c. «

57. 24 ON: 98; 107 E:)

+ 14.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near. Parabel,..-.'.

(ex 581 AS" IN Oke 27,
E.)

+ 24.5.1968. Yakutian
A.S.S.R.,. near -Mirnyi
(CC G25 So aN aol
43°52):

do.. --~3

(AAR TE STR AAT PRE RETO | LET CE OES TOL NT NE PPE OE PE OIE OL RET TT a ES a Pa ES TE a a aE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No. Date and place of
and species ringing
F-2218

Anas acuta § 10.11.1967. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’

No 77 32 EB)

F-2957
Anas clypeata 39.12.1967.

F-3402
Anas clypeata § 23.12.1967.

F-3412
Aythya fuligula 3 23.12.1967.

F-3993
_ Anas clypeatao? 12.1.1968.

F-4249
Anas acuta $ 24.1.1968.

F-4336
Fulica atra 0? 29.1.1968.

F-4556
Aythya fuligula § 5.2.1968.

F-5071
Aythya ferina § 20.2.1968.

F-5251
Anas acuta ~ 26.2.1968.

F-5257
Anas acuta 3 26.2.1968.

F-5340 ‘ 5 \
Anas clypeata 2 . 26.2.1968.

F-5389 ae
Aythya fuligula@ 27.2.1968..

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.’ .

do.

Date and place of
recovery

+ 9,3.1968. Samar-
kand Region; near Gal-
lyaaral (c. 40° O1’ N.,
67° 34’ E.)

+ 14.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Kolpa-
shevo (¢: 58° .21’ N.,
82° 56’-E.)

+ 17.5.1968. do.

1S, 11968. =. do.

+ 10.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Tomsk
(65-56 S307 NG 85
01’ E.)

+ 10.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Aleksan-
drovskoe (c. 56° 46’
IN.) 85° 227 E.)

+ 14.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Kolpu-
shevo (c. -58° 21’ N.,
82. 567 Es)

Sel So Oa GO:

+ 23.5.1968. Tyumen
Region, Berezovo
Dist., near Ustrem (c.
64° 18’ N., 65° 26’ E.)

-+- 10.5.1968. Tyumen
Region, near Nadym
(C.69 385 IN. (Zs
45’ E.)

+ 10.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, Parabel Dist.,
near Visokii Yar (c.
3648 Ne Sl? Zi. E.)

+ 17:5.1968. - Tomsk’:

Region, near Kolpa-
shevo (c. 58° 21’ N.,
82° 56’ E.)

+ 12.5.1968. Tomsk

Region, near Malcha-
novo (c. 57° 35’ N., 83°
45’ E.)

791

Remarks

Reported by
Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

do.
do.

do.

; do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

‘do.

do.

792. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.
and species

F-5678
Anas clypeata 2

F-3191
Fulica atra o?

AB-9228
Tringa
glareola 0?

B-1659
Philomachus
pugnax 3

C-2695
Anas crecca 6

C-3323
Anas crecca 6

C-3672
Anas crecca 3

C-3992
Anas crecca 3

C-4285
Anas crecca 3

C-4734
Anas crecca &

Date and place of

ringing

3.3.1968. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
N:3 77" 32)

15:42 1967:

9.10.1966.

7.10.1965.

20.10.1966.

16.10.1967.

5.11.1967.

9.11.1967.

24.11.1967.

8.12. 1967.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do,

do.

Date and place of
recovery

+ 8.5.1968. Krasno-
yarsk Region, Eniseisk
Dist., near Makovs-
koe (c. 58° 12’ N., 90°
527:E)

-+- 0.1.1968. Nabishah
Lake, Bhalwal Tehsil,
Dist., Sargodha, W.
Pakistan (c. 32° 4’ N.,
72° 43’ E.)

+ 8.6.1968. Krasno-
yarsk Region, near
Igarka (c. 67° 28’ N.,
86° 34’ E.)

+ 18.5.1968. Yakutian

Remarks

Reported by
Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow, .
U.S.S.R.

Reported by
Mian Muham-
mad Amir

Reported by
Bird Ring-
ing Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

A.S.S.R., Ust, Aldan —

Region, Aldan River
(62637 18" Nant 3ie
00’ E.)

+ 29.2.1967. Turkme-
nian S.S.R., near Mary
(Co 37 37) Nao
49’ E.)

+ 0.3.1968. Syr-Dariya
Region, near Gulistan
(c: 40° 30°. Nt" 687
45’ E.)

+ 14.6.1968. Krasno-
yarsk Region, near
Norilsk (c. 69° 20’ N.,
88° 14’ E.)

+ 29.4.1968. Novasi-
birsk Region, near
Verkhnyaya Krasno-
yarka (c. 56° 22’ N.;
71. 36" E.)

+ 12.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Kolpa-
shevo (c. 58°21’ N.,
82° 56’ E.)

+ 8.5.1968. Tomsk
Region (c. 56° 75’ N.,
85° 15’ E.)

do.

do.

do.

| do.

do.

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.)

Ring No.
and species

C-5109
Anas crecca 3

F-1117
Anas acuta 3

F-4200
Aythya
fuligula oO?

F-4416
Anas acuta 3

F-5058
Anas acuta 2

F-5355
Aythya ferina ?

F-4951
Fulica atra 0?

F-5500
Anas clypeata 3

C-3712
Anas crecca 3

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Date and place of —
ringing

29.1.1968. Bharatpur,
Rajasthan (c. 27° 13’
N.s 779 32° EB.)

18.10.1965. do.
23.1.1968, do.
31.1.1968. do.
19.2.1968. do.
26.2.1968. do.
16.2.1968. do.
28.2.1968. do.
6.11.1967. do.

Date and place of
recovery

+ 15.5.1968. Irkustsk
Region, near Kirensk
(C57 46°..N.37 1087,
08’ E.)

+ 15.5.1967. Tomsk
Region, near Alek-
sandrovskoe (c. 56°
46’ N., 85° 22’ E.)

+ 15.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, near Pod-
gornoe (c. 57° 47’ N.,
82°38” E:)

+ 16.5.1968. Tomsk
Region, Surgut Dist.,
near Sytomino (c. 61°
20’ N., 71° 20’ E.)

+ 30.4.1968. Omsk
Region, near Krutinka
eit OOO N.; 71° 3

+ 0.2.1968. Surkhan-
Dariya Region, near
Termez (c. 37° 11’ N.,
67° 18’ E.)

+ 15.4.1968. Kazakh
S.S.R., Karaganda
Region, southern coast
of Balkash Lake (c. 46°
85’ N., 75° 00’ E.)

+ 20.4.1968. do.

16.8.1968. Bairwar Vill-
age, P.O. Jatara, Dist.
Tikamgarh, MP. (c. 24°
45’ N., (8° 507 Bay >

BomBay NATURAL History SOCIETY, _
HornBILL HOusE, Sid
SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH RoaD,

Bompsay-1,

October 17, 1968.

793

Remarks

Reported: by
Bird Ringing
Centre,
Moscow,
U.S.S.R.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

Reported by
Dhani Ram
Singh, M.P.

EDITORS

794. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

18. OXYURICHTHYS JAARMANI WEBER (GOBIIDAE:
PISCES), A RARE GOBIOID FROM INDIAN WATERS

(With a_ text-figure)

Koumans (1941) reports two species of Oxyurichthys from Indian
waters namely, O. microlepis (Bleeker) and O. tentacularis (C.V.).

Scale

2¢cm.

Text-Fig. Oxyurichithys jaarmani Weber

During my studies on the taxonomy of the fishes from the Orissa
coast, a specimen of Oxyurichthys collected from the Mahanadi
estuary on 15 March, 1964 by Sri. N. V. Subba Rao of the Zoological
Survey of India was determined as O. jaarmani Weber. This species
has so far been recorded only from the estuary of the Lorentz River.
New Guinea (Koumans 1953), its type locality. The present com-
munication records the occurrence of this rare gobioid for the first
time from Indian waters.

Oxyurichthys jaarmani Weber
a (Text-fig.)

Oxyurichthys jaarmani Weber, 1913, Nova Guinéa, 9(4), p. 601; Koumans, 1953,
Fishes Indo Australian Archipelago, 10, p.40. _ ;
Oxyurichthys jaarmani Fowler, 1928, Mem. B.P. Bishop Mus., 10, p..415.
MATERIAL: 1, 78 mm. in total length ; False Point (Mahanadi estuary, Orissa) ;
15 March, 1964; N. V. Subba Rao ; Zoological Survey of India Reg. No. F 5531.
2

~. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES } 5 795

Description; | | Sy tame f |
D. VI+1-10; A. I i1; P. 21::L. 1. 28: Ltr: 7; Gillrakers 1+-4.

Depth of body 4:1; length of head 3:5; both in standard length.
Eye diameter 3-9 in head; interorbital 4-0 in eye diameter.

Mouth cleft nearly horizontal, iaws subequal. Maxilla extends to
level of anterior third of eye. Interorbital pores indistinct. No ocular
tentacles.

Single row of fine canniform teeth in upper jaw, in three rows in
lower jaw. Palate and tongue edentate.

_ Gill openings moderately restricted, open laterally somewhat below
a level from lower edge of pectoral base; isthmus moderate. Géill-
takers well developed.

Squamation well developed on body; absent on head, median pre-
dorsal and on breast before BoE scales ctenoid, smaller and less
ctenoid anteriorly. :

Dorsals prominent; anal similar to second dorsal. Anal originates
below the second dorsal ray. Pectoral longer than head and pelvic.
‘Caudal long, pointed; longer than head.

~ Colour in alcohol—brownish, the vertical and paired fins dusky
black. A conspicuous dark vertical band below the eye and indistinct
dark blotch on caudal base. Reddy

Remarks: The specimen from the Mahanadi estuary differs from
the original and subsequent descriptions of this species (Weber 1913;
Fowler 1928, and Koumans 1953) in having a lesser number of scales
in the lateral series, greater body depth and considerably smaller eye.
Another variation noticed is that the interorbital pores are indistinct
in the present specimen. However, in the absence of significant
differences in the meristic counts, morphometric proportions and
coloration, the Mahanadi specimen cannot be treated as a separate
subspecies in spite of the geographical separation.

I am thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur and Dr. A. G. K. Menon,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for their encouragement and
interest during the course of this study.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
(CALCUTTA, P. K. TALWAR
December 8, 1967.

REFERENCES.

Fow er, H. W. (1928): The Fishes of & Beaufort. The Fishes of the Indo-
Oceania. Mem. B.P. Bishop Mus., 10: ee Archipelago, 10: 39-50
415. Leiden

Koumans, F. P... (1941): Gobioid WEBER, M. (1913): Susswasserfische
Fishes of India. Mem. Indian Mus. aus neiderlandisch sud und nord neu
13(3) : 220- ae Guinea. Nova Guinea, 9 (4): 601,

————— (1953): Gobioidea in Weber

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

19. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF YOUNG
HILSA ILISHA (HAMILTON) AROUND NABADWIP,
IN THE HOOGHLY ESTUARY

Although considerable knowledge has been gained on different
aspects of the biology and fishery of Hilsa ilisha, (1963) not much
is known on the food and feeding habits of the young Hilsa.. Hence,
an attempt was made to make a detailed analysis of the food of the
young Hilsa ilisha around Nabadwip in the Hooghly estuary.

The material for the present investigations was obtained from the .
freshwater zone of the Hooghly in and around Nabadwip during March
to June, 1966. 649 specimens of the young of Hilsa ilisha in the
size range of 65 to 200 mm. (total length) were collected from regular
fortnightly random samples and analysed for their gut contents. The
fish in fresh condition, were either directly obtained from shore-
seines (Chat Berjal) or from the Nabadwip fish market. They were
preserved in 5% formaldehyde and the gut contents were analysed by
the ‘Occurrence’ method, though it has some limitations. As the
observations were of preliminary nature, other methods like volumetric
analysis which could have pin-pointed the ‘real optimal food’ for the
species, were not tried.

The relative abundance of various food items present in the gut
contents of the young Hilsa has been found to be crustacea 26°71%,
sand particles 23-50%. debris 18-39%, digested matter 15-49%, diatoms
13-35%, algae 050%, animal tissue 0:04°% and bivalve larvae 0:01%.
The data relating to monthwise fluctuations in the intensity of feeding
as well as prevalence of various food items are presented in Table 1,

TABLE 1

PERCENTAGE PREVALENCE OF VARIOUS FOOD ITEMS DURING DIFFERENT MONTHS

Crus- Sand- Debris Diges- Diatoms Algae Bivalve Animal
tacea _— parti- ted larvae tissue
matter

cle
(%) (%) (A) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

March 36°54 "6 (21:16) @.14758)) 1.22.72 321 1°69 0°04 =0°06

April 28°86 27:95 22°93 14:32 5-82 0:03 0:05 0:04
May Nil 23-331) 57-50) 1447 5-00
June 0:30 500 3°55 10.00 81:15

ARE OL ME YT A or a IE UC)

from which it will be observed that marked variations in the intensity
of feeding of the young Hilsa are evident during this period of four

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4

months. Pillay & Rao (1962) have observed that from January to
March feeding of young Hilsa of the river Godavari appears to be
fairly intensive with the peak in February and March. They also
observed that from April to July hardly any specimen was found to
have eaten much food as most of them had empty stomachs or had
only traces of food. The present observations reveal that, in the case
of Hooghly young Hilsa, feeding appears to be fairly intensive in
March and April. Monthwise percentage composition of the different
degrees of fullness of stomachs is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2

MONTHLY FLUCTUATIONS IN THE INTENSITY OF FEEDING

Bt Biter

Full 3th Full ? Full + Full Traces Empty

(%) CA) Cr) CA) (% (7%)
Marchi): «, 18:57 5°71 17°86 17°86 11°43 28°57
April DvD Bat 55 473 20°00 7°63 5°82 27°27
May es x A 0°93 1°85 aaah 94°45
June fee 12.70 hs 4°76 17 3:97 75°40

Hilsa is generally considered a plankton feeder, though Hora &
Nair (1940 a & b) inferred that young Hilsa feed at the bottom, since
sand grains were found in the stomachs. Pillay & Rao (1962) have
concluded that Hilsa feeds at the bottom during the entire period of
its life from at least 43 mm. stage, but they have also assumed that
Hilsa feeds at all depths, as sand. grains, debris, planktonic organisms
etc. are found in appreciable quantities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is greatly thankful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director,
for his keen interest and encouragement, to Mr. V. R. Pantulu, who
constantly guided the investigations and to Dr. V. Gopalakrishnan for
kindly going through the manuscript.

(CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, D. D. HALDER
BARRACKPORE,

Via, CALCUTTA,

August '16, 1968.

‘798

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

REFERENCES

Hora, S. L. & Na, K. K. (1940a) :
Further observations on the bionomics
and fishery of the Indian Shad,. Hilsa
ilisha (Ham.) in Bengal waters. Rec.
Indian Mus. 42(1) : 35-50.

& (1940b): The

Jatka ean, of Eastern Bengal and its~

significance in the fishery of the so-called
Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) in Bengal
waters. ibid 42 (4): 553-555.

review of methods used in studies of the
eee of fishes. J. animal Ecol. 190).:

- PILLAy, S. R. & Rosa yr. ick (1963) :
Synopsis of biological data on Hilsa,
Hilsa ilisha (Ham.), 1822. FAO Fisheries
Biology Symposium No. 25.

+--+, & “Raoy -K. | V2./01962):
Observations on the biology and fishery
of the Hilsa, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of River

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950): The food of
freshwater sticklebacks (Gasterosteus
aculeatus and Pygosteus pungitius), with a

Godavari. Proc. Indo-Pacific Fish. Coun.
10(2) : 37-61.

20. ON THE MECHANISM OF ESCAPE BY A MOTH ©
FROM ACCIDENTAL DROWNING is

The use of surface tension of water and the hydrophobe and water
repellant properties of the cuticle and cuticular processes by various
aquatic insects for locomotion, and suspension from the surface film
and for respiration under water has been explained by Wigglesworth
(1966)' who has also mentioned that terrestrial insects make use of
surface forces in order to cling to surfaces too smooth to provide a
firm hold for the claws.>
Terrestrial insects, under certain circumstances, may also take
advantage of the above factors for their survival, as observed in the
following case. A small unidentified moth, about a centimetre in
length was found on the surface of water contained in a shallow
vessel, about ten centimetres in diameter. The moth obviously, must
have fallen into water accidentally. Its behaviour on the water surface
‘was interesting. ‘The insect was seen walking a few steps on the
surface film and suddenly: jumping and vibrating the wings,
apparently trying to take off. It repeatedly fell back on water but
remained on the surface without any active effort on its part. The
moth finally succeeded after a jump, flew for a short distance and
landed on the ground a few centimetres ‘away from the vessel. - The
moth was caught and examined and no trace of water!-could be found
on jany part of the body.

The above observation shows how a terrestrial insect. can - “take
advantage of the surface tension of water and the hydrophobe pro-
perties of the cuticle to escape from accidental foe i cca,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE,
CALICUT 1, KERALA,
March 25, 1968.

+ Wigglesworth, V. B. (1966) :

« B. SOANS
J. S. SOANS

Insect Physiology. London,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 799

21. ETIELI.A ZINCKENELLA TREITSCHKE
(LEPIDOPTERA: PHYCITIDAE) AS A POD
BORER OF LENTIL IN THE PUNJAB

Etiella zinckenella T. was first reported in India in the beginning
of this century as a pest of horse gram (Dolichos biflorus Linn.),
cowpea (Vigna catiang Walh.), red gram (Cajanus cajan Sprengi.)
and sannhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) (Fletcher 1914). Mitra (1944),
Singh & Sohij (1957) reported it as a pest of pea pods.

Recently the insect was observed doing serious damage to the
pods of lentil (Lens esculenta Moench.) at the Punjab Agricultural
University Farm, Ludhiana, and this is the first record of damage
done by this insect to lentii crop in India.

The adults of E. zinckenella are greyish brown with distinct pale
white band along the coastal margin of the fore-wing and a transverse
ridge of raised scales near the base. The hind wing is semi-
transparent and light in colour. The eggs are laid at the time of
flowering near the calyx and on hatching the larvae bore into the
pods and feed on the developing grains. Usually one larva is present
per pod. A single larva attacks a number of pods before it is full-
srown. The larvae are green in colour and turn pinkish-brown near
maturity. Full grown larva measures about 1:0-1-25 cm. After attain-
ing maturity, the larvae leave the pods, enter the soil and spin silken
cocoons about 2 cm. to 3 cm. deep in the soil. The cocoons are
covered with particles of soil.

Maximum damage to the lentil crop was done when the pods
were nearing maturity. All the seeds in the infested pods were
destroyed and such pods contained small larval faecal pellets and
were found webbed together in clusters. Twelve to fifteen per cent
pods of the crop was damaged by this insect. The larvae were
parasitised by Bracon sp., Tetrastichus sp. and Pterornalid sp.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to Dr. B. R. Subbarao for the
identification of the parasites of E. zinckenella T.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY-ENTOMOLOGY,
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, G. S. SANDHU

LUDHIANA, G. C. VERMA
March 8, 1968.

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

REFERENCES

FLeTcuer, T. B. (1914): Some South (Pisum sativum) Curr... Sci., 13(12:)
Indian Insects and other animals of 312-313.
importance, pp. 429, Govt. Press, SincH, S. & Sout, G. S. (1957): A list
Madras. of insect pests of economic importance
Mitra, P. K. (1944): A note on inthe Punjab. Govt. Agric. Coll. Mag.
Heliothis armigera Hub. asa pest of pea 4(3): 19-34.

22. GREGARIOUSNESS AND MIMICRY DURING
THE COCOON STAGE BY THE BUTTERFLY
EUREMA HECABE (L.)

I would refer to B. K. Tikader’s note under the above heave
(1968, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 65 (1): 242).

E. hecabe does not spin a cocoon and this term should be replaced
by ‘pupa’ wherever it occurs. !

Apart from the Hesperiidae, or ‘Grypocera, the only butterfly larvae
that spin cocoons are the genus Parnassius and the Satyrid Eumenis
semele L.

MOMBASA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.2.E. Ss.
July 24, 1968.

23.. INSECTS ATTRACTED TO LIGHT IN THE
DANGS, SOUTH GUJARAT

While going through the specimens collected at light in the Dangs
and reported in this Journal 61 (2): 271 and 64 (2): 256 and now
in the collections of the Society, it was noticed that through oversight
three species of butterflies, collected in August-Sept, 1961 were not
included in the lists published. They are:

1. Anaphaeis aurota Fab. (Pieridae)
2. Colotis calais Cr. (Pieridae) and
3. Heliophorus tamu tamu Koll (Lycaenidae).

This note is of special interest because while the first two species
are common in this area the third Heliophorus, is being noted for
the first time so far south. All the species of Helicophorus: are found
only in the Himalayas or at the foot of that range. Finding one of
the species so far south is of great interest. PAT RAIN

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

Hornsitt House, | N. T. NADKERNY
SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH RoaD, E, M, SHULL
BoMBAY-1,

September 19, 1968,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES S01

(24. PERSISTENT VITALITY IN BEE-HOLE BORER MOTH
DUOMITUS LEUCCNOTUS WLK.

At page 447 of Vol. 63 of the Journal Mr, Thomas Gay reports a
case of persistent vitality in the Hooded Grasshopper Teratodes
monticollis. I report here a similar case which I came across a few
days ago in the bee-hole borer moth Duomitus leuconotus Wik.

I caught the moth on the trunk of a Cassia renigera in my garden
in the first week of this month, holding itself in a vertical position
with its head uppermost. I took it to be a newly emerged imago
and, as: it was about 8 o’clock on a damp dull morning, guessed that
it was not ready to fly. Placing my hand close against the trunk
just in front of the moth I nudged gently at its head. The moth
‘moved forward and settled on my right forefinger, which I held
vertically thereafter so that the moth resumed its former vertical
position. Coming into the house, I got out my killing bottle from
the back of a book cupboard, opened it, and closed it over the moth.
In between, I exhibited the moth to my wife and my daughter for
their due admiration. All this was done slowly and deliberately, so as
not to disturb the moth unduly. Altogether, I must have had the
moth under my observation for at least ten minutes. Throughout
this time, neither I nor my wife nor my daughter noticed anything
unusual about the moth; it behaved as any recently emerged moth
might have done. I was surprised therefore, when I opened the
killing bottle two or three days later, to find the abdomen of the
moth missing.

My killing bottle closes with a well-fitting lid, and was not
touched by anyone in the intervening period. So there was no
possibility of anything having got at the moth after its capture. The
conclusion seems unavoidable therefore that that the moth had no
abdomen when I caught it. It is difficult to say what the loss of
the abdomen was due to; possibly, it was caused by a lizard or some
other predator which was disturbed before it could destroy the moth
entirely. It is clear, however, that the loss of the abdomen did not
prevent the rest of the body from behaving as it would otherwise
have done; so much so, that all three of us who saw it took it to
be an undamaged specimen jit to be sent to the Society for its
collection. |

Unfortunately, it did not strike me at the time to look for the
discarded pupal case. I did so about six days later and found a
fresh’ one protruding from an exit hole within a couple of feet of
the place where I caught the moth. This was the oniy pupa skin to
be seen, except for a very old pupal case which was too old to be

802. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

considered. So it is possible that my guess about the moth being
newly emerged was correct.

Mr. N. T. Nadkerny at the Society’s office, who kindly verified my
identification, agrees with me that this is a case of persistent vitality
similar to the one described by Mr. Gay.

65 PALI HILL,
BANDRA, BoMBAY 50-AS, D. E. REUBEN
September 13, 1968.

[An instance of persistent vitality is given by M. A. Wynter-
Blyth in his article ‘The Nilgiris Revisited’ in vol. 48 (1949) of this
Journal. Writing on the Nilgiri Tiger Beetle (Cicindela aurofasciata)
preying on the longicorn, beetle (Dorysthenes montanus), he states that
‘It is no uncommon sight to see one of these longicorns (which, if
helpless against their enemies, are at least tenacious of life) walking
briskly about though entirely disembowelled’—-Eds.]

25. PREFERENCE OF CASTOR VARIETIES FOR
FEEDING AND OVIPOSITION BY THE LEAFHOPPER
EMPOASCA FLAVESCENS (F.) (HOMOPTERA, ©
JASSIDAE)

I was very interested in S. Jayaraj’s paper under this title (1968,
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1): 64-75) as some years ago Dr. V. G. L.
van Someren recorded that the larva of Charaxes etesipe Godt.,
(Lepidoptera, Rhopalocera) efesipe, would only eat the green-, or white-,
stemmed variety of Castor, and preferred to starve rather than eat
the red-stemmed, although, both varieties were considered to belong to
the same specieg by the Kew authorities. This is particularly strange
as the larva of this subspecies also feeds on other Euphorbiaceae such
as Phyllanthus, Tragia and Croton, whilst the larva of ssp. tavetensis
Roths. feeds on Leguminosae, such as Afzelia and Cassia (Caesal-
pinaceae), Dalbergia (Papilionaceae) and Entada (Mimosaceae).
With a monophagous larva such selectivity is understandable, but not
when a larva feeds on several species of plant.

Has Mr. Jayaraj noticed any correlation between acceptability and
stem colour?

MomMBaSA, | D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S. .
July 24, 1968. ;

2 69 wos 4a. 0: MISCELLANEOUS ‘NOTES 803

26..:-OBSERVATIONS ON A MODE OF FOOD- |
CAPTURE BY DRAGON FLIES

Dragon flies are active predators known for their habit of capturing

their prey on the wing. They feed on other small insects and it is
generally known that these prey-species belong to orders Odonata,
Diptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera (Hobby 1934). In the Malabar
‘Christian College compound, certain Aeschnid dragonflies (un-
identified) are: generally found resting on an extensive patch of grass,
in the evening after about 6 p.m. On May 10, 1968, there was a
swarm of alate termites which came out earlier than usual, before
crepuscular period. The dragonflies which were resting on the grass
then started capturing the termites flying over the grass one by one,
in-an interesting manner. The dragonfly suddenly made a swift flight,
taking the course of an arc or almost a semi-circle and seized the
termite, flying at a height of 1-3 metres above the grass. The
position of the body of the dragonfly was nearly horizontal during
the capture of prey. After food capture, the flight was continued as
a. deep dive back to grass on which the dragonfly rested again a:
ate the prey.
_. The above observation. shows that the resting dragonflies can also
- dapture flying prey species of insects by suddenly darting at them
accurately. and that order Isoptera also should be added to the list
iof the. orders of the prey insect species of dragonflies.

.. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, ,

MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, A. B. SOANS
~CALIcuT-1, KERALA, JOYCE S. SOANS
June 5, 1968.

REFERENCE

Hossy, B. M. (1934): The prey of
British Dragonflies. Trans. ent. Soc.
S. England. 8 : 65.

27. DICRAEIA STYLOSA WIGHT (PODOSTEMACEAE)—
A NEW RECORD FOR BOMB ey oo

The genus Dicracia Thou. ( =Dicraeia Tul.) with about 13 species
_ Occurs in parts of S. America, S. Africa, India and Ceylon. During
a: botanical exploration of Sakarpathar-Ambavane region on the
Western. Ghats of India, Poona District, Maharashtra State, in the
-yéars 1962-65, a species of Dicraeia, namely D. stylosc was collected.

804. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

This species has not been included in T. Cooke’s THE FLORA OF THE
PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY, and has not been reported by subsequent
workers from the presidency. Hence, its occurrence in the Sakarpathar-
Ambavane region is considered as « new record. This species has
so far been reported from Malabar Hills, Anaimalais, Nilgiris, south
Kanara to Travancore. The present report extends its distribution
further north along the Western Ghats.

Dicraeia stylosa Wight, Icon. t. 1917, f. 2, 1852; Willis in Ann. R.
bot. Gard. Peradeniya 1:225, 1902; Engl. in Engl. & Prantl, Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 18a: 51, f. 42, 1930; Subramanyam, Aq. Angiosp. 47.
f. 31, 1962. Podostemon stylosus Benth. in Benth. & Hook., Gen.
Pl. 3: 112. 1880; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 5:64, 1886.

Aquatic herb, submerged. Stems very long, ramous, compressed.
Leaves 4, subulate, imbricate, distichous; the exterior pair smaller; the
interior pair obtuse, subcuspidate, nearly equalling and sheathing the
spathe at base. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic. Stamens 2, filaments
united below. Staminodes 2, linear, stigmas pubescent long. Ovary
ovoid, 2-celled. Capsule 6-8-ribbed.

This species grows in freshwater streams, with the thallus freely float-
ing from an attached base, exogenously branched, resembling in habit
some of the seaweeds like Fucus. The taxon has been observed growing
in association with other Podostemons like---Griffithella hookeriana
(Tul.) Warm. and Podostemon subulatus Gardn., and occurs in fairly
Jarge abundance. The species is characterised by the long stigmas.

Flowering and fruiting: September-November. .

Specimens examined; Rajni near Saltar (Ambavane), Reddi
99153A (BSD); Polarahwada near Tiskari (Ambavane), alt. 1100 m.,
Reddi 101036 (BSI).

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY, B. VENKATAREDDI
VARANASI-5,

June 20, 1968.

28. OBSERVATIONS ON THE HOST RANGE IN
LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS DESV.

Previous reports on the loranthaceous parasites (Fischer 1926,
Sambandam 1966) seem to justify in unambiguous terms that there is
no specificity in the selection of host plants for Loranthus longiflorus
Desy. The present authors have observed, in addition to previous

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES $05

record (Sambandam 1966), a few more species of host plants which
were found parasitized by L. longifiorus, as listed beiow:

Annona squamos« Linn., Crateva réligiosa Forst., Oncoba spinosa
Linn., Gossypium arboreum, Thespesia populnea Cav., Berrya ammonilla
Roxb., Grewia tiltifolia Vahl, Citrus aurantium Linn., C. medica L.,
Ochna squarr0sa Linn., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Cedrela toona
Roxb., Sweitenia mahagoni Linn., Melia azedarach Linn., Moringa
oleifera Lam., Cassia siamea Lam., Bauhinia tomentosa Linn.,
Anogeissus acuminata Wall., QuisSqualis indica Linn., Punica granatum.
Ixora coccinea J.inn., Hamelia patens, Morinda tinctoria Roxb.,
Mimusops elengi Linn., M. hexandra Roxb., Bassia latifolia Roxb.,
Achras sapota Linn., Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn., Thevetia neriifolia
Juss., Cordia rothii R. & §., Spathodea campanulata Beauv., Stereo-
spermum chelonoides DC., Dolichandrone falcata Seem., D. rheedii
Seem., Crescentia cujete Linn., Vitex negundo Linn., Premna latifolia
Roxb., Lantana aculeata Linn., Putranjiva roxburghi: Wall., Trema
orientalis Bl., Holoptelea integrifolia Planch.

It would appear, from the foregoing list of host plants, that no-
where in the study of angiospermic parasites has there been such a wide
range of host plants affected by a single parasitic species.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY, R. SAMPATHKUMAR ~
ANNAMALAINAGAR, | J. KUNCHITHAPATHAM

May 20, 1968.
REFERENCES

Fiscuer, C. E. C. (1926): Lorantha- combinations of Loranthus longiflorus
ceae of Southern India and their host Desv. and host species. Annimalai
plants. Rec. Bot. Sur. India 11(1): 159-195. Univ. Agric. Mag. 63-64

SAMBANDAM, C. N. (1966) : Some new

29. NOMENCLATURE NOTES ON THE GENUS SONERILA
ROXB. (MELASTOMATACEAE)

1. Sonerila khasiana C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2:539,
1879; Cogniaux in DC. Monogr. Phan. 7:514, 1891; Stapf in Ann.
Bot 62309, 1892; C.F. €. Fischer.;in. Kew Bully .1:99,,.,1932;
efcim), Rec, Bot: Sur, Indy 12:2, 96; 1938). Type:).. Hooker. &
Thompson 2027 (K). Gdssebeerie khasiana (C. B. Clarke) O. Kuntze,
Rev. Gen. Plant. 1:245, 1891. Sonerila villosa C. E. C. Fischer in
Kew Bull. 199, 1932 et in Rec. Bot. Sur. Ind. 12:2, 96, 1938. Type:
W. J. L. Wenger 323 (K). SYNON. NOV. mY

18

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)
Distribution:

Inp1A: Assam, Khasia hills, Mamloo, Kalapani, alt. 1333-1666 m.,
5 ‘Aug. 1850, Hooker & Thompson 2027 (K); Ibid., sine loc. et alt.
4 Sep. 1850, Hooker & Thompson s. n. (K, CAL); Khasia, C. B. Clarke
21494 (K); Ibid., Vale of Rocks, alt. 1666 m., 21 Sept. 1886, C. B.
Clarke 45454 (K, CAL); Jaintia hills, Jarin, alt, 1333 m., 20 nov.
1872, C. B: Clarke "18329 (K);°.S. Lushai, : alt.°1333° m::; Sept: 1931,
Wenger 345 (K); Ibid., from Lungleh to 70 miles south, alt. 833-
1333 m., July-Aug. 1931, Wenger 323 (K); Naga hills, Paona, alt.
2000 m., 2 Sept. 1935, Bor 6261 (K).

Sonerila villosa C. E. C. Fischer from Lushai hills closely matches
S. kKhasiana C. B. Clarke in the nature of its habit, leaves, flowers
and capsule. According to Fischer S$. villosa differs from S.
khasiana in having white villose pubescence in the stem, petiole, —
peduncle and pedicel and in having smaller flowers. In S. khasiana,
it is seen, there are villose and glabrescent forms. Since there is
variation in the size of flowers and since pubescence is not a stable
taxonomic character in this taxon, it is proposed to reduce S. villosa
C, E. C. Fischer to a synonym of S. khasiana C. B. Clarke.

This species is closely allied to S. violaefolia Hook. f. in the nature
of its habit and leaves though S. violaefolia is a more robust species.
Stapf (in Ann. Bot. 6:310, 1892) stated that the flowers and capsule
of |S. violaefolia are similar to those of §. khasiana. The capsule in
S. violaefolia is obconic with thick wall, prominent ribs and con-
spicuous valves, whereas in S. khasiana the capsule is oblong or
campanulate with thin wall, faint ribs and inconspicuous valves.

2. Sonerila prostrata Ridl. var. johorensis (Hend.) Nayar comb.
et stat. nov. Sonerila johorensis Hend, in Gard. Bull. Straits Settlements
4:411, 1929. Type: Holttum 17500 (SING).

Henderson stated that this taxon is closely allied to S. prostraja
Ridl., but differs in having larger leaves, anthers and petals..
It is seen that in several taxa in the genus Sonerila, there is wide
range of variation in the length of stamens. Stapf (in Ann.
Bot. 6:291, 1892) established that the length of anthers could not be
used safely as a character for the delimitation of species in Sonerila.
Since there is variation in the size of leaves, it is proposed to reduce
S. johorensis Hend. toa variety of S. prostrata Rid].

3. Sonerila matangenis Ridley in Kew Bull. 1:35, 1946.
Distribution: . .

BORNEO: Sarawak, Mt. Matang, 14 Feb. 1892; Haviland \C49Y
(Type, K); sine loc., Ridley s. n. (K). ,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 807

In the original description, the number of stamens is mentioned as
four. On dissecting the flowers, it is seen that there are only three
stamens and the anthers are inappendiculate. It is presumed that
Ridley’s description of the number of stamens was based on an ab-
normal flower.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to Sir George Taylor, Director, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, for all facilities during my stay at Kew
1961-67. My thanks are also due to Rev. Fr. Dr. H. Santapau,
Director, Botanical Survey of India for his encouragement.

‘INDUSTRIAL SECTION,

‘INDIAN MUSEUM,
_ BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, M. P, NAYAR
1, SUDDER STREET,
CaLcuTta-13,
April 30, 1968.

30. ANTHRISCUS SCANDICINA (WEBER) MANS.
(APIACEAE): A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

Anthriscus scandicina (Weber) Mans. a native of Europe, introduced
and naturalized in North America (Mathias & Constance in N. Amer.
Fl. 28B:115, 1944-45) is now recorded for the first time in India
from Dehra Dun. A detailed description with presently accepted
nomenclature and critical notes is given here.

Anthriscus scandicina (Weber) Mans. in Fedde, Report. 46: 309.
1939. Caucalis scandicina Weber in Prim. Fl. Hol. 23. 1780. Scandix
_anthriscus Linn. Sp. Pl. 275. 1753. Chaerophyllum anthriscus (Linn.)
Crantz, Class. Umbell. 76. 1767. Anthriscus vulgaris Pers. Syn. Pl.
1:320. 1805 (non Bernh. 1800). Myrrhis anthriscus (Linn.) Lag.
Amen. Nat. 98. 1821. Anthriscus scandix (Scop.) Arch. Fl. Brand.
1:260. 1860. (non Bieb. 1808). A. anthriscus (Linn.) Karst. Deuts.
Fl. 857. 1882. Myrrhodes anthriscus (Linn.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. 1:
268. 1891. Cerefolium vulgare (Pers.) Bubani, Fl. Pyren. 2:411.
1900. Chaerefolium anthriscus (Linn.) Schinz. & Theil. Viert. Nat.
Ges. Zurich 53:554, 1909.

Erect, much branched, foetid, more or less hispid, annual herbs,
8-15 (-30) cm. tall. Stems terete, striate. Leaves 3-4 pinnate,

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

basal ones long petioled, 6-10 cm. long (incl, petiole), upper ones
reduced to sheaths, hispidly hairy; sheaths scarious-margined, ciliate;
petioles hispidly hairy, grooved above, 1-5-4 cm. long; ultimate leaflets
ovate-oblong, pinnatifid into ovate rounded, ciliate, mucronulate,
hispid, of 0-15-0:2x0-1 cm. segments. Umbels compound, leaf-
opposed, subsessile or width 0:06 (0:2) cm. long peduncles; rays 3-4
(-6), longer than the peduncles, glabrous, 0-3-1 (-2) cm. long. In-
volucral bracts 0 or rarely one linear-subulate, ciliate, 0-3-0°5 cm.
long; involucels 4.5, entire, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, ciliate longer
than the pedicels 0:18-0:2 (-0:25) cm. long. Flowers 3-5, white,
pedicels glabrous, 0-1-0-3 (-0°8) cm. long; Calyx limb obscure.
Petals 5, white, ovate-oblong, emarginate due to inflexed obtusely
apiculate tip, 0-05 cm. long. Stamens 5, filaments linear, glabrous,
0:03-0:04 cm. long, anthers ovoid. Ovary hispid, styles 2, very short.
Fruits ovoid-oblong, beaked, hispid with uncinate, bristly hairs or
tubercles, 0:3 (-0-4) (incl. beak) x0-2-0°3 cm.; primary ridges obscure,
secondary ones absent or obsolete.

Flowers & Fruits: April-June.

Specimens exarnined: UTTAR PRADESH: Dehra Dun. Kanpur (near
Survey of India), C. R. Babu 35225 (BSD): Very rare. on waste
places.

It is not possible to ascertain when and how . this plant was
introduced into India.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, | 1 | mee
BOTANICAL SURVFY OF INDIA, | | _C. R. BABU
‘Howrau, aaa Apo as
April 25, 1968.

315, A NEW NAME IN CAMPANULA LINN.
(CAMPANULACEAE) |

Campanula wallichii nom. nov. |

C. canescens. Wall. (Cat. no. 1289, 1829, nom. nud.) ex De.
Prodr. 7:473, 1828 (non Roth, 1827), Hook.-f. & Thoms. in Journ.
Linn. Soc. 2:23, 1857: Boiss. Fl. Orient. 3:934, 1875; Clarke in Fl.
Brit. Ind. 3:439, 1881; Trimen, Handb. Fl. Ceylon 3:60, 1895;
Duthie, Fl. Upp. Gang. Plain. 1:499, 1905; Gamble, Fl. Presid.
Madras... 739, 1921; Haines... Bot.,.Bih. .&, Oris. 4-503, (1927:
C. benthamii Wall. (Cat. no. 1289, 1829, nom. nud.) ex DC. Prodr.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. .... IRMA OL. sae

7:473, 1838 (pro syn.). Céphalostigma spathulatum Thwaites, Enum.
Pl. Zeyl. 422, 1864 (non Campanula spathulata Sibth. & Sm. 1806).

Type: Wallich 1289 (CAL-isotype).

Distribution: India, Burma and Afghanistan.

The widely accepted binomial Campanula canescens Wall.
ex DC. (1838) for this plant is unfortunately a later homonym
of C. canescens Roth (1827) which is Phyteumy canescens (Roth)
Walds. & Kitaib, and should be rejected according to Art. 64 of the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1966). The next
name C. benthamii Wall. is also invalid, as it is a nomen nudum.
The specific name spathulatum from Cephalostigma spathulatum
Thwaites, is not available either for the present plant, as the specific
name has already been used previously for three different plants in
the genus Campanula Linn. Since there is no other published epithet
for this plant, the author proposes the above new name, C.
wallichii, for this interesting plant. The author’s basis for the
rejection of C. canescens Roth is the information given in the index
Kewensis 401, 1895.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
HOwRAH, Cc. R. BABU

April 25, 1968.

32 GNETUM ULA BRONGN. FROM RAYALASEEMA,
ANDHRA PRADESH—A NEW RECORD

Gnetum ula Brongn. (G. scandens Brandis) was found growing
abundantly, as a liana, reaching the tops of trees in the Savarala-
kuppadadi forest of Chittoor District during February 1968. The
Saveralakuppadadi is a deciduous forest of Seshachalam hill range
with patches of evergreen vegetation. Since Gnetum ula is recorded
so far only from western and some parts of the eastern coast of India,
its occurrence in Rayalaseema forms a new distribution for this
interesting taxon.

The luxuriant growth of male and female plants with cones in
different stages of development attracted attention from a distance at
the time of collection. For a full description of this plant, see
Bharadwaja (1957)

A number of male and female plants were collected and examined
and it was found that this taxon is in conformity with that of Gnetum
ula Brongn, of Bharadwaja (1957),

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Dr. I. M. Rao, Professor of Botany for en-
couragement. and Dr. K. Subramanyam, Botanical Survey of India for
going through the manuscript.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

S. V. UNIVERSITY, K. V. M. RAO
TrrupPATI (A. P.), K. R. RAO
March 25, 1968.

REFERENCE

BHARADWAJA, R. C. (1957): Genus
Gnetum Linn. in India, Pakistan and
Burma. J. Indian bot. Soc. 36 : 408-420.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1967-68

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President
Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra.

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)

Dr. Salim Ali, D.sc., F.N.I.
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary
Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer —
Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Member
Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India

Elected Members
Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)
Prof. P. V. Bole
Mr. S. Chaudhuri
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.p.
Mr. Duleep Matthai
Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.
Mr. D. J. Panday
Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya ..
Mrs. Jamal Ara
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E.
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.S. (Retd.)
Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S.
. Mr. M. Krishnan
_ Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.I.
Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.I.
Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.s.

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.LC.E., M.LE.

9 @

ex officio

Ahmedabad
Ranchi
New Delhi
New Delhi
Shillong
Madras
New Delhi
Dehra Dun
New Delhi
New Delhi

)

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)
HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1967
MEMBERSHIP

At the beginning of the year there were :

Ordinary Members oe .. 1,133 (746 paid)
Life Members hee Say ee
Forest Department Nominees. . 8 fe)
Student Members ats ae 2
Honorary Members sf ft! 2

Total 1,466

Since several of these members had delayed making payment we sent
out letters to all Ordinary Members who were in arrears and to all Life
Members to bring the records up-to-date. On the basis of information
and payment received at the end of the year the Membership posiiion
is as follows:

Subscription received from Ordinary Members ) 567+-53 for the
for the current year } previous year

Confirmed Life Members ae eis
Forest Department Nominees me ne 33
Student Member iW ra f 1
Hono.ary Members .. i fe 2

Total 761

sd

THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL

Four numbers of the Journal were published during the year,
Vol. 63(2) and (3) and Vol. 64(1) and (2). The 860 pages include 9
articles on botany, 8 on birds, 7 on insects, 4 on fishes, 3 on mammals,
2 each on wild life and crustacea and 1 on other invertebrates. The
88 miscellaneous notes published in these numbers cover all aspects of
Indian Natoral History.

We have entered into an agreement with a firm in Sweden for
microfiche reproduction of out-of-print issues of the Journal.

During the year the Society started a Newsletter HORNBILL with the
object of keeping closer contact with members. The response from
members has been satisfactory and with their assistance we hope to
continue this effort.

GENERAL

Bird Migration Study : During the year we received financial assist-
ance from the Smithsonian Institution and the Migratory Animal Patho-

A.G.M. 1967-68—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS $13

logical Survey of the U.S. Army. With this assistance it has been
possible to enlarge our activities and to run camps continuously during
the migratory season.

Camps at two locations were held during the year. A pilot survey
camp in January at Chilka Lake (in association with the Genetics and
Biometry Laboratory, Bhubaneswar, Orissa) ringed 887 birds of 33
species. The camp at Bharatpur commenced operations by mid-Sep-
tember and ringed over 13,000 birds by the end of the year.

During the year we received information on the recovery in Russia,
Pakistan and India of 74 birds bearing our rings (4 species of ducks, 3
waders and 2 passerines).

Additions to the collection: ‘During the year 662 specimens were
received as additions :

Mammals .. ba Se ae, 24
Birds a Ag % ho 547
Reptiles and Amphibians + a 85
Insects and other Invertebrates... ms 6

Wild Life Preservation: We are continuing with our efforts to
preserve the forests around Bombay and to see that the Bird Sanctuary
at Karnala is quickly brought into being. Our representatives on the
Indian Board for Wild Life and the various State Wild Life Advisory
Boards keep us informed about government policies and the Society
continues to play a constructive role in these matters. Close contact
is also being maintained with the International Union for Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources and World Wildlife Fund.

PUBLICATIONS

The Society is now in the awkward position of not having financial
resources to reprint its popular publications which have gone out of
print. Applications made to several sources both governmental and
non-governmental have not been effective. However, we have in press
a revised 8th edition of the BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS. This has been made
possible by the generous assistance of Lady McNeice who has arranged
for overdraft facilities to help the Society with this publication.

DONATIONS

Sdlim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund: During the year we
received donations from : a

Dr. Salim Ali — .. Rs. 1,000.00
Lady McNeice .. Stg. £1,000

Shri Asaf A. A. Fyzee .. Rs. 100.00
Lt. Col. H. Williams ee Rs, ¢ > 102300
Shri Duleep Matthai .- Rs. 500.00

18A

814. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 65 (3)

We thank them for the generous assistance. Letters were sent to
members and others inviting donations to increase the corpus of the
Fund.

Furniture: A donation of $100 was received from Mr. E. W. Mudge
towards Chairs for the Auditorium.

RESEARCH STUDIES

Bhutan Bird Survey: In February/April 1967, Dr. Salim Ali accom-
panied by assistants from the Society surveyed the bird fauna of another
area of Bhutan. A representative collection of Birds totalling 456
specimens was made. The collection will be reported on in a later issue
of the Journal. The assistance rendered by Mr. J. D. Panday is grate-
fully acknowledged.

Herpetological Survey: Collections were made from various loca-
lities in the Nilgiris and some very interesting material was obtained.

Birds and Agriculture: The Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research have approved the research project for assessing effect of
birds in relation to Agriculture. We hope to commence work in 1968.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The scheme is now in its 20th year and continues its activities in
Poona and adjacent areas for creating interest in nature among school
children. :

LIBRARY

During the year 76 books were added to the Library. Among these
25 were donated by the Haffkine Institute, Bombay. Other donations
were 3 and 2 books were purchased and 46 received for review. Our
thanks are due to the donors and to the publishers who have sent us
review copies.

MEETINGS

On 10 February, R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji spoke on ‘ Modern
immobilisation techniques for wild life’? ; on 9 May a party was held
in honour of Mrs. and Dr. S. D. Ripley ; on 27 September Dr. E. B.
Fanibunda spoke on ‘Close-up photography of Nature subjects’ ;
on 26 October Sir Landsborough Thompson spoke on ‘A New Dic-

A.G.M. 1967-68—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 815

tionary of birds’ ; on 29 November under the joint auspices of Bombay
S.P.C.A. & Bombay Natural History Society Mr. Zafar Futehally spoke
on * National Parks of America—some lessons for India’ ; on 13 Decem-
ber Lord Fermoy of the World Wildlife Fund spoke on ‘ Impressions
of conservation programmes in Pakistan ’.

EXHIBITIONS

Between 27 February and 4 March an exhibition of Bird paintings
by Shri Deoki Nandan Sharma was held; on 18 March the Orchid
Club of Bombay in association with the Bombay Natural History
Society held an exhibition of flowering orchids; between 6 and 12
November an exhibition of ‘ Wildlife photographs’ by Mr. M. Krishnan
was held ; between 11 and 17 December 1967 an exhibition of stamps by
Mr. D. R. Mistry depicting butterflies was held.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

The financial position of the Society continues to be difficult, and
the all round increase in costs has put severe strain on even routine
activities.

STAFF
The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing co-
operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

{ A
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. J. L. Bernard who continues
to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 65 (3)

816

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SLaIAORY

L96I daquiacag ¢ papa dvax ay) sof junosop stuaudog puv sidiaroy

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT
HORNBILL HOUSE, SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,
BOMBAY 1, ON FRIDAY, 19TH JULY 1968, AT 6.15 P.M.,
WITH DR. SALIM ALT, D.sc., F.N.1., IN THE CHAIR

(1) The Honorary Secretary’s report for the year ending 3lst
December, 1967, having been previously circulated to members, was
taken as read and was adopted.

(2) The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts presented by the
Honorary Treasurer were approved. |

(3) The following were elected as members of the Executive and

Advisory Committees for the year 1968-69:

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.S. Gea )
Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I.
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary ex-officio

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, 1.c.s. (Retd.)

Member

Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.HS. 827
Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)
Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. 8S. Chaudhuri

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

Mr. Duleep Matthai

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.) :

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya hie Kf .. Ahmedabad
Mrs. Jamal Ara .. me ae .. Ranchi
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. .. New Delhi
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1E., 1.c.S. (Retd. se New Delhi
Mir PR. Gee, MiA., ©:M,Z.S.. . ne .. Shillong
Mr. M. Krishnan oe .. Madras
Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.SC., F.N.I. .. .. New Delhi
Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.I. ces .. Dehra Dun
Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.s. ee ea . New Delhi

Lt. Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.I.C.E., M.I.E. New Delhi

(4) Films received from the British High Commission at Bombay,
were shown.

(5) The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the British
High Commission, for the films and to the Chairman of the meeting.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY C. E. KOSHY AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,
10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY. M4ADR4S—-28-5-1969. C9289
EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C. DANIEL

“

4

a

1-
Bs

af

t
‘
1
}
‘

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals
The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 plates in
colour by Paul aoe and many Ne: illustrations. Rs. 30
% (Price to members Rs. 25)
> ke . Birds | :
The Book of Tedian Birds, by Saélim Ali. 8th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and
_ many monochrome plates. Rs. 25:
(Price to members Rs. 20)
ate Snakes
Identification of Poisonous reat aan ors in English Gujarati, and et
ee Te on, oh Bae eyo Ss :
(Price to members Rs. 8) 3
_ Miscellaneous
Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured aa 45
- monochrome plates. Rs. 28

(Price to members Rs. 22.50)
Indian Molluscs, by James Hornel!. With a coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures. Rs. 6
(Price to members Rs. 4.50)
Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2°50
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :
1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0°80
Kannada Rs. 0°62
2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0°62
3. OUR BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi Rs. 0°62
4. Our Monsoon PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English,
Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi Rs. 0°80
5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured ee) in English, Gujarati, :
Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1:25

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on 1 application.

Correspond with :
The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR.

Agents in England: ~-
Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin,
Herts, England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly
numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (5sh.) and a life membership fee of
Rs. 600. (Inland), £45-10-0 (Foreign).

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (5sh.) and an annual subscription of
Rs. 36. (Inland), £3 (Foreign).

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders
on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in
Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum: of
4£3-0-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The National &
Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London E.C. 2.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and Deceuiber
covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

ge

CONTENTS.
- ¢ i ?
Tue Birps oF SIND: A Review. By D. A. Holmes and J. O. Wright
Pseudodissochaeta : A NEW GENUS OF MELASTOMATACEAE. By M. P. Nayar..

FEEDING HABITS OF THE FISH Megalops cyprinoides BROUSSONET, IN THE COOUM
BACKWATERS, MApDRAS. By Thavamani J. Pandian ..

Eco-ToxICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL, Meriones hurrianae
(JERDON). By Ishwar Prakash

ON A NEW SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONE FROM MAHARASHTRA, INDIA. By
Arun Parulekar

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF FINN’s Baya (Ploceus megarhyn-
chus HUME) IN THE KUMAON TERAI. By V. C. Ambedkar

MORE ADDITIONS TO THE CRAB FAUNA OF Bompay State. By B. F. Chhapgar..

OCCURRENCE OF Spindasis abnormis (Moore), (LEPIDOPTERA : LYCAENIDAE)
ON THE WESTERN GHATS. By A. E. Bean, SSJE

A REPORT ON WILD LIFE SURVEYS IN SOUTH AND West INpIA. By J. Juan Spillett

TWO NEW SPECIES OF Iseilema ANDERSS. FROM INDIA. By Murty R. Uppuluri
and U. Satyavathi

SoME WILD-SHOT DUCK HYBRIDS FROM THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT. By James
Harrison and Jeffery Harrison

Two NEW PHYTOSEID MITES FROM EASTERN INDIA (ACARINA : PHYTOSEIIDAE).
By S. K. Bhattacharyya

SAND DUNE FLORA OF WESTERN RAJASTHAN. By K. C. Kanodia and R. K.
Gupta

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIs-
TORY SOCIETY—3, FALCONIFORMES. By Humayun Abdulali

A New BEGONIA FROM EAST NEPAL. By C. R. Rao ..
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN SPIDERS. By T. V. Subrahmanyam

Rhododendron santapaui sp. nov. FROM SUBANSIRI DistrRIcT, N.E.F.A., INDIA.
By A. R. K. Sastry, S. K. Kataki, Peter Cox, Patricia Cox, and P.
Hutchison is = sg <a He ie

REVIEWS
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HiSToRY SOCIETY FOR THE “YEAR

... 1967-68 | a vi Be Tie an oe

STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIsToRY SOCIETY i

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ~ fe eee. a
4

333
337

569
581
590

596
608

618
633

664
670
677

681

696

724
726

744
748
764

8il

816
826

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