Spee

Fie

Sis

ie sek PU nme ng ts a oe

* 0%

2 4 Sx. 4 — ee areata pe

S a pase ee ay t, me “i pad ¥, om Lar Sere a im < OP BS < ne

Lote as

: i se Pa i . fee Fens “ory pate as Pfc Cpr tht LG aR RHEE : <2 pete :

vt 7 a me Keo) e-, =O Wi BAS * ae agate, 8 ue oe * Pee e Ey.

aga fe ete Sree per eo et anon Cr A ey eR aa

LSPA aan ee Diy

a je Dyan fe, ein ae

ae

~

AB ave, rs.

PS ieee Tees aad

* ; Keir oS Jens = Cad ae . Sreenipre 2

¥ -*' : ao

iene fae in BS

XVII. PUBLISHED MONTHLY. No. 5 AGi Moss |

‘' The Jour ournal

OF THE

ARD OF AGRICULTURE

AUGUST, I9II.

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. (For Complete List of Contents see page vii.)

pt of the Development Commissioners - - ~- 369 co Growing for Insecticidal Purposes. G. H. Garrad 378 try in Norway. S. Burtt Meyer - “ ‘ - 385 ish System of Hayate Pp nesernent, M. le Comte de

ontornes - - - oe Oe SOR | Wight Bee Bigdaue - . : - - - - 400 ing of Young Calves” - - - : ee BOO and Animal Tuberculosis Se ee CUO Ti, 407 fested Type of Agricultural School | AAA eS BA ple of the Introduction of Farmers’ Telephones- 414 ry eis Agricultural Experiments - = - - §15

a © Lear) | go, mS | fe) | =) eo S rs ee C2 rt) 5 oa FS —" [oF Go, (a>) a e 6 8

- > - - - - 423

- > “ - - - - . 429 tural Congresses and Exhibitions Abroad - - 4314 - ° . ” ° - A382

ditions in Great Britain on August 1st - - 483 “ . - - - 434

ce of Animal Diseases on the Continent - -. 487 England during July - - - 488

Mitiots in July. C. Kains-Jackson - - 489 d Dead Meat Trade in July. A. T. Matthews - Ga

on Trade in July. Hedley Stevens - ~- - 443 rade in W. W. Glenny - - - - Aad

ee ae ee OT

AGENTS FOR ADVERTISEMENTS LAUGHTON & Co., Limited, 3, WELLINGTON STREET, STRAND, W.C.

THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisement

THE

KNAPSACK SPRAYER

Not only the original portable sprayer,

but the best, as is proved by

_ the fact that it secured first prize in

competition with all nations, and a Silver medal at Wisbech. —

The many common-sense features make the ‘‘ Enots ” Knapsack Sprayer essen- tially practical. It is simple yet power- ful, comfortable to carry, and will cover large surfaces quickly. All working parts are external; a large filler and a gauze strainer are fitted, and a special pattern lid makes spilling of contents on to operator’s back ap impossibility. Furthermore, the 86 years’ reputation behind all ‘‘ Enots” productions ensures high quality and lasting service.

Bs Price complete with 3 gall. copper tank, all-brass pump, 3 ft. hose, 33 in. lance, and Powell’s Patent any-angle Jet, 65/=

Catalogues of horticultural accessories free on request.

BENTON & STONE,

(Established 1825] Bracebridge Street,

__, BIRMINGHAM. “cdh See eee

GENTLEMEN] ;

To Tippers belong the hon INTRODUCING and INVENTIM,

COD LIVER OIL CONDIMET

No Imitator can equal the ORIGIN 1886 patented TIPPERS.

This Condiment possesses some f¢

not to be found in any other for’ List free with pleasure.

B. c. TIPPER & SON, pe se ernary Chemical #

Birmingham.

%

mi pee

THIS SEAS ol

SEND FOR LIST AND PRIGESIE

J.W. CR

Old Grammar

WISE

Large Assortment of Fruit . fi Trees in Stock. i

ean in Full.

‘THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, —A dvertisements. i

*

APPOINTED BY ROVAL WARRANT,

BAROUNS, SIMs 5 & JEFFERIES, LTD., :

Manufacture the best

i

)OUGHS FOR ALL PURPOSES

ba oe THE “IPSWICH,” “*SMALL ATO DIGGERS, HORSE RAKES, HOLDINGS,’’ “‘ TRIPLEX” & | AND SWATH TURNERS. “ORWELL”? CULTIVATORS.

Catalogues Free, at the

ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH.

Y ue OUGALLS DIPS ony DIP

THE GREAT PRIZE WINNER | _

| GIVES A NICE BLOOM AND | |}|COLOUR TO THE FLEECE.

5 || Kills all Keds, Lice, &c. | Cures Scab.

‘\|PASTE, CAKE

AND

Ty iit “1 ) SF 3 3 h BN! ; ! 4 : c -

[He WORLD'S ORIGINAL DIP |

NMicDougall’s anne a i cae "Me oe 8&5)

ii THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. |

P 'Furms Pi, togee| Vited

etl

INTEY, ;

vi : = JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.— Advertisements. ill e

jt . it ti me rr

cea

Bs: [err eS lll [ H CATALOGUES

Pivaee mention tee. J a

TO MANURE [AT A PROFIT.

EVERY FARMER HIS OWN EXPERIMENTER.

"» NOW

is the time to attack the im- ‘mature worms in sheep and lambs before they develop from the cysts and become harmful _ full-sized tape or round worms.

““WURMOIDS” ” ne the remedy approved by H zt B. Mi. BUCHANAN, B. A. a VET.” The cost is small, ¥ about 4d. adose, and they are (Cantahb.),

easily given.

"i 100 ©“ Weurmoids’? are sent |00st free, together with Mlus- trated Booklet, for 5/=

| Author of the “COUNTRY READERS,” and Joint Author of “ LESSONS ON COUNTRY LIFE,”

AND

J. J. WILLIS,

Superintendent of the Rothamsted Field Hxpervments.

CBI» by post "54

W. A. May,

_ |W. STEVENS & CO. \113, Westminster Bridge Rd., | London.

"ce€ is. by post, is. 3d.

“Mark LANE Express ”’ Office,

iM, FIELD & FIRESIDE, | 3, WELLINGTON ST., STRAND, LONDON.

i\;ton Street, Strand, London, W.C.

PIGS FOR BACON.

vm). & THOS. HARRIS & CO., Ltd., Bacon Curers, Calne, Wilts, are ep imays open “i quality pigs from 6 sc. 10 Ibs. to 10 sc. 10 lbs.

| tention this Journal. ESTABLISHED 170.

iv THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. — Advertisements,

“A TRUE PLANT Sj | "=

i

——— TERED TRADE acc’? Many

£ A ee : oy rcp - Oaks. ¥ == “THE FOUR OAKS,

Gives immense in= ; if | | &f crease in CORN, / elo) ee FOUR AK ROOT, and / ae

GRASS CROPS / | Reliable Gold Meda

HOPS all Leading Bh 5 / Dealers in for cal ak

Manures. Potat: is

Fruit bb Charlk, | \, Cattlead — q be

Invalua

Pamphlets gratis

from the Sheeprilyay : : also for) f)) |, Chilean Nitrate Limeweing |,

Buildys of ev descriion,

==

Committee, FRIARS HOUSE, New Broad Street, LONDON, E.C.

PuEasE MENTION THIS JOURNAL.

No Ri) Vals

No. 101 “FOUR OAKS” Gold Medal All Wola

Patent Knapsack Sprayer.

VK AN

WN

GPMOdy2 & sPsw Mc

oy

ALY OAR aD jh -< 2 ; ap i He 4 i

— ae ss

The most satisfactory in the market

‘CERE ES”

STACKSHEETS.

Rotproof. ==" § Quality ~———_———_, ¥

Size J Ko N eer EAL SB a7 8

8 yds.x 6 yds. 36/- 42/- 48/- 72/- 72/- 120/- 132/- 156/- ¢ 8 yds.x 8 yds. 48/- 56/- 64/- 96/- 96/- 160/- 176/- 208/- # 10 yds.x 8 yds. 60/- 70/- 80/- 120/- 120/- 200/- 220/- 260/- # 12 yds. x10 yds. 90/- 105/- 120/- 180/- 180/- 300/- 330/- 390/- &

Apply for Lists and samples of Canvas,

J. RANDS & JEGKELL, ipswich.

Sack, Rickcloth and Tent Manufacturers <= A purchaser wrltes :—"* With one fe a To His Majesty the King. ‘ I “have limewashed in one and a half he ‘ previously took me three days.”

THE © FOUR OAKS” SPRAYING MACH!

_No. 200, Sutton Coldfield, ‘Birmini™

Carr. paid on Orders of 40s. 5 % Discount for Cash.

re

PUBLICATIONS OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES.

Annual Reports and other Publications presented to Parliament.—A complete list of these publications and of the leaflets can be obtained on application to the Secretary, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 4, Whitehall Place, London, S. W.

Leaflets.—Single copies of the leaflets issued by the Board can be obtained free of charge on application as above. Leaflets Nos. 1 to 100 and Leaflets Nos. 101 to 200 are issued, bound in stiff boards, price 6d. each volume post free. The leaflets up to No. 200 are also issued in twelve sectional volumes, each section containing those dealing with closely related subjects, price ld. per volume, post free. (One set, or 12 volumes, 9d. post free.)

The following is a list of recent leaflets :—

No. | Title. No. Title. The Marketing of Poultry. 228 | Prevention of Cruelty in the The Frit Fly. ' Destruction of Hares, &c. Utilization of Peat Lands. 229 | The Breeding and Rearing of Apple Tree Mildew. | - Turkeys. Apple Sawfly. 230 | Cucumber and Tomato Canker. Grain Weevils. 231 | Cheesemaking for Small Holders. Strawberry Cultivation. 232 | ‘* Corky Scab” of Potatoes. Larch Shoot Moths. 234 | Leaf-shedding in Conifers, due to Gooseberry Cluster-Cup Disease. | — Botrytis cinerea. The Oyster-Shell Bark Scale. 235 The Organisation of the Milk Cider Orchards. | Supply. Railway Fires Act, 1905. 236 Thatching. aaa Gooseberry Black-knot. 237 | Redwater in Cattle (Bovine piro- Agricultural Credit Banks. | plasmosis). | 238 | Leaf Diseases of Celery.

Small Holding. 239 | The Pear Leaf Blister Mite. The Administration of the Small | 240 | Farm Book-keeping.

Holdings Acts. 242 | Bacteriosis of the Potato and The Administration of the Allot- Tomato.

222

{ How to obtain an Allotment or 223 |

The Journal of the Board of Agriculture is issued on the 15th of each month, and may be ordered, through any bookseller or railway bookstall, from the Board of Agriculture; or it will be forwarded direct from the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 4, Whitehall Place, London, 8. W., at the following rates:—Three , months, ls. ; six months, 2s.; twelve months, 4s.

All communications relating to advertisements should be addressed to the Sole

\Agents, Messrs. Laverton & Co., Lrp., 3, Wellington Street, Strand, W.C. a

A Return. of Market Prices of Fat and Store Stock, Dairy Cattle, Meat, 2rovisions, Fruit, Vegetables, Hay and Straw at certain representative Markets in 7reat Britain is issued every Saturday containing Reports of Markets up to the receding Thursday.

Price One Penny per copy, to be obtained either directly or through any book- j eller, from Wrman & Sons, Lrp., Fetter Lane, E.C.; Oniver & Boyp, -\idinburgh; or E. Ponsonsy, 116, Grafton Street, Dublin.

_| A copy will be sent regularly as issued, by the publishers, for three, six,or twelve

tonths, on payment of a subseription, including postage, at the rate of 6s. 6d. per nnoum,

| Ordnance Survey Maps of Great Britain and Iveland.—There are Agents or the sale of Ordnance Survey Maps in most of the chief towns. Maps can also | ordered through any bookseller, or from the Director-General, Ordnance Survey })ftice, Southampton, or—in the case of Ireland—from the Director-General, _|rdnance Survey, Dublin. |

vi THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.— Advertisements,

a

DAY AFTER DAY, WEEK AFTER WEEK, ALL WINTER AND SPRING, YOU CAN

INCREASE YOUR PROFIE

BY ENSURING IMMENSE CROPS OF THE BEST AND MOST NOURISH ( GREEN FOOD. —

OUR FREE CATCH-CROP CATALOGUE tells you how to make @ square foot of your land keep on paying the Biggest Profits all Winter and § and is Yours for the asking. Gives useful Cultural Directions for the foll Indispensable Crops to

o- as Texte Rec et SOW’ ROW TOOGOOD’S EARLY RED TRIFOLIUM, TOOGOOD’S MUSTARD, j TOOGOOD’S LATE RED TRIFOLIUM, TOOGOOD’S GIANT RAPE, TOOGOOD’S LATE WHITE TRIFOLIUM, TOOGOOD’S THOUSAND- HEADED KA TOOGOOD’S GIANT ITALIAN RYE-GRASSES, TOOGOOD’S IMPROVED VETCHES,

TOOGOOD’S GIANT RYE, TOCCGOOD’S WINTER BARLEY, TOOGGOOD’S WINTER OATS, ee) Sica 5 ORAIES FOR LATE Te}

LET US SEND YOU FREE!SAMPLES of any of these Seeds that interest you; @ sure you write for YOUR copy of our Catch-Crop Catalogue NOW.

EVERY SEED SOLD ON APPROVAL if you get it from

TOOGOOD & SONS, SOUTHAMPTON,

The Royal Seedsmen for 62 years.

ee

NITROLIM

is cheaper per unit of nitrogen than either Sulphate of Ammonia, Nitrate of Soda or — Nitrate of Lime. —

For price and particulars of Nitrolim, apply to— {

MANURE MANUFACTURERS,

or their Agents throughout England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.

WOOD FENCING | FARM BUILDINGS & GATES, DURABLE'ECONOMICAL |

NO PAINT-OR TAR_REQ' SEND FOR OUR FREE ILLUSTRATED

Pamphlets, &c., gratis of

NORTH-WESTERN CYANAMIDE Co., Ltd., | |

40, EASTCHEAP, LONDON, E.C.

CONTENTS.

PAGE _ Report oF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS rate Ben ee eh OO | | Topacco GROWING FOR INSECTICIDAL PuRpPosEs. G. H. Garrad. SE OTS | Forestry IN Norway. 8S. Burtt Meyer. vi cme - a ws O80 | A Spanisu System or Estate ManacGement. WM. le Comte de Montornés. 394 } | Isle of Wight Bee Disease ae Ae oF a ote spe soe b OO | Slaughtering of Young Calves .... eR meee a *f au sv 400 | Human and Animal Tuberculosis... Se pai esg se is .. 405 : | The School of Agriculture, Cambridge ... ee ee. AN on ven ny 407 | | A Suggested Type of Agricultural School __... a s = see ATL | The Mustard Beetle ae mi es aa Ba eer 1S - | An Example of the Introduction of eer Telephones re ne ww. 414 1 Seethary of Agricultural Experiments ... Sedat 3) a Manuring of Oats and Mangolds—Manuring - of Grass Land— | Manuring for Milk—Manuring of Seed and Hay—Manuring of Potatoes— Manuring of Mangolds —-Superphosphate or Mineral Phosphates for Swedes—Fecundity of Sheep—Breeding from Ewes at an Early Age—Potato Spraying with Woburn Bordeaux Paste— Investigations on Potato Disease—Lime-Sulphur Wash—Pruning of Apple and Pear Bushes—Use of Market Varieties of Apples for Cider. ‘Official Circulars and Notices nak 423 Advisory Council on Horse Breeding—Aid from the Development Fund for the Provision and Maintenance of Farm Institutes— Applications for Advances from the Development Fund for Motor Services in Rural Districts—Carriage of Milk ee Rail—Foot and | Mouth Disease in Middlesex and Sussex. “mportation Regulations ... 429 “Importation of Potatoes into Australia—Importation ‘of Live Stock into South Africa—Inspection of Imported Potatoes in South Africa i —Importation of Dogs into the Straits Settlements. | ee Congresses and Exhibitions Abroad _... : 43] Barley and Hop Exhibition at Chicago—International Congress and _ Exhibition of Agriculture. ; Votes on the Weather in July... oe os ss sak a . 482 ‘rop Conditions in Great Britain on August Ist ne oc ae . 433 Totes on Crop Prospects Abroad 434 : Report of the International Institute of Agriculture, Comparative Gs Numerical Statement of the World’s Harvest—France—Hungary— — Roumania—World’s Hop Crop— Russia— United States — Ger- _ many—Canada. : revalence of Animal Diseases on the Continent... igen Mig egennuAeie | gricultural Labour in England during July ... st Aes a olen £8 jae Corn Markets in Juty. C. Kains-Jackson .... esl one ee SY)

jm Live anp Deap Meat TrapE in Juty. A. T. Maiihetes a eee Adal NWeePRovision Trapn in Juny. Hedley Stevens ... ... .. e448 juz Fruir TRADE IN Jury. W. W. Glenny... tes By oe J - 445 |rices of Agricultural Produce... x ee a, an aa 447 id ‘ ||seases of Animals .. A ae an Bhs Bee ‘ais ne Men aoe et | ditions to the ine ae tee ed GA er ee ay ee ht LADS

NOTICE.

fo 4 , respecting the contents of this Journal should be addressed to the

iG joretary, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 4, Whitehall Place, London, S.W. }Messrs. Laughton & Co., Ltd., 3, Wellington Street, Strand, W.C., are the alle Contractors for Advertisements in the Journal, and communications respecting gee pements must be addvessed to that firm and not to the Board of Agriculture.

vii THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements, \.

f

APPROVED BY THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE } FOR SHEEP SCAB IN GREAT BRITAIN. |

FOR SUMMER DIPPING use

AR,

THE BEST POWDER DIP.

: : f f hs . i

12 Packets = = a0) = : 36 ne = = = 27/6 CARRIAGE PAID TO ANY STA‘O} 72 39 aa = = 50/=

THE CHEMICAL UNION, LTD, IPSWIC

We Specialise in all kinds of ECONOMICA, STEEL ROOFING for FARMS and ESTATE.

Cart Sheds, Stock Yards, Iron and Wire Fencié, &

Drawings and Estimates Free. 4

BOULTON & PAUL, Ltd., NORWE

—_—

2

THE JOURNAL.) {0° OF THE

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

Vol. XVIII. No. 5.

AUGUST, 1911.

mEPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS.

THE Development Commissioners, who were appointed under the Development and Road Improvement Funds Acts, _ Ig09 and 1gi0, have recently issued a Report [H.C. tigg. yi | Price 3d.| on their proceedings during the period from the _t2th May, i910 (the date of their appointment), to the gist March, 1911. In view of the fact that a substantial ~ proportion of the Fund established by these Acts is to be . devoted to the promotion of agriculture, forestry, and rural f | industries, the Report is of great interest to agriculturists. | The Opening portion of the Report is devoted to a state- of | ment of the general principles governing the Commissioners’ action, apart from the procedure laid down in the Act of 09. It is stated that: “The first of these principles is that, to Z| deal satisfactorily with many of the purposes mentioned in # \the Act of 1909, it is absolutely necessary to work on a comprehensive policy, which shall provide for and take | _ ‘account of the whole of at least one of the three main adminis- | oe divisions of the United Kingdom (viz., England and ( Wales, Scotland, and Ireland), and shall, wherever possible, voit ibe based on a survey of the position and needs of the whole eth kingdom in relation to that particular subject. Take, for . \instance, the very important question of research in agricul- ‘ural science. Numerous applications for advances from the ‘Development pane for different branches of research and

A =

i.

i i

a

370 REPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS. |[AUG,,

ve <e

ee

“ie D

a | it © 1 : i 4 ra

pieces of research work were expected, and have, in fact, been made by bodies, institutions, and associations all over the | kingdom. It seemed to the Commissioners that there would aa inevitably be waste of energy and money if these applications were simply taken one by one as they arrived, and advances — recommended to those institutions which made out a good P case for themselves, irrespective of other institutions and the d | work done by them. It is probably neither desirable nor a he possible to prevent all overlapping and duplication of work, Ps Hp and the Commissioners realise that individual investigators | and institutions cannot and ought not to be dragooned into *) uncongenial tasks. But looking to the vast amount of work |

still to be done, they think that any advances from the Fund © |

1a Re,

for this purpose should be made on a coherent and compre- | hensive scheme, covering as wide an area as possible. The a | result of the absence of such a plan might well be that research 3 | work subsidised from public funds would be unnecessarily duplicated, or that one institution would undertake some enticing problem with which it was fitted to deal, but not | so well fitted as another institution in a different part of the /

one part of the field of agricultural research, while other parts, no less important scientifically and economically, but for some | reason less attractive, were left neglected and unexplored. |

“Agricultural research has been taken as an example, but |

purposes for which advances may be made from the F und. | The Commissioners do not lay it down as a hard-and-fast |

from an examination of all possible or probable applications of the same nature or apart from a general scheme applicable to the whole country or a large part of it; and the necessity | of such a scheme varies with the purpose for which advances |

are desired. But, for the reasons briefly indicated above, the

simply and entirely as a disconnected unit, but in the ligh

of a policy which takes account of the requirements of a wi

‘area than a single district or institution.” : In addition to this general policy, the Commissioners po

a |

he?

—— nnn

I911.] REPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS. 371

out that they do not think that it would be consistent with their duty to recommend an advance from the Development Fund until a fairly detailed scheme for the expenditure of the money is framed and approved, and that they do not propose, as a general rule and subject in certain cases to considerations of practical convenience, to recommend advances from the Development Fund in relief of existing expenditure, whether from Parliamentary votes, local rates, or other sources. They propose to proceed rather on an opposite plan. So far from recommending advances iin relief of existing expenditure, they contemplate using the Fund, within reasonable limits, aS a means of provoking expenditure from other sources. Policy in Regard to Agricultural Development.—Having regard to the amount of the Development Fund, they propose to deal with the problem of agricultural development by devoting their attention principally to three lines of action. They aim first at increasing the amount and quality of the product of agriculture by assisting the extension of a system of scientific investigation and research, and, with it, of a system of education which will, so far as possible, ensure that the results of investigation and research are known and utilised in practice; and secondly, they aim at increasing the variety of production, by placing the cultivator in a position to know whether he can add certain new crops and industries to the existing number with a reasonable probability of profit. Finally, looking at the problem from a rather different and more strictly commercial point of view, they propose to encourage in particular the organisation of co-operation—a subject which is expressly named in the Act.

It is not really possible immediately to do a great deal

_in regard to the first and third of these three lines of action

by the simple process of spending a great deal of money, for the reason that there are not the men available. Nothing has impressed the Commissioners more than the clearness with which the fact has appeared that the first condition of any considerable progress in these ways is the creation of a

| trained staff. It is useless to expect that immediate results | of real value can be obtained on a large scale merely by | expenditure. One example is sufficient: the number of men | teally qualified to conduct agricultural research in this country

GeCe2

372 REPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS. [AUG.,

is at present exceedingly small, and it obviously cannot be © increased at a moment’s notice. 7 The problem of increasing the variety of production is likely to raise difficult questions both of principle and practice, __ It is enough at this early stage to name flax, hemp, tobacco, — od and beet as particular crops to which the Commissioners ||): propose to give attention, with a view to ascertaining whether if they can be grown in this country on a commercial: basis, a and to possible schemes for advances from the Development Fund for that purpose. They have appointed two gentlemen | of scientific training to investigate by inquiry at home and abroad, and to systematise for their use the information avail- ed able in regard to the first three of these crops. In regard to beet, they propose to consider in consultation with the | Government Departments concerned the question whether ita) is possible to make an experiment on a fairly large scale, designed to show not whether beet of good quality can be | grown in this country (a point which they think may be | regarded as settled), but whether it can be grown at a profit, | The fact has to be faced that such experiments are not very | cheap, and that they may fail. But even in that case, the | Commissioners venture to suggest that, though lost, the | money spent will not have been wasted. It may be regarded — as the price paid for the knowledge that under existing con- ditions a certain crop is not commercially possible in this country, and its loss may prevent for the future the useless — expenditure of money and effort on a far larger scale. | Policy in Regard to Forestry.—On the subject of forestry | development the Commissioners have formulated for their | guidance in considering British schemes and applications, | the following principles :— z (a) That the first requirement for such dévelopmell is | effective education in forestry at suitable centres, regulated | by organised research and demonstration. = | (b) That no scheme of State afforestation on a large scale | can be considered until investigation has shown where State | forests might be economically and remuneratively provided | (regard being had to the interests of other rural industries), | and until a trained body of foresters has become available. — (c) That for the present applications for grants for t

i

1911.] REPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS. 373

- above purposes should include provision for the creation and

_ maintenance of such staff as may be necessary to give prac-

_ tical advice and assistance to those who desire to undertake afforestation or to develop existing afforested areas.

It will be gathered that in considering their action in this, as in other directions, the Commissioners have been faced at the outset with the difficulty that the number of trained men _in this country capable of directing forestry operations on -any large scale is at present very small. Before all else they ‘think it necessary that this difficulty should be overcome. Agriculiural Research and Education in England and ‘Wales.—The Report then proceeds to describe the negotia-

tions which were carried on during the year with a view to

the settlement of a general scheme to be administered by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries for the organisation of a “system to aid and develop agriculture by the provision of ‘technical advice for farmers and by promoting scientific

)tesearch and experiments in the science, methods, and prac-

tice of agriculture. A final conclusion was not reached by the end of the year, but the Commissioners informed the

Board that they were willing to contemplate an expenditure .

jof £40,000 per annum for research work alone, apart from | and other work.

The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, however, sug- ieee to the Commissioners that certain interim grants should de made through the Board to certain institutions, to enable whem to carry on approved lines of investigation during the year 1911-12, at the end of which period it was anticipated hat the requirements of agricultural research would be dealt with under the general scheme. The Commissioners stipu- ated that the institutions concerned should be made clearly 0 understand that the grants were provisional and without “ rejudice to the general scheme under consideration, and

hat they would not be renewed in subsequent years, except 0 so far as the institutions were found eligible for grants onder the general scheme.

| The Commissioners then decided to recommend that the jollowing grants, or such proportion as might be required pr the financial year, should be paid to the Board for the

enefit of the institutions named below, and for the purposes dicated.

|

i

374 sEPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS. [AUG.,

Cambridge University.—Research work ... ons it GAO Bristol University.—(1) Bio-chemical investigations on cheese; (2) investigation of teart land . 500 Yorkshire Council for Agricultural Education ‘(Leeds University).—Investigation of atmospheric impurities 210 be University College, Reading.—General work on (1) | Microflora of cheese; (2) cereal selection z 250 South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye.—(1) inventions i tions on tobacco; (2) Mycological Department; (3) t Entomological Department 2 Investigations on hop re Tesimsn ess ae ee nee «+s - 350 ql University Gules ot: Wales: Aberystwyth.—Botanical s survey of Aberystwyth, and subsidiary inquiries ae 156 be Harper Adams Agricultural College.—Research on wart ty disease, and finger and toe . oe Mi 190 Royal Veterinary College. -Ainebetiadene in rage of if animal diseases Sag 2» 1/1;390 tt The Incorporated Society for Extending ‘Me Rothanisted Experiments ... Oe ae bas, 2,000 The British Dairy fnstiuite, nmpadens at oe Se 60 : Woburn Experimental Station oe at ar wie) ODS

The Commissioners further intimated to the Board that ie they would be prepared to recommend additional interim grants not exceeding in the aggregate a sum of £3,000 to | certain other institutions which had not been reported on up to that time. They also informed the Board that hey would be ready to recommend a grant of £1,000 to make — c% provision for scholarships during the financial year so soon | as a scheme could be prepared. | |

With regard to agricultural instruction (so far as it lies within the province of the Board of Education), the Commis- — sioners, after negotiations, stated on the 2nd March that they were prepared to recommend the Treasury to allocate £65,000 — per annum for agricultural education in England and Wales, on the submission and approval of a scheme for the apa | | | ture of that sum through the Board of Education and Local Education Authorities.* 4 |

The Report also deals with the applications made by hele Scotch Education Department and the Irish Depattmalii of Agriculture. : |

Co-operation——On the 3rd September, 1910, an applica- tion was made by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries for | an advance of £20,000 per annum for the organisation of

* A circular letter setting out the details of this scheme appears on p. 425.

IQ1I.]| REPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS. 375

co-operation among agriculturists in England and Wales, and the Commissioners also had before them an application from the Agricultural Organisation Society, and took evidence in connection with both applications. An interim grant to the Society was contemplated at the close of the year. Horse and Live Stock Breeding.—The Commissioners received on the 26th July, 1910, an application by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries for a grant of £50,000 per annum, of which £5,000 was to be devoted to live-stock other than horses, and £45,000 to the encouragement of light-horse breeding in Great Britain, and after taking evidence the Commissioners recommended the ‘Treasury to advance

436,000 for one year to the Board by way of grant, to be

expended generally as follows :—

re (a) Payment of premiums to the owners of stallions .... 13,000 (6) Encouragement of the keeping of brood mares ... 10,000 (c) Free nominations for the service of mares by premium stallions... ee ae me eG 0DG (d) Purchase of stallions... oe ee se ais, OOO (e) Registration of stallions ... ae ae ace Be tf 5,000

In order to secure the elasticity which they considered necessary to the inauguration of a new scheme, the Com- missioners reported that in their opinion the Board should be allowed some latitude in making transfers from one head of expenditure to the other, and in altering the character of their operations in detail.

The Commissioners suggested further that in the event of the Treasury favourably considering their recommendation, it should be intimated to the Board that the Treasury and the Commissioners will be prepared, if the result of the first year’s working seems to justify a continuance of the experi- ment, and the state of the Development Fund permits of further advances, to consider favourably an application for a second grant at or near the end of a year from the date when the first advance was made—assuming that by that time

it had been almost or quite exhausted.

The Commissioners recommended also as a condition of the advance that a majority of the members of each of the

local committees formed under the scheme should be

nominated by the County Council or Councils concerned.

376 REPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS. [AUG.,

The details of the scheme for the promotion of live-stock breeding had not been submitted to the Commissioners at the end of the year. |

A grant of £10,000 per annum for five years was recom- mended for the extension of the existing horse-breeding schemes of the Irish Department of Agriculture. —

Forestry.—The Commissioners received on the 25th Marche 191i, through the Treasury, a memorandum from the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, outlining a comprehensive scheme of forestry for England and Wales. The immediate advance desired is £9,300 for the year rg1i—12, but the © ultimate expenditure contemplated is very much larger. The Commissioners are communicating with the Board on the subject.

Schemes for the promotion of forestry in Scotland and

Ireland were also under consideration, and in regard to

Scotland, the Commissioners have agreed to the provision of a central demonstration area—for the acquisition of which preliminary steps are being taken—and of a forestry school in connection with it; and also to the provision of small forest gardens for the local use of the agricultural colleges.

In regard to Ireland, they have agreed to advances of *

425,000 or 430,000 for the purchase of land, and to further advances, as soon as formal and definite applications are made under the Act, for additions to staff and for the main- tenance and management of small woodlands in the hands of County Councils.

Other Applications.—The Commissioners also had before them applications for the development and improvement of fisheries, the construction and improvement of harbours and of inland navigations, as well as some miscellaneous applications.

Summary.—The sums of which the Commissioners have © either recommended the allocation, or agreed to recommend it as soon as Satisfactory schemes are framed, amount roughly to £165,000 per annum, and £100,000 non-recurring ad-

vances. By far the larger proportion of this expenditure, if |

ultimately approved by the Treasury, will go in agricultural |

research and instruction, viz., England and Wales £105,000 |

per annum, Scotland a lump sum of £60,000 and 45,000 | per annum, Ireland £9,000 per annum.

ee

1O11.| REPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONERS. 377

These figures do not take account of the considerable sums, of which no definite estimate can yet be given but for which schemes were either being prepared or were under examina- tion by the Commissioners at the close of the year, e.g., forestry in England and Wales, the purchase of a demonstra- tion area in Scotland and the establishment there of a central school of forestry, the development of Irish fisheries and fishery harbours, and the encouragement of the organisation

of co-operation throughout the United Kingdom. Nor do

they take account of applications which had not reached the Commissioners, though known as having been made or about to be made to the [Treasury—as, for instance, schemes for the development and improvement of British fisheries and of Scotch harbours; nor again of possible expenditure on such projects as the revival of the flax and hemp industries, the encouragement of tobacco and beet cultivation, or the estab- lishment of an institution for the study of rural economics. In the first nine months of their work the Commissioners, so far as they are concerned, have allocated, and, as they think, rightly allocated, one-third of the annual income guaranteed to the Development Fund for five years. Out of the two-thirds which now remain they hope to provide during the coming year for considerable annual expenditure on such purposes as forestry and forestry instruction and the Organisation of co-operation; and it cannot be supposed that expenditure on the purposes with which they have already dealt ought to or will remain stationary at the amounts pro- visionally fixed. Looking to these facts, the Commissioners state that they cannot but feel some apprehension that unless Parliament comes to the aid of the Fund its position in a very few years will not be a strong one. They will, however, be far more able to form an opinion on this important question at the end of the financial year 1911-12, by which time they

hope that all the applications hitherto made to the Treasury

will have reached them from the Government Departments,

that considerable schemes known to be in preparation will

have been submitted, and that the inquiries which they are making into such subjects as flax, hemp, and tobacco cultiva-

tion will have been completed, or be on the point of completion.

378 TOBACCO GROWING FOR INSECTICIDAL PURPOSES. [AUG.,

TOBACCO GROWING FOR INSECTICIDAL PURPOSES:

G. H.. GARRAD,

Assistant Botanist and Lecturer in Tropical Agriculture, South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye.

NICOTINE, the active principle of tobacco, has long been known amongst fruit-growers as a very efficient insecticide. It is, in fact, one of the most effective general insecticides we have. Its effects are more lasting than those of any other

wash, especially if a small amount of soft soap 1s mixed with ~

it, and it does no harm to the foliage or to delicate blossoms. Its penetrating power enables it to reach the inner surface of curled up leaves, and when desired it can be mixed with a sulphur wash for a combined attack on aphis, caterpillars, and mildews.

The price at which nicotine is sold on the market, however, makes it too expensive for use for ordinary commercial pur- poses. With nicotine (96 per cent. pure) at 15s. per lb., and

using I I-5 oz. nicotine in 10 gallons of water, the cost of —

the wash works out at nearly 1d. per gallon. Professor

Theobald considers 1 oz. nicotine per 10 gallons water quite —

sufficient if a small quantity (5 oz.) of soft soap is added. This reduces the cost to about 1d. per gallon, but even this price is much too high for general purposes.

To test the possibility of growing the tobacco merely for |

insecticidal purposes experiments have been carried out during the past year at the South Eastern Agricultural College. 2 |

In this connection the Excise Regulations respecting the growing of smoking tobacco in this country are of primary

importance, but it must be remembered that for nicotine _ | extraction the variety grown would probably be a snuff |

variety, unsuitable for smoking on account of its pungent

character, and rendered still more so by the special treatment

it would receive to increase its nicotine content. The fruit-

grower, moreover, when growing his own insecticide, would | not cure the leaves at all, so that the tobacco would never be ~ | in a fit state for smoking, and lastly, to eliminate all possi- -| bility of the home-grown tobacco being used for illicit |

We ee Se een

1911.] TOBACCO GROWING FOR INSECTICIDAL PURPOSES. 379

purposes, there seems to be no objection to de-naturing the crop by spraying the plants before or after they are cut with some objectionable substance so as to render them incapable of being smoked. At present, however, tobacco can only be grown in England by persons possessing an Excise licence on land approved by the Excise Commissioners, and in accord- ance with the prescribed Regulations, a summary of which was given in this JOURNAL, February, 1911, p. 943.

The fruit-grower would reap many advantages by growing his own crop rather than by buying the manufactured leaf. He would save the duty; he would save the cost of curing and fermenting (operations in which a large amount of nicotine is lost), and he would save the cost of carriage and middle- men’s profits. An exceptionally rank variety of tobacco con- taining the highest percentage of nicotine would be selected, and as large a crop as possible would be grown without regard to the question of quality from the smoking point of view. All these circumstances would tend to reduce the cost, and he would get a much cheaper article and an article much better suited to his purpose than any he could purchase.

Nor is it the fruit-grower only who would reap the advan- tage of growing his own tobacco. The hop-grower and also the sheep-farmer would gain quite as much. The worst insect enemy which the hop-grower has to fight against is undoubtedly the Hop Damson Aphis, or “Hop Fly” (Phorodon humult), and against this pest nicotine wash is considerably more effective than the commonly used soft soap and quassia. Then, again, nicotine is very effective as a sheep-dip. It destroys both the sheep ked (Melophagus ovinus), and the sheep-scab mite, without injuring

either the sheep or the wool. In fact, it was by com- pulsory dipping with either a tobacco and sulphur dip

or a lime and sulphur dip that sheep-scab was exterminated

from New Zealand. The fruit-farmer, the hop-grower, and

the sheep-breeder and feeder would therefore all gain if the price of nicotine could be so reduced as to be within the reach of everybody.

The experiments which were conducted at Wye last year dealt chiefly with questions of cultivation, and they demon-

strated that tobacco can be grown to maturity in this country,

380 TOBACCO GROWING FOR INSECTICIDAL PURPOSES, [AUG., .

and that with a suitable variety and a good soil a satisfactory crop could be obtained. When the leaves are dried it is possible to extract about 95 per cent. of the nicotine simply by soaking the powdered leaves in water. Investigations are, moreover, being carried out in the Chemical Laboratory of the College by Mr. Edwardes-Ker with a view of discovering a simple and inexpensive method by which the grower can extract the whole of the nicotine. No statement can at present be made on this point, but in the meantime an account of the method of cultivation, based on the experiments at Wye last year, may be of interest.

Varieties Grown.—There are two species of tobacco commonly grown for smoking purposes, Nicotiana Tabacum and Nicotiana rustica, both belonging to the same natural order as the potato and the tomato—the natural order Solanaceae. Nicotiana Tabacum is the commonest, and is easily distinguished by its red tubular flowers and long and moderately narrow leaves. It is the species that provides all the best types of smoking tobaccos. The other species, Nicotiana rustica, has a yellow flower of quite a different shape from that of N. Tabacum. It is a much shorter plant, and bears large wide leathery leaves rather resembling cabbage leaves. It is a much coarser plant altogether than N. Tabacum, and as coarseness as a rule means high nicotine content it is probable that this species will be more likely to suit the purpose of the nicotine grower than the one ordinarily grown for smoking tobacco. Moreover, it has other advan- tages in that it is hardier and matures earlier than N. Tabacum, and consequently it is more suited to our short English summer.

Of these two species twenty varieties were tested, the seed - being obtained from the United States, the Transvaal, India, Italy, and Ireland.

Sowing the Seed.—Owing to the short summer tobacal cannot be grown entirely out of doors in this country, and the seed has to be started under glass. An ordinary garden

frame consisting of three “lights,” each measuring 6 feet by — |

4 feet, and resting on a hot-bed, was found a suitable form of seed-bed. The hot-bed should consist of fresh horse manure — containing a fair amount of straw, and the manure should not |

|

{ } |

| “| | | |

i

1911.) TOBACCO GROWING FOR INSECTICIDAL PURPOSES. 381

be allowed to heat until just before the beds are made. It should be about nine inches to a foot deep, or at the rate of about one ton of manure per 6 feet by 4 feet sash. The glass- covered frame should then be placed on the top of the manure without any delay, and the heap covered with about two inches of finely prepared soil in which to sow.the tobacco seed.

Tobacco seed is extremely small and consequently very difficult to sow thinly and evenly. The best way is to mix the seed with a large quantity of ashes so as to increase the bulk. It can then be sown more thickly, and there is the additional advantage that the colour of the ashes shows up against the soil, so that the sower can see when any part of the seed bed is left unsown. ©

The quantity of seed sown was one-thirtieth of an ounce to each sash, but this was found to be too much, and one- fortieth of an ounce of seed would be quite sufficient. The sowing was done on March 23rd.

Planting Out, Soil and Manuring.—The young plants may be put out in the open as soon as all danger of frost is over, about the end of May. The most suitable soil for the production of nicotine, so far as the experiments have shown at present, is a moderately heavy rich loam with liberal manuring. A good foundation in the form of dung in the autumn will be required, followed by a good dressing of artificials in the spring before planting out. Nitrogenous Manures especially seem to encourage the formation of nicotine, so that two or three small dressings of nitrate of soda after the plants have become established will be found useful. :

The soil must be thoroughly well worked and reduced to a fine tilth before planting out. The rows should then be marked out with an empty drill 3 feet or 24 feet apart, and the plants dibbled in after the manner of cabbages at distances of 2 feet or 1} feet in the rows. Foreign experi- ments have shown that the closer the plants are put together the higher becomes the yield but the lower the percentage of nicotine. The experiments last year failed to show any

difference in nicotine content, whilst the close-planted plot (3 feet by 14 feet) gave the heaviest crop.

382 TOBACCO GROWING FOR INSECTICIDAL PURPOSES, [AUG.,

Shelier.—The question of shelter is a very important one. Only land which is naturally well sheltered from wind should be selected for the growing of tobacco. A single stormy night may do an immense amount of damage to the crop unless it is well protected. Where natural wind breaks cannot be obtained, artificial ones, such as hop lewing or a belt of some tall luxuriant plants, e.g., Kentucky hemp, artichokes, climbing haricot beans, or Ne Plus Ultra peas, must be used. :

Weeding.—The land must be kept scrupulously clean in the early stages of growth, because by the middle of July the leaves of the plants will begin to overlap, making horse- hoeing impossible, whilst even hand-hoeing will have to be abandoned about a month later. All weeds must therefore be removed while the plants are still young.

LTopping.— When the plants have developed about a dozen _ good leaves the whole top of the plant must be removed. — This operation is known as “topping,” and has for its object — the prevention of seeding and the concentration of the entire energy of the plant into developing to the full those ten or twelve leaves that remain. Topping is nearly always carried — out with smoking tobaccos, and it is found to be even more necessary where nicotine is the object in view. A few large | weli-grown leaves were found at Wye to contain 23 times as much nicotine as a larger weight of small leaves left on | another plant growing under the same conditions but left _ untopped. .

The effect of breaking off the stem of the plant is to cause | development of shoots in the axils of the remaining leaves. These are known as “‘ suckers,’’ and they have to be removed by hand as fast as they appear. In the case of smoking tobaccos suckering is done once a week from the time of topping to the time of harvesting, and probably it pays to do it just as often in the case of tobacco grown for nicotine extraction. The work can quite well be done by a boy, but | it is nevertheless an expensive operation, costing about five | shillings an acre every time it is done. 4

Harvesting.—By the beginning of September the olan | should be ready for harvesting. It is very important not to” cut too early as the nicotine content increases very rapidly.

ee on

1911.] TOBACCO GROWING FOR JNSECTICIDAL PURPOSES. 383

during the last week or two of growth. The ripening of the leaves can be told by a distinct change in colour from a dark to a lighter shade of green, but the exact time at which it is best to cut is still undecided. The nicotine content of some plants tested last summer increased by 1°5 per cent. during the last ten days they were on the ground, so that it would be better to cut the leaves when they are over ripe rather than harvest them too early.

There are two common methods of harvesting tobacco— the Single Leaf method and the Whole Plant method. The former method consists in picking the leaves off singly as they become ripe and threading them on strings to dry. The Whole Plant method consists in cutting the whole plant when the middle leaves are ready, and hanging it up bodily by the stem to dry without removing the leaves at all. The second method is considerably the cheaper one, and so was the one adopted at Wye last summer, the whole plant being cut down level with the ground. The best instrument for the purpose is a long-handled pair of pruning shears, but an ordinary wood chopper will do the work quite well.

Drying .—The plants should not be cut while dew is on the leaves, as they are then very brittle and a number will fall off. It is a good plan to leave them on the ground to wilt for a few hours after cutting, the leaves gradually becoming limp and then clinging better to the stem. The base of each stem is then attached by means of a piece of string to a pole, and a row of plants hung up to dry, either naturally in a barn or with the help of a stove. Self-binder string recovered from the threshing machine after being used the preceding summer for binding sheaves of corn, was found to be just the tight length and texture for tying the plants to the poles.

Siripping.—As soon as the leaves are dry they may be stripped off the stems and stored away in a heap till the time comes when they are required for spraying. As stated above the best method of extraction is still being inves-

tigated, but soaking the cut-up leaves in water is quite effective in extracting the greater portion of the

nicotine. It is certainly a simple way, and may be found to

be the cheapest method, even though by the aid of chemicals

a larger proportion of the nicotine may be extracted.

384 TOBACCO GROWING FOR INSECTICIDAL PURPOSES. [AUG.,

Cost per Acre.—The cost of growing an acre of tobacco as described above was estimated at £21 12s. 6d., but there are several ways in which the cost may be reduced. Har- vesting and stripping the leaves alone cost over £5, and it is intended this year to try the effect of picking the leaves off the standing plants as they become ripe in the field, throwing them into a cart, and drying them with artificial heat on a hop oast. It was originally thought that a high temperature would cause a loss of some of the nicotine, and that air-drying the tobacco would be the most effective method, but it was found that there was no loss so long as the temperature ‘did not exceed’ 130° FP. Kiln “drying therefore being tried this year. The stalks of the plants contain a certain amount of nicotine as well as the leaves, but whether the small quantity contained in them is sufficient to justify the expense of harvesting, drying, and extracting is another question remaining to be investigated. It may © perhaps be found possible to extract the nicotine withovi drying the stems. 3

Last season’s results showed that an average yield may be expected of from 1,600 to 2,000 lb. dry tobacco leaves, ~ excluding the stalks. Allowing 4 per cent. of nicotine, this works out at 64 lb. to 80 lb. nicotine per acre, or a cost of approximately 6s. per lb.

These figures, which do not include the cost of putting up wind-breaks or the cost of extraction, must be taken with some reserve. In the first place, it remains to be proved that it is possible to get all this nicotine out of the tobacco, and in the second place these figures are based on only one year’s experiments, and it may be that a variety grown on a small plot will not average so well when grown on a large scale. The weather, however, last year was unusually cold, and with more sun and a higher temperature a higher percentage of nicotine might be expected. |

Another point which must be borne in mind is the diffi- | culty arising from growing the crop under Excise super- vision. The restrictions imposed, even if they do not involve . | actual expense, are undoubtedly troublesome to a small | grower. .

en Bis.

IQII.] FORESTRY IN NORWAY. 385

FORESTRY “IN - NORWAY:

S. Burtr MEYER.

THE natural inaccessibility of her interior and the sparseness of her population have handicapped Norway in commercial competition, but, locked up in a thousand valleys, lies her capital, the forests of spruce and pine. Time was when the great trees fringed her coasts and spread to the snow-line of her mountains, but now wide tracts have been cleared, and almost every hillside bears the mark of the woodman’s axe.

The first mention of trade in timber comes from the 12th century, while a century later an export trade with Holland was flourishing. Up to about the year 1500, when the first saw-mill was established, all timber was split into the required dimensions, but with the new machinery came a marked Increase in trade. After the Great Fire of 1666 London imported large quantities of Norwegian timber, although,

two centuries earlier, Henry the Third is recorded to have

purchased from Norway a ship-load of pine-panelling for the

renovation of Windsor Castle.

With the growing demand, however, came a reckless in-

difierence to the future; the grasping merchants of the Hanseatic League, who dominated Norwegian commerce for _ two centuries, burnt what they could not sell, baring the once _ green coastline; with the introduction of the steam-saw great

havoc was Prought on the more accessible woods of the interior, and, crowning all, the modern demand for paper pulp has led to an alarming diminution in the supply. The drain of five centuries has not, however, impoverished the land beyond recovery, as some authorities would have us believe. There are still great tracts of fine timber land; there | are even larger areas that, with scientific care, are gradually | re-assuming their proper density of trees. | in attempting to describe the progress of scientific forestry _in Norway it will be enough to sketch the growth and work _of the Government Service, together with instances of private enterprise that call for attention. _ The writer recently spent a year studying the forest life of Norway, and through the kindness of Herr Jelstrup, of ‘the Bureau of Forestry, and Woods Managers Kizer and

| DD |

386 FORESTRY IN NORWAY. ae [AUG.,

Storre of the Forest Service, saw examples of the work that is being carried on in widely separated districts.

The forest areas of Norway and the United Kingdom compare as follows :—*

_ Norway. Uneted Kingdon. ‘. Area under Forests ... 26,945 sq. miles 4,800 sq. miles % Percentage of Total Area - 21°4 per cent. 3°9 per cent.

Of the total area of Norwegian forests about 17 million — acres are productive, and of these the State owns 2 million | acres and has partial control over 440,000 acres. |

The annual output of timber from Norway can be shown to | have increased annually for as many years as figures are available. In 1906 the production of unmanufactured timber — was worth 24 millions sterling, while manufactured timber and — wood-pulp contributed 2 million pounds. The total for all | classes showed an increase of over one million pounds on the | figure for 1901; the rise being equally distributed between manufactured and unmanufactured timber. 4

Conditions of Forestry.—Of the forest trees of Norway the Scots Pine (P. sylvestris) is the most abundant. Next, ‘ perhaps, comes the Birch, and lastly the Spruce (P. excelsa). The Oak, Ash, Elm, and Beech are found in favoured places, while the Alder, Aspen, and Rowan are distributed pretty | generally.+ The two commercial timbers of the country are | undoubtedly the Scots Pine and the Spruce, the latter having attained greater importance since the introduction of the paper pulp trade.{ It is fortunate, therefore, that the natural | habitat of the Spruce is at a lower altitude than the Pine, | and, generally speaking, at a more southern latitude. | |

The Rev. T. B. Willson says: “The elevation has, Of} course, much to do with the growth of the trees; the snow-line | in Norway being at about 4,000 feet, and getting lower the’ further north you go. In the country south of Trondhjem | the Pine, as a rule, ceases at about 2,600 feet above the sea- | level, where it is replaced by the Birch, which will grow up to about 3,500 feet; above that elevation only dwarf Birch| and Willow will be found.” : e |

* According to Dr. Max Endre’s Handbuch der Forst Politik and the N orwegian State Statistics. The Bulletin of the International Institute of Agriculture quotes * | Norway, 26,723 sq. miles ; United Kingdom, 4,850 sq. miles. F

t Of the State woods, 69 per cent. are evergreen, 31 per cent. deciduous. :

+ In the manufacture of wood pulp or cellulose, Spruce is the staple timber used.} About 15 per cent. of Pine can be added without causing deterioration in colour, |

ee

—

I9II.| FORESTRY IN NORWAY. 387

The finest forest land, chosen with regard to general accessibility and condition of growth, is probably that lying in the neighbourhood of the capital and extending north and north-east over the Glommen watershed.* The forests comprised in these areas are largely owned privately, and are the field of operation of some of the largest lumber companies in the country.

Forest Management.—Until quite recently the science of Forestry was but imperfectly understood by anyone but State officials; the great natural reproductive powers of the woods being entirely relied on to re-sow the land after felling. There is no doubt that this treatment has given remarkable results, provided that the thinnings have not been too heavy, but in many places, where the soil is poor and exposed, the stock is slow in re-asserting itself. The German method of clear cutting can hardly be said to exist in Norway.t The three systems in use at the present time are those known

fas Group, “Mother Tree,” and Selection. The first, which consists of gradually clearing a circle until its diameter

equals the height of the surrounding trees, works admirably ; _the second is used, where sufficient seed trees can be found,

on the same principle as the Group, while the third lends itself particularly to the management of small and irregular

| woodlands.

| Forest Operations.—The work of felling and removing the timber commences in the autumn and continues throughout the winter, being greatly facilitated by the snow which covers the ground from November until March or April. The check- ing and floating takes place when the thaw fills the rivers, and during the summer the timber is marked that is to be felled the following winter. It will be seen that forest operations, differ seasonally in Norway and England. For example—

jat the time when transit is easiest in Norway, English forest

| : . : Toads are at their worst. The planting season, also, is

{ |

Testricted in Norway on account of the heavy annual snowfall. Labour.—The necessary labour of the forests is recruited very largely from the class of small peasant proprietors

_ ™ The district referred to includes the amts or provinces of Akershus Hede- mmarken, Kristian and Buskerud. Church and State own 700 sq. miles, or about

_|1/20th of the total productive woodland in these provinces.

i

1 . a 5 A ¥ , ee Coast Erosion Commission, 2nd Report: Miller 23480—‘‘ There is no such ee as cutting down in Scandinavia on a large scale.”

|

1D) VIB)

388 FORESTRY IN NORWAY. [AUG.,

that is such a feature of the country.* These men live within easy reach of the woods, and, being bred to their work, are very reliable.

The wages paid are high compared to ordinary agricultural wages. A woodcutter now earns 2s. 1o}d. a day, compared with 2s. odd. in 1880;-while a driver with a horse can earn half as much again. In the sawmills 2s. 11$d., and in the | timber yards 3s. 1d., are average daily wages.

State Forests.—As is the case in many other European countries, the Norwegian Crown Lands represent now only a part of what they have been. The best forests long ago passed into the hands of private individuals either at times of financial need or under the lax supervision with which they were formerly administered.

The institution of so-called rights of cutting and grazing has, in some parts, been allowed to grow to such an extent that at least 10 per cent. of the State forests yield no income, © while from other large tracts only a trifling income is obtained. “Rights” are largely held by the peasant pro- prietors whose land adjoins the forests and include: limited right to fell “dry ” or damaged timber and firewood; right to gather herbage, bedding material, cones, etc., and to graze animals, sometimes including goats (an extremely harmful | privilege).

Another important point is the latitude and altitude. Over 57 per cent. of the State forests lie north of latitude 65°, and are, therefore, slow in yield. In the south a great proportion are at high altitudes and are much scattered. As an example of this, the Church woods, over which the State Department has control, have a total area of 163,000 acres and are split | into 326 separate forests, each containing, on an average 500 acres.t |

Government Forest Service.—The first preparation towards’ setting in order the woods management of the country was | made in 1737, but the present organisation dates from 1857,| when a Bureau of Forestry with a Director at its head was)

* Coast Erosion Commission, 2nd Report: Miller 23372—‘‘ Practically all the| labour we get for the forests of Norway . . . is from small farms—small holdings.”

t The Church woods are mostly in excellent condition and are not found difficult to manage. Witnesses before the British Royal Commission declared the na ment of similar areas difficult and costly.

1911.] FORESTRY IN NORWAY. 389

established by Parliament. From that date up to the present time the Service has increased from a staff of two to upwards of five hundred men. The present staff ranges from the Chief of Bureau to the Divisional Guards (usually local landowners, paid a small annual fee for their services). The scale of pay is low, but it must be remembered that living is cheap in the country districts and that travelling expenses and about 5s. a day extra are allowed to all officers while on tour.

The Bureau is entrusted with the general management of the State woods and afforestation areas, including matters of law, finance, and valuation. Among other matters, it deals with the conservation of woodlands, and has power to deal with concessions granted to foreigners and companies. With the earliest mention of the timber trade in Norway we have records of timber export duties and the like, but little attempt was made to prevent over- cutting. During the fifty years of its existence, the present Department has done valuable work defining the boundaries and peasant rights in the Government forests. The first measure of conservation was passed in 1892, forbidding any exportation of timber from the provinces in the extreme north for a period of three years. By a Law of 1893, since amended, the supervision of private forests was entrusted to the local Councils.

The damage done to woods by fire in former times was: very extensive; the area destroyed during the last century being estimated at over 70 square miles. Effective legisla- tion, which dates from 1893, has been greatly aided by the extension of road, rail, and telephone, by which means assistance is now quickly procured.

The financial position of the State Woods for the last fifty years may be briefly shown as follows :—

- Profit on State Woods oy te ie. We L503380 Value of Peasant Rights... ae Te Ke: 381,944 Rise in Value—

(z) Of Original Woods ... £361,708

(6) Of Purchased ,, Bi 79,246 £440,954 motalin 2 .. Ze £1,416, 287 Less Cost of Improvement Schemes Nao bb 21073

Net Profit in Fifty Years... 4, 1,394,614

390 FORESTRY IN NORWAY. _ [AUG.,

Afforestation.—The activity of the State as well as of |. private individuals as regards this question is largely due to ~ the efforts of two societies—the Royal Society for the Welfare of Norway and the Norwegian Forestry Society. The latter receives an annual grant from the State and has branches all over the kingdom.

Although the actual work of afforestation has feasived most attention in the coast-line provinces, yet preparatory schemes _ of drainage and land-improvement are common in the interior, _ and planting has been widely carried on over the high-lying ; Crown lands of Eastern Norway. In connection with this it is interesting to note that the writer visited a large area on i the Swedish frontier, covered with young Pinus montana — at a height of 2,000 feet above sea-level. At 1,800 feet, seed — of P. sylvestris sown the year before was germinating well, — while at from 1,500 to 1,800 feet were many plantations of . young pine and larch, all doing splendidly.*

At some places on the coast large sums have been spent | in dealing with shifting sands. The process usually adopted is the same as that practised on the northern shores of Jylland in Denmark. Irregularities in the surface are first filled in; the ground is then covered with moss, heather, or any kind of loose material, pegged down in places; seed of Elymus or Arundo arenaria is sown, and, lastly, broad strips are planted with Pinus maritima.

The season for planting is restricted by the snowfall to — early summer or early autumn. Sowing is found to be more — successful in the interior than on the coastline, where the young seedlings are bared of snow while the weather is stil’ c cold. ;

The cost of planting may be reckoned at 22. per acre, andi the method used is generally either by holing with German planting irons or by planting in small mounds of good soil or turves distributed over the ground. :

The task of determining the best varieties of trees for plant-

ing has been taken up by many private forest owners, as well Sie Tae I

* Royal Commission Report: Mr. Forbes fixes the maximum planting altitude at 1,200 feet on the Pennine Chain ; Sir H. Maxwell, at 1 ,000 feet'in Scotland. Z

Quarterly Review, Jan., 1911: Mr. J. C. Medd writes—‘‘In England over | three million of the twelve million acres are 1,500 feet above sea level, and are herefore unsuitable for planting.” :

nisiieemesemion ———

THECKING DIMBER ON TIIE GOVERNMENT ForrEST RESERVE AT: LAKE FOLMUND.

SHOOL CHILDREN PREPARING LAND FOR PLANTING.

Lat.

191 1.] FORESTRY IN NORWAY. 391

as by the Schools. One of the best examples of this is near Hamar, where Herr Kizr of the Forest Service is devoting 1,500 acres to experimental work and the training of students.

Planting by the State.—Although for many years the buying of land by the State for planting purposes had been advocated, it was not until 1873 that the experiment was made with 20 acres of glacial land, costing 18s. per acre. The area was gradually increased, until 2,500 acres had been obtained, at a total cost of 44,600.

The rise in price may be noticed from the fact that while in 1886 18s. per acre was paid for 150 acres, ten years later 275 acres of similar land cost over 30s. per acre.

Up to 1906 a total of 8,000 acres, lying mostly on the West Coast, had been purchased for planting purposes at a cost of £8,690. Included in this amount is the cost of 25 acres of nursery land, at £60 per acre. The price for planting land averages 18s. per acre. The estimated value of the whole area now is £13,240, showing an increase of £4,550. One area of 1,575 acres was purchased in 1904 for £1,110 (or 14S. per acre), and planted. It was valued in 1907 at £1,950, showing an increase in three years of £840 on the initial cost of the land.

Plant Nurseries.—In 1857 the State made their first grant toward the encouragement of tree planting. Seed was bought and sown, but the experiment hung fire, and not until five years later was any extensive sowing tried, under the direc- tion of a nurseryman who had seen the work carried on in Jylland. Later, about 65,000 seedlings, both conifers and deciduous trees, were imported from Denmark and temporary nurseries were established. The deciduous trees did well under the new conditions, but the conifers suffered in transport.

About the same time, the State made another grant toward a planting scheme for the West Coast and the establishment of nurseries in convenient places. In connection with this,

_ officers visited Denmark, North Germany, and Holland, and _ were so favourably impressed that the work was continued

On an extensive scale, a nursery being established at Stavanger. The growth of the latter is shown by the fact

=

392 FORESTRY IN NORWAY. [AUG.,

that, whereas the annual output at the beginning was 200,000 plants, in 1906 the number had increased to over two million plants. From each of the nine large nurseries now under State control, an average of 700,000 plants are sent out annually. Of these only a small percentage are deciduous.

Seed Stations.—The importance of procuring good seed was early recognised, and, although the first supplies. were of necessity imported from Germany, it was found, particu- larly with regard to P. sylvestris, that home-grown coniferous seed was preferable. Consequently, a collecting station was erected at Vossevangen, at a cost of £175. Cones were bought from a variety of places along the coast, and a ready sale of guaranteed seed was found, extending even to foreign | countries. The chief difficulty, however, lay in the unsteadi- ness of trade, due to the variability of seed years, and the >] consequent changing nature of the staff required. ne

The need for such work may be gauged by the fact that — there are now four similar stations in working order, the finest being that at Hamar, which cost £300 to build and equip, and which, with a capacity for dealing with a thousand _ bushels of cones, has an annual output of over one ton of seed. t

Planting by Communes and Societies.—The largest com- munal scheme in Norway is that at Trondhjem, where 4,500 acres of common land are being planted up. Grants have | been made from the rates, and from the local Spirit Tax, and | in 1896, 1,500 acres had been planted with 1,600,000 trees. | | The scheme has proved very educative in that many foreign, | as well as indigenous, species have been used in the work. |

The Bergen Afforestation Society has, since 1870, had a successful arrangement with several large landowners, where- by the Society undertakes planting, if the owner agrees to | place future control in the hands of the Society, or, failing | them, the State. The owner bears the cost of upkeep, fenc- ing, etc., but receives all the profits.

Up to 1907 over a million young Spruce and Pine had been — | planted, and that the scheme has been successful is shown i by the following results :— |

On i acre, at 25 years, there were 300 trees of 7 inch breast- ‘| high diameter, with a height of 24 to 36 feet. On another |

1Q11.] ~FORESTRY IN NORWAY. 393

1 acre, two years younger, there were 400 trees calipering 5 in. and from 24 to 30 feet high.

The work, in nearly. all cases, has been under the super- vision of the Government Service.

School Planting.—Before leaving the subject of planting, it is interesting to note the excellent work that is being carried on among schools in the country districts by the institution of planting-days and elementary instruction in the theory and practice of afforestation.

The Norwegian Forestry Society, who have, since 1890, received an extra grant toward this object, have made arrange- ments whereby the State provides the plants and gives the necessary training to schoolmasters who wish to interest the children in the movement. On one piece of parish land near the west coast, 100,000 plants have been put in by the school-children in three or four years, and are thriving well. The work is rapidly extending to country schools all over the land.

Foresiry Education.—The first foresters received their training in Germany, particularly at the schools of Tharand, Aschaffenburg, and Giessen. Later, many took the course at the Forest Institute at Stockholm. By a Law of 1897, the Agricultural High School was founded at Aas, and a course in forestry was arranged. Students are entered for the course every other year, and the application for entrance has, from the beginning, far exceeded the accommodation. The rules stipulate that the applicant must be over 19 years old, with a certificate from one of the provincial schools showing efficiency in elementary forestry, and with a year’s practical experience.

The High School course comprises one year’s study of general scientific subjects and a second of specialised work. One year’s additional practical work is arranged for students who intend entering the State Service. The subjects for the first year include: Rural Economy, Mathematics, Chemistry,

Geology, Zoology, Botany, Physics, Book-keeping, and

Theoretical Surveying. In the second year—Forest Manage- ment, Valuation and Law, Advanced Book-keeping, Practical

‘Surveying, Levelling, and Map-making. For two months

in the summer the second-year class live in the vicinity of

394 A SPANISH SYSTEM OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT. [AUG.

some large forest, where the practical work of Valuation and Surveying can be easily carried out. Early in the autumn the same class, accompanied by some of the Staff, make an extensive tour of the country, with the object of seeing all kinds and conditions of wood-land and woods-management. Half the cost of the tour is defrayed by the student.

An elementary Forest School was founded in 1876 at Kongs- berg, with a forest officer at the head. Within the next ten years two other schools were started at Stenkjzr and Elverum. The object of these schools was to offer a nine months’ course in the theory and practice of forestry. It was intended to — train annually twelve students, but the demand always exceeded the endowment. |

The course at the schools was extended in 1905 to one year, in order that fuller instruction might be given in technical subjects. The number of students received annually was increased to 16, while the age limit was changed to 18-25 years. A plan was also completed whereby students, for eight months out of the twelve, were put under the direction of capable woodmen for their practical training. The number of men passed through the three schools since their begin- © ning now exceeds 700.

Besides the above there are three County schools, partly supported by the State, while at nearly every Agricultural College instruction in forestry is included in the curriculum.

Aj SSPANISH. SYSTEM: OF, BSiA ge MANAGEMENT.*

M. LE COMTE DE MONTORNES.

A PROBLEM of supreme interest in connection with agricul-_ ture to-day is without doubt the social agrarian problem | which, at the present time, has become of vital importance in agriculture as well as in industry. ,

The establishment of perfect harmony between the landlord — and the tenant is indeed one of the questions which ought to ©

=

* This Paper was read at the International Congress of Agriculture, 1] Madrid, in May last,

to11.) A SPANISH SYSTEM OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT. 395

be most carefully considered, and anything attempted in this direction is likely to be of utility with a view to the practical realisation of the great reforms needed in agricultural produc- _ tion and cultivation. Numerous though the industrial population of the world may be, their number is small in comparison with the _ enormous population which lives exclusively by the cultivation of the soil. This long-suffering class is at least equally worthy of consideration and guidance in order to enable it to attain improvement and well-being. Problems relating to agriculture are unquestionably of a very complex nature, and consequently difficult of successful _ solution, for in no other human science does theory differ so _ much from practice.

The steps which are being taken to encourage and maintain the system of small ownership, and to bring about the imme- diate or gradual conversion of the tenant into the owner, are certainly worthy of all consideration and praise; but, unfor-

tunately, for several reasons, action in this direction cannot

be taken everywhere, and, indeed, in many cases is not desir- able. Moreover, in view of the slowness of the change, we must endeavour to find in existing conditions of ownership and rural labour means of immediately improving the position of the labourer, and of strengthening the ties which bind him to his landlord, and thus placing him in a position _to abandon the routine unfortunately so common in the case of the mass of agricultural labourers of the whole world, so | that, without the tenant leaving the soil which saw his birth, or the owner abandoning the fruit of the economy and labour ot his ancestors, they may put into practice the splendid _tesults of modern agricultural science, to the spread of which, assemblies like our own contribute in such an important Manner. _ Far be it from me to pretend to offer a solution of this difficult question. It will be sufficient for me to present to you an account of an attempt which I have made, and which | has happily given excellent results, in one of the most important districts from the point of view of agriculture in my | Own country. The different systems generally in use for the cultivation

i | Pa

396 A SPANISH SYSTEM OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT. [AUG.,

—

of the soil can be placed under three heads: (1) Direct culti- vation by the owner himself by means of day-labourers paid a fixed wage or receiving a certain share of the profits. (2) Cultivation by the tenant, the latter paying over a part of the produce obtained; and (3) Cultivation by the tenant, the latter paying a fixed rent for the usufruct of the soil, whatever his system of cultivation may be.

My modest efforts have been directed towards a combina- tion of these three systems, according to the nature of the land and the crops, by means of the direct intervention o2f the owner, facilitated and supported by this combination.

The first group is formed of fields where, by reason of a lack of rain, recourse has to be had to irrigation from rivers and springs, and of fields which the tenant devotes to the production of crops for his own use and that of his live stock, and for which he pays a fixed rent pcr acre. The second group comprises the larger areas under the regular crops, ~ such as vines, olives, oranges, &c., the crops of which | are gathered at regular periods. These, not being consumed | by the farmer himself, are sold either immediately or after | some preparation, and form the real source of profit. Finally | the third group embraces the general work of the estate, and — the work in connection with certain crops which are all paid | for by the owner by means of fixed wages. The combination | of these three systems on the same estate under certain special conditions has given very satisfactory results, combining the | interests of the proprietor and the tenant, while allowing the | former a continued and amicable intervention in the whole | estate, an intervention which is well received by the tenant, | and thus constituting a harmonious whole for the welfare and | satisfaction of both. |

On the estate referred to the tenant cultivates three or four | acres of irrigated land, for which, together with his house, he) has to pay a fixed annual rent. He also cultivates a larger. area planted- with vines, olives, and carobs (cereals are not; cultivated in this part of Spain except on irrigated lands).| The tenant occupies these lands on condition that he cultivates| them according to certain fixed rules, to which he is obliged} to conform absolutely, and also uses the ploughs and other implements furnished by the owner. The tenant must defray

all expenses of cultivation and harvesting; the crops are

&

Fort.) A SPANISH SYSTEM OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT. 397

carried to the granaries of the owner, where they are carefully weighed in the presence of the tenant, who receives a receipt for his share, which is placed to his credit in the yearly

_ settlement.

The tenants as well as the members of their families are employed at a fixed wage in periods in which there is little work, in improvements on the estate, in repairs to roads and

buildings. This is arranged on a regular system, so that

everyone has a share in this work. At the time of preparation of the produce, in this case the manufacture of wine and oil, there is enough work for all.

In the course of the year small sums are advanced to the tenants up to 30 per cent. of the average value of the share

generally produced by the crops of the leased lands.

The tenant's profit is therefore made up as follows :—

| (1) Of the produce of the land held at a fixed rate less the

rent; (2) of his share of the produce of the land which he

holds co-operatively with the owner; and (3) of the wages he

earns during the year for work on the estate and in connection

with the crops.

He has then to his credit, in the balance at the end of the

agricultural year, the produce of the leased lands and the

RR CIEE

wages which are due to him; and to his debit, the rent of

_his irrigated land and house, the advances which have been ~ made to him, the total value of manures received for the irrigated land, and a part of the expenses of the manures used

on the other cultivated lands.

If the final balance is in his favour it is paid to him at Once; in the contrary case he is allowed three terms, which coincide with the periods of sale of his small crops and kitchen garden produce, of his fattening animals and other

_ live stock.

| It will be noticed that the owner obtains all the produce of the land (except that for which fixed rent is paid), that is, _all the produce which is naturally of the greatest value; half

| of this being obtained by right as his share and half by

| purchase; the purchase price is fixed by mutual agreement _ between a representative of the owner and a representative of | the tenants, according to the prices prevailing in the district | at the time.

In this way the tenant is assured of a fair price and a sure

398 A SPANISH SYSTEM OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT. [AUG.,

payment. At the same time the system avoids the fraud a to which the system of sharing the crops lends itself when the tenant gathers his share. It allows the owner to deal with the whole of the produce of his estate, conduces to uniformity and efficiency of methods, and enables employment to be given to the tenants for a considerable length of time. All | these circumstances justify the direct and continuous inter- vention of the owner in the cultivation, because it is on the condition of the produce that the result of its final preparation, | and consequently the profit of his business, must depend. + The system undoubtedly necessitates the continued inter- vention of the owner, but this intervention requires him either _ to pay periodical visits to his estate or to reside there per- manently. Those high in the social scale thus set an example | to those below them of the much desired return to the land which has been so splendidly advocated in the writings of | M. Meline. It also fosters the union of the tenant and the | owner, by creating ‘a community in which the former 4 gradually recognises the advantage of the advice and modifi- cations suggested by the latter with regard to cultivation, and accepts them with pleasure, even though he may sometimes — have to abandon ancient practices. Facts show him clearly that the benefits do not go solely to the owner, but are for his | own profit as well. a Supplementary to this, the owners might take an’ interest _ also in the religious, moral and physical welfare of their — tenants by the provision of religious instruction and schools, _ | by forming societies for providing against illness, and by instructive and recreative meetings, as is done on the estate — under consideration. In such cases, it will be observed with | satisfaction how cordial are the relations between the two classes, and how the discord between them insensibly | vanishes. This system may quite possibly not be applicable everywhere, but surely in its essence it can be carried out in numerous districts in many countries, and although to bring it to a successful conclusion the owner must make certain | material sacrifices, without these sacrifices no ideal can be | realised. The greatest ideal of the moment is certainly that of putting into practice the numerous improvements that have been effected in agriculture by stimulating the inertia of the

~- ro

who

—

To11.| A SPANISH SYSTEM OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT. 399

mass of agricultural labour, and thus contributing to the moral and material peace of so important a class.

I could enter into greater details in support of this system, which, although open to objection on many grounds, when considered from the economic point of view may, in spite of all its defects and difficulties, give better results than many others already in operation. Even though it may not attain to the social end which we have in view, and of which we all recognise the urgency, it will avoid, or at least modify, the dangerous tendencies which are to-day rapidly spreading among the rural population.

By way of conclusion to this humble essay I would present to the Section the following conclusions :—

In the present state of the social agrarian problem we must seek, in order to retain the owner and the tenant on the land, a system of management in which the owner shall be directly interested in the produce of his estate, but in such a way that he shall not abandon the immediate and constant supervision of his land.

In the majority of cases this may be attained by grouping three systems now chiefly in operation, viz.: (1) Direct-culti- vation by the owner; (2) Cultivation by tenants in exchange for a Share in the produce; (3) Payment of a fixed rent for the usuiruct of certain lands to which the foregoing method is not applicable.

These three systems in combination on the same estate will give excellent results, and will conduce to perfect harmony between the two parties interested. Especially will this be the case if by means of equitable arrangements all the produce susceptible of further preparation can be transferred to the Owner or to persons capable of dealing with it properly, with the exception of those crops which it is more convenient to grow on lands at a fixed rent, owing to their being imme-

diately used by the tenant.

In addition, if the owners concern themselves, as they are

bound to do, both by their interest and by moral obligation, in the religious, physical and moral welfare of their tenants,

|

4)

we should reach a condition which would be in harmony with

Present social needs, and prevent either owners or tenants from leaving the land.

400 SLAUGHTERING OF YOUNG CALVES. [AUG,,

IN some of the outbreaks of this disease investigated the 3

spores of Nosema apis have been found in enormous numbers a

in the cells lining parts of the alimentary

Isle of Wight canals of the affected bees. These cells

Bee Disease. become completely disorganised and | eventually the spores escape from. them

and are voided in great numbers in the excrement. Such — cases, which appear to be more frequently met with in the

spring, are undoubtedly due to infection with this parasite.

In most of the outbreaks recently investigated few spores, — if any, have been found, but parasites, which are probably young stages in the growth of Nosema apis, are usually — present in the cells lining the intestinal tract. o

It appears probable, therefore, that during the colder 4 months, when the bees show little activity, the parasites . grow and reach the spore stage before the bees succumb, while during the warmer months the rapid multiplication — of the parasites often kills the bees before the spore stage is reached. ,

Experiments have proved that normal bees may be artifici- ally so heavily infected that the intestinal cells are crowded with spores. Infection may be produced in various ways: (a) by feeding with spores, (b) by feeding with candy on which infected bees had fed, (c) by mixing naturally infected excrement with the food, (d) by confinement in a box in — which infected bees had travelled, and (e) by contact with | dead infected bees. |

The investigations and experiments which have been made | hitherto seem to indicate that the Isle of Wight disease is | due to infection with Noséma apis, but that the symptoms of | the disease and the growth of the parasite within the affected ie bees are greatly influenced by various conditions.

am

It has frequently been represented to Hie Board of Agti-| . culture and Fisheries that the scarcity of store cattle is due| in no small measure to the excessive|

Slaughtering of | slaughtering of young calves. The! Young Calves. matter is of so much importance that the Board think it desirable to publish)

the following copies of letters which have recently passe

IQII.] SLAUGHTERING OF YOUNG CALVES. 4OI

between one of their correspondents and themselves on the subject. Milfield, Alnwick, Northumberland. May 23, 191t.

Sir,—As one of the largest land agents in this county, and as one of your oldest surveyors, may I be permitted to call the attention of the Board to the scarcity, and consequent prohibitive price of store cattle.

At the present moment the live-weight price of good stores _in this county ranges from about 42s. to nearly 50s. per cwt. A normal price, at this season, would be about 36s. or there-

abouts, and at that price, feeders require to sell the fattened animal, in the following spring, at about the same price per cwt., namely, 36s. (net), in order to avoid loss. Beef is a shilling or two per cwt. above that figure at present, but not sufficiently far above it (even if the same price prevails _ next year) to justify the present price of stores, and feeders are therefore buying it at a level which means certain loss. They know this very well, but they cannot help themselves, they cannot get cattle cheaper.

Store prices have been gradually rising since 1905. The figures published by the Teviotdale Farmers’ Club show this

clearly. They are as follows :—

Year. Yearlings. Two-year olds.

Lene de YEN Gs Ue

BOOS Vy ees k.s GP IE (C0: Tie 50

EQOO! @ 04: a5. 8 0 0 II 15 Oo

CO. eaeenee (OC) ) 12 7580 Boose. | 126 1310.0 HOO. >. 5. 9-10 Oo WA Coy Fn (6)

MOONE eh). 28 SLO”. O20 14 10 O

I9ir_ ... ... Not yet determined, but higher still.

In five years the increase in price has been nearly 30 per cent., and the returns of 1911 will carry the level even beyond that

‘figure. The certainty of loss accruing to the feeders is not the only untoward circumstance which arises from this state of aifairs. The sheep industry is certain to be affected, and that anfavourably. Summering cattle are absolutely necessary for <eeping pastures in a condition suitable for sheep; the dearth of stores means that pastures are not being adequately stocked with cattle, and grazings will, in consequence, become insuitable for sheep. This is an important point to keep

in mind in considering the question. IID

| | | BU

402 SLAUGHTERING OF YOUNG CALVES. , [AUG

From all points of view it is desirable that attention should be directed to this subject for the purpose of ascertaining whether anything can be done to remedy, or, at any rate, ameliorate, the existing state of affairs.

I do not advocate opening our ports to foreign store cattle, or to those from Canada or elsewhere. Apart from the question of disease, I do not think the number which would come in would materially affect the situation.

But we do not really need, in my opinion, to go abroad for our stores; we breed sufficient in the United Kingdom to serve all purposes, if the whole of those already bred were allowed to reach maturity.

According to the Agricultural Returns of 1910, there were in the United Kingdom in June, IQIO, 4,342,186 cows and heifers in milk and in calf. Apart from barren animals and casualties these would produce :—

Within the twelve months, acalfa-piece ... ... 4,342,186 Allow tor casualties V5 per Cent.) g.4 eee 051,327 We might expect to find under one year old .-- 3,690,859 The Returns show of animals under one year ... 2,516,707

Shortagen 0 ue tay pe, eee ene

In other words, over a million calves are wasted each year,

and if these, instead of being wasted, were allowed to live, —

our store stocks would be increased by 46 per cent.

I take it most of the animals forming the shortage are killed for veal. |

It seems to me some attempt should be made to encourage the keeping of such calves instead of sending them to slaughter. We do not, I think, need even to save them all; if half were saved, it would probably -suffice.

Great Britain is a worse offender in this respect than Ireland, for while in Great Britain 2,767,618 cows and heifers

gave 1,396,952 yearlings—so per cent., Ireland with 1,557,584

gave 1,110,986 yearlings—7I1 per cent. If, therefore, the Irish standard could be reached in Great Britain, we would obtain half a million more stores per

annum, and this would certainly relieve the situation very |

materially and probably meet the case entirely. What is

done in Ireland might, I should imagine, be possible mn

Great Britain. The question is what steps could be taken which would,

|

| |

IQ{I.] SLAUGHTERING OF YOUNG CALVES. 403

at the same time, be politic and practicable. I should not myself hesitate to prohibit the slaughtering of calves for sale as veal, but I of course recognise that any such proposal is out of the question, for various reasons which need not be specified.

But I think something Bagi be done by the Board on aad hinies):

. If the Board were to collect, from thoroughly reliable sources, in each county, correct data as to the: prices of stores now prevailing, and to take steps to have the informa- tion so obtained widely disseminated in the proper quarters, those who now slaughter calves for sale as veal would doubt- less be led to consider whether their interests would not be better served by putting their calves into the store market.

2. A system of co-operation might easily be arranged by Farmers’ Unions and kindred societies, whereby those who want calves to rear would know where and how to get them at the times they required them. At present there is no such arrangement, and one district may be in the position of having to sacrifice calves for lack of demand, while other districts cannot get them for lack of supply. The principal Unions and Societies would, no doubt, give this matter their caretul consideration if the question came before them from the Board of Agriculture. 3

3. The sentimental aspect is worth consideration. The slaughter of very immature animals, like calves a fortnight or three weeks old, is distinctly repugnant to many natures. The sight of these carcasses in butchers’ windows is almost loathsome. The action of the late Queen in discouraging the killing of “lamb” had some effect for, at any rate, a time; a similar expression of feeling from an equally high quarter might, at present, have an important influence on the trade in veal. Whatever may be considered the best method of procedure, I think it cannot be denied that something needs

_ to be done, and that as speedily as possible, and I call the

Board’s attention to the subject in the hope that some means may be devised whereby the hardships following the present

scarcity of store cattle may be removed or relieved.

} | |

|

eam etes | The Secretary, (Sd.) GEORGE GREY. Board of Agriculture. Biba

4

404 SLAUGHTERING OF YOUNG CALVES, [AUG.,

To this letter the Board sent the following reply, dated 21st June, 1911 :—

S1ir,—I am directed by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to advert to your letter of the 23rd ult., suggesting the adoption of measures with a view to remedying the alleged | scarcity of store cattle in Great Britain, and in reply I am to say that the facts to which you have called attention are fully recognised by the Board. The excessive slaughter of calves appears to them to be due not so much to the extent of the public demand for veal, as to the inconvenience to the dairy farmer of maintaining and rearing calves when the object which he has in view is to increase his supply of milk for sale.

The Board agree that the dissemination of information as to the prevailing prices of store cattle is useful as a means of enabling the farmer to determine whether it is to his advantage to put his calves into the store market instead of — slaughtering them, and this is one of the purposes which ied ~ the Board to publish a Weekly Return of Market Prices, compiled from data collected from a large number of markets in Great Britain. The Return is issued every Saturday and may be obtained direct or through any bookseller from Wyman & Sons, Fetter Lane, E.C., or Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, price 1d. A copy of the Return for the week ended the 15th inst. is enclosed for your acceptance.

As the production of milk for the sole purpose of sale increases, the difficulty experienced by the dairy farmer of finding a local purchaser for his calves who really wants them for rearing increases in like proportion, and the question as to what can be done to facilitate the easy and rapid transfer of young calves from the cow owner to farms adapted for their rearing without detriment to the condition of the animals, is a very important one. It is anticipated that some system of co-operation between farmers whereby this object could be achieved will form a fundamental part of any scheme for the improvement of cattle breeding, which may be framed | by the Board under the Development and Road Improvement _ Funds Acts. a

The difficulty of successfully feeding young calves with | |

milk substitutes is a further cause of their being slaughtered. | The rise in the demand for milk leaves much less for the calf |

1911I.]| HUMAN AND ANIMAL TUBERCULOSIS. 405

than formerly, and knowledge and experience are necessary to render feeding with substitutes a commercial success. The Board consider that the further facilities for agricultural education and demonstration, which will, they hope, be pro- vided shortly, may be expected to provide further information on this subject.

A short article appeared in the Board’s Journal for December, Ig1o, as to the practice of farmers with regard to the disposal of their calves, and an early opportunity will be taken of dealing more fully with the subject in the same publication. A leaflet on the subject of calf-rearing has been issued by the Board, and can be obtained at any time by persons interested in the matter, post free, on application to the Secretary, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 8, White- hall Place, London, S.W.

I am, etc., (Sd i Ho EELiom:

Secretary. George Grey, Esq.,

Milfield, Alnwick.

THE Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the

relations of Human and Animal Tuberculosis have recently

Metnan' avd: Animal issued their Binal Pep ort (Cd. 5761.

Tuberculosis. Price 6d.) which contains an account of

the investigations carried out, and sets

forth certain conclusions based on the results of the Commission’s researches.

In regard to the question whether tuberculosis in animals and in man is one and the same disease, it is considered that on certain points there is room for difference of opinion, but that whether one prefers to regard bovine tuberculosis and the cases of tuberculosis in man which are caused by the human type of bacilli as varieties of the same disease or as independent diseases, there can be no question that human tuberculosis is in part identical with bovine tuberculosis. The researches of the Commission have proved that in a considerable proportion of cases of the human disease the lesions contain, and are caused by, bacilli

406 HUMAN AND ANIMAL TUBERCULOSIS. | AUG.,

which are in every respect indistinguishable from the bacilli which are the cause of tuberculosis in cattle. In all such cases the disease therefore is the same disease as bovine tuberculosis. 3

They further conclude that mammals and man can be reciprocally infected with tuberculosis, and that a considerable amount of the tuberculosis of childhood is to be ascribed to infection with bacilli of the bovine type, transmitted to | children in cow’s milk. The danger to the adult human — subject appears to be substantially less.

In the interests therefore of infants and children, and for the reasonable safeguarding of the public health generally, the Commissioners urge that existing regulations and super- vision of milk production and meat preparation should not be relaxed; that on the contrary Government should cause to be enforced throughout the kingdom food regulations planned to afford better security against the infection of human beings through the medium of articles of diet derived from tuberculous animals.

More particularly, action in this sense is urged in order to avert or minimise the present danger arising from the con- sumption of infected milk. And in this connection it is pointed out that bovine tubercle bacilli are apt to be abundantly present in milk as sold to the public when there is" tuberculous disease of the udder of the cow from which it was : obtained. This fact is generally recognised though not. adequately guarded against. But these bacilli may also be present in the milk of tuberculous cows presenting no evidence whatever of disease of the udder, even when examined post- mortem. Further, the milk of tuberculous cows not con- taining bacilli as it leaves the udder may, and frequently does, become infective by being contaminated with the feeces or uterine discharges of such diseased animal. Measures for; securing the prevention of ingestion of living bovine tubercle} bacilli with milk would greatly reduce the number of cases; : of abdominal and cervical gland tuberculosis in children, and) such measures should include the exclusion from the food) supply of the milk of the recognisably tuberculous cow, irrespective of the site of the disease, whether in the uddet| or in the internal organs.

+e BES SS

if) SRS F io8 we

| em ae

we si’ oa aR i es a ital. blair i re ay

‘

iM a Ee aaa lade

t Peak et pee | eae ee Pees {pum

RS is oe

{ ; i \ : i % \ * ; \ Zs \ } ? ) H Pp omen 0 cube Thaa oe alana 0 eae earr ~

I9g11t.]} SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, CAMBRIDGE. 407

SOME account of recent developments in agricultural educa- tion at Cambridge may prove of interest to readers of the JOURNAL.

ee The first suggestion that agriculture Gaubvides. should be included as one of the sub-

jects of study in the University seems to have come from Mr. Henry Chaplin in 1890, when, in a letter written in his capacity as President of the Board of Agriculture to the late Duke of Devonshire as Chancellor of the University, he suggested the establishment of an Agricultural Department. A syndicate was appointed to consider the question, but the full recognition of the subject was not attained till 1899, when, with the help of the ' Worshipful Company of Drapers, a chair of Agriculture was permanently endowed.

The first occupant of the chair was Dr. William Somerville, during whose tenure of office, from August, 1899, to Decem- ber, 1901, the Department obtained a farm for teaching and research. This was brought-about by the generosity of Mr. W. A. Macfarlane Grieve, of Clare College, who leased to the University rent free for nine years, 140 acres of land at Impington, four miles from Cambridge. Dr. Somerville resigned to take office under the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, and was followed by Mr. T. H. Middleton, who occupied the chair until 1907, when he, too, left Cambridge to - take up the position of Assistant Secretary to the Board of Agriculture. Chiefly on -the initiative of Professor Middle- ton, a scheme for the provision of a permanent home for the Agricultural Staff was taken in hand. The first aid in this direction was given by the Drapers’ Company, who had already so generously endowed Agriculture. The Company ~ offered to give £5,000 to a building fund provided that £5,000 could be raised elsewhere. The late Duke of Devon- shire, then Chancellor of the University, assisted by a Committee of the Cambridge University Association, issued an appeal for funds, which brought in the necessary £5,000 by June, i906. Before his Grace’s last illness over £13,000 ‘had been subscribed or conditionally promised. Subse- ‘quently, the present Duke became chairman of the Com- “nittee, and after nearly two years’ continuous collecting, he fund was brought to the desired amount of £20,000.

: : = 3 at

12,8368:

} j

IQII.] SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, CAMBRIDGE. 407

_ SOME account of recent developments in agricultural educa- tion at Cambridge may prove of interest to readers of the JOURNAL.

a The first suggestion that agriculture Pabaaee, should be included as one of the sub-

jects of study in the University seems to have come from Mr. Henry Chaplin in 1890, when, in a letter written in his capacity as President of the Board of Agriculture to the late Duke of Devonshire as Chancellor of the University, he suggested the establishment of an Agricultural Department. A syndicate was appointed to consider the question, but the full recognition of the subject was not attained till 1899, when, with the help of the Worshipful Company of Drapers, a chair of Agriculture was permanently endowed.

The first occupant of the chair was Dr. William Somerville, during whose tenure of office, from August, 1899, to Decem- ber, 1901, the Department obtained a farm for teaching and research. This was brought about by the generosity of Mr. W. A. Macfarlane Grieve, of Clare College, who leased to the University rent free for nine years, 140 acres of land at Impington, four miles from Cambridge. Dr. Somerville resigned to take office under the Board of Agriculture and

_ Fisheries, and was followed by Mr. T. H. Middleton, who

occupied the chair until 1907, when he, too, left Cambridge to -

_ take up the position of Assistant Secretary to the Board of

Agriculture. Chiefly on. the initiative of Professor Middle-

_ ton, a scheme for the provision of a permanent home for the

Agricultural Staff was taken in hand. Thefirst aid in this direction was given by the Drapers’ Company, who had already so generously endowed Agriculture. The Company: offered to give £5,000 to a building fund provided that 45,000 could be raised elsewhere. The late Duke of Devon-

shire, then Chancellor of the University, assisted by a

1 |

Committee of the Cambridge University Association, issued

_ an appeal for funds, which brought in the necessary £5,000

\ |

|

by June, 1906. Before his Grace’s last illness over £13,000

had been subscribed or conditionally promised. Subse- | quently, the present Duke became chairman of the Com- _ mittee, and after nearly two years’ continuous collecting, _ the fund was brought to the desired amount of £20,000.

408 SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, CAMBRIDGE. [AUG.,

' |

Meanwhile the University had assigned an excellent site, plans were obtained from Mr. Arnold Mitchell, F.R.I.B.A., and the building shown in the accompanying illustrations is the result.

The building consists of three floors, a basement, and attics. In the basement are the heating apparatus, the store- rooms, a room for preparing samples for analysis, and a machinery room.

On the ground floor is the large lecture hall fitted with museum cases. This floor also contains the office and library, and private rooms for the Professor of Agriculture and the Lecturer in Agriculture. Also a third private room at present occupied by the Reader in Forestry.

The first floor is devoted to the biological sciences as applied to agriculture. It contains a lecture room, elementary and advanced biological laboratories, and private rooms for the Professor of Agricultural Botany, the lecturers in Agricul- tural Physiology and Zoology, and the consulting zoologist and botanist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, who are at present members of the Staff. "

The second floor is designed for agricultural chemistry _ and physics, and contains a lecture room, a large elementary | laboratory, an advanced laboratory, a balance room, a pre- paration room, and two private rooms for research.

The attic floor extends over the east half of the building and contains a greenhouse, a photographic dark room, and considerable storage space at present occupied by a collection of timbers which will be transferred ere long to a spa forestry building.

The building is designed to accommodate an elementary and an advanced class each of about 50 students. When the plans were made the total number of students of agriculture was only just over 40, but since then the numbers have more |~ than doubled. The elementary class now contains over 50 7 students, and the advanced class over 30, and there are about a 15 students on the books who only attend single classes. The ~

teaching staff numbers ten, exclusive of the Reader and I Lecturer in Forestry. |

The Department has outgrown the Impington Farm, and | now occupies a holding of about 230 acres belonging to| Trinity and Clare Colleges, situated near the Observatory

‘AMOLVYOUW YT IVOINTHD AYVINGIATY SHE —‘dodMtd NV) “tyoitdoivoy Ao ‘TOOHOS

\ i . 2 mm 3 %, 7 ' ra

fori. ] SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, CAMBRIDGE. 409

between the Madingley and Huntingdon Roads, and within little more than a mile of the laboratory.

The accommodation provided by the new building is taxed to the utmost, especially in regard to providing room for research work, of which the amount now being done is considerable.

The Chemical Department has been engaged, for the last three years, in an important investigation of the properties of the protein of linseed. It is expected that a method will be devised which will shorten in a very marked degree the time required for research of this nature. The routine methods of hydrolysis, esterification, and separation of the amino acids have required, in the case of linseed, nearly two years of continuous work. It is hoped that the new method, when perfected, will shorten the work of protein analysis very con- siderably. Investigations on the composition of mangolds have been going on for many years, and useful results have been published. Recent work has led to the separation from mangold roots of a non-protein nitrogenous body, which will be investigated with a view to ascertaining the part played by such bodies in nutrition. It would appear that the value of protein substances in feeding stuffs is influenced by the mature of the amides to which they are linked, as well as by the composition of their respective proteins. With this investigation Dr. Hopkins of the Physiology School will be associated. With the aid of the Development Fund, a new laboratory for experiments on the digestibility of foods is being erected on a site adjoining that of the Animal Institute on the outskirts of the town. The latter was, until recently, maintained by four of the Professors for the purpose of experiments on animals. It has now been acquired by the University with funds provided by the Development Com- mission. At the Institute, experiments are now being con- ducted in connection with tick-borne diseases of cattle, the effects of castration and spaying of pigs and sheep, the pigmentation of the fatty tissues in swine, and digestibility of foods.

A bee-house has been recently erected for the prosecution of research on the Isle of Wight bee disease. Another problem under investigation in the Chemical

410 SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, CAMBRIDGE. [AUG.,

Department relates to the part played by the mucilage in linseed. It appears that this substance is not affected by the digestive juices, but under the action of bacteria is split up in the small intestine into substances which may be of use in the animal economy.

Investigations on the “strength” of flour are also going on. A rapid and accurate physical method of estimating the strength of flour has been discovered. Hitherto the only method was a baking test requiring a considerable quantity of flour for carrying it out. The new method is applicable to single grains of wheat. |

Soil surveys of Norfolk, Hunts, and Salop have recently been completed, and await publication. Surveys of Cam- bridgeshire and the Isle of Ely are being undertaken. Four research students are engaged on this branch of the work.

In the Botany Department investigations are in progress on silver leaf disease. An investigation of the microflora of the soil of the Woburn experimental farm is in progress and tends to indicate that the effects of manures in altering the soil

flora may be the primary cause of the observed variations in |)

fertility.

Work is also being done on “Bigbud ” in black currants,

and, concurrently, investigations have begun with a view

to ascertaining the extent to which individual plants are | immune or resistant to insect attack. This inquiry has been |

suggested by the observed fact that the immunity to attack |) by American aphis varies considerably from one individual |

to another of the same variety. Certain bacterial diseases |

of the potato are also under investigation.

On the College farm the work on cereal breeding, for which | hi: BY

the Department is so justly distinguishea, is being continued. |

Two useful varieties of wheat, one rust-resistant and a prolific |) yielder, and the other a strong wheat combining the quality peo of Fife and the cropping capacity of the best English|7 varieties, are now fully established on a field scale, and a | beginning has been made in combining in one wheat the| desirable qualities of these two. Small field plots of wheats,

suitable for the special conditions of the Fens will be harvested | this year. It is hoped that experiments in breeding improved |

clovers will soon be under way.

EOE De

pio

.Y,

\

RATO]

LABOI

\NICAL [|

d

OT

y J

Ry J

TAI

tN 4

iM

LI

¢ vy

RIDGE; —THI

E, CAMB

RICULTU}

& |

ScHooL or Ac

/ ' / $ j | ike

/ i 2

{

ws

to ' . 1 t i \ * 7 ? ’ j #3 X - j 4 / * } \ j \ | : \ ) “ é Ny : 5 i \ i

1911.] A SUGGESTED TYPE OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. 411

In the Physiological Department, also, much interesting work is being done. The experiments in spaying mentioned in connection with the Animal Institute are being conducted by this Department. The pigmentation of the fat of swine is also being investigated, a matter that is of great interest to the bacon industry. At the farm, an investigation on the body temperature of cattle is being conducted in collaboration with the Lecturer in Agriculture. This question has an important bearing on the use of the tuberculin test. An experiment on the crossing of Merino with Shropshire sheep, with a view to combining the wool of the first with the constitution of the second, is in progress.

The Biological Department of the University is engaged on a number of investigations on the breeding of poultry, the necessary accommodation having been provided on the University Farm.

It is probable that the energies of the Cambridge School as regards research will in the future be mainly directed to plant breeding, animal nutrition from the chemical as well as the physiological side, and animal breeding. It will be seen from the above account that considerable pro- gress in connection with these subjects has already been made.

THE Rural Education Conference which was constituted by the Presidents of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Board of Education in June, 1910, A Suggested Type of have had under consideration for some Agricultural School. time a reference from the two Boards | ‘as to whether there is any place in the system of Rural Education either generally or in par- ticular counties, in view of special local conditions, for schools giving to boys leaving Elementary Schools a three years’ course from the age of 12 or 13 in the Theory and Practice of Agriculture, together with continued general education.” This question was referred to a committee for detailed consideration, and the Conference have now pre- Semtcd) a Report* on the subject. AS regards boys who intend to get their living, at all events at the Outset, as agricultural labourers, the report states :— “We understand that the type of school intended is one * (Cd. 5774.] Messrs. Wyman & Sons. 34d.

412 A SUGGESTED TYPE OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. [AUG.,

where these boys will be given a suitable general education, in which the manual side will be fully developed, and theoretical and practical instruction in agriculture and its processes in order to make them more efficient labourers. We have come to the conclusion that there is at present no general demand for such schools, and that there is no place in the system of rural education for schools of this exact type being carried on contattouely throughout the week.”

Two main considerations influenced the Conference in coming to this conclusion. In the first place, the Report says, there appears to be a consensus of opinion among prac-

tical agriculturists that boys of this class who intend to live —

upon the land should get on to the land and into practical work on the land as soon as possible after leaving an Elementary School. In the second place, schools of the type contemplated in the reference would usually have to be boarding schools, to which the parents of boys of the labour- ing classes could only afford to contribute very low, if any, fees. Moreover, parents would have to forego the wages which their sons might otherwise earn.

As regards boys who intend to become farmers or small |

occupiers, the Conference are of opinion that different con- siderations attach, and that for them something beyond the ordinary Elementary School is required. In districts where Secondary, Schools giving specialised rural instruction

exist, and the fees and boarding charges are low enough

to admit of the attendance of the sons of small farmers, the Conference consider that no further facilities for rural educa- tion for that class of boy up to the age of 16 can reasonably be required.

But, the Report points out, however much encourage- ment is given to the development of rural Secondary Schools, and to the improvement of rural instruction in the ordinary

rural Elementary Schools, there is still room in certain dis- | tricts for the trial by way of experiment of one or other of |

two new types of school. One of the types, adapted to the instruction of future

farmers, which the Conference suggest, would be akin to. | the present “Higher Elementary School” specialised in an | agricultural direction. This type of school, which has ne

>. 4 By | }

uy

HOLT. | THE MUSTARD BEETLE. 413

hitherto been tried in England, appears to the Conference to give much more promise of success than schools professedly. giving a large amount of instruction in practical agriculture, such as “‘fermes écoles,’” which have proved unsuccessful in France. The Report discusses the curriculum of these schools, which might be termed “Higher Grade Rural Schools,” and recommends that, as regards the school fees, it might be left to the local authority to determine whether the instruction should be given free, or whether a moderate charge should be made to the ordinary pupil, with a fair provision of free scholarships. If these schools are to serve a large district, provision will have to be made out of public funds for boarding allowances and travelling expenses, Another type of school which the Conference consider worth trying as an experiment is what the Report terms a “Centralised Rural Continuation Day School,” to which boys actually engaged in work on the land between the ages of 12 and 16, or even 18, might be brought in several sets for one or two days a week. Such schools would serve areas (not exceeding a radius of 8 to 10 miles) which would vary in size according to the local conditions. They would usually consist of one or more rooms, well equipped for manual work, large enough to accommodate a class of not more than 20 boys under the charge of one specially trained master. While their general education would be continued, the students would also receive instruction in elementary science and rural economy with direct bearing on their actual employment.

ee, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have received information that the Mustard Beetle (Phedon betule) 1

doing much damage in some Hee

The Mustard this season. The Board would there-

Beetle. fore direct attention to measures which

may be adopted to combat this pest.

_ The beetles hibernate in various shelter-places, ¢.g., in the

_ mustard stubble, in the hollow stems of other plants in the

{| |

neighbourhood of the food plants, and in crevices of many

kinds. Eggs are laid in spring and summer, and both grubs

and beetles feed on the growing plants. Pupation of the grubs takes place in the soil. The mustard beetle may be attacked in five ways :—

4{4 THE INTRODUCTION OF FARMERS’ TELEPHONES, [AUG.,

(1) By shaking the beetles off the plants into troughs coated with tar, or into vessels containing paraffin.

(2) By dislodging and trapping the beetles dragging tarred sacking just above or between the young plants when the beetles are observed on them. The strips of sacking must be light, in order not to injure the plants.

(3) By spraying the infested crop with arsenate of lead, which may be obtained ready for use in the paste form,.and may be employed at the rate of 4 lb. of the paste to 100 gallons of water. It may also be prepared by dissolving 35 oz. pure or crystallized arsenate of soda in 50 gallons of water, dissolving 70 oz. acetate of lead in 50 gallons of water, and mixing the two solutions; or by dissolving 20 oz. dry, crude, or commercial arsenate of soda in 50 gallons of water, dis- solving 70 oz. acetate of lead in 50 gallons of water, and mixing the two solutions.

(4) It has been observed that later in the year the beetles sometimes migrate in great numbers to other fields, and if this be noticed a shallow trench should be dug across the path of the migrating swarm; if the trench be kept tarred many beetles will be caught, notwithstanding the fact that they have wings. |

(5) After an infestation the stubble may be burnt over | before ploughing in order to destrov hibernating beetles.

Geren

An interesting experiment in the direction of introducing into the rural districts of this country special “party ” line | telephones for the use of farmers and An Example of = other rural residents, such as were Get ne eine described in the JouRNAL for July, Telephones. 1011, p. .326,\ is being “tried injaaem Brandsby district of Yorkshire. The annual rental for each telephone on such a line, has been | provisionally fixed at £3, with an unlimited local service | during the ordinary official hours at the Post Office. | | The Brandsby system has been in use since November last, and appears to be giving satisfaction to the subscribers, who | have now the benefit, under certain conditions, of all the | facilities afforded by the telephone system. | The telephones have been used to an appreciable extent for (a) local calls to other subscribers who rent exchange lines | at the ordinary rates, (b) intercommunication among the | party-line subscribers themselves, and (c) trunk calls. |

1911.) SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 415

It has been ascertained that trunk calls can be made satis- factorily to places within a distance of no less than 180 miles, although no calls have actually been made by sub- scribers for such places.

The experimental introduction of the system at Brandsby has been greatly facilitated by the enthusiastic support accorded to it by Mr. Hugh Fairfax Cholmeley, who has not only taken keen interest in the matter, but has also granted free wayleaves for the erection of a number of poles on his private property.

SUM AKRY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. SOILS AND MANURING.

Manuring of Oats and Mangolds (Experiments at Kineton, Warwick- shire, 1910).—These experiments have been carried out since 1go1 by Mr. Ernest Parke, J.P., with the co-operation of Dr. Bernard Dyer.

When the farm was taken over it was in very poor condition, owing to long-continued neglect of manuring. The soil consists of heavy clay loam poor in available phosphoric acid, but indicating, on analysis,

a sufficiency for the present of available potash. The experimental

plots have been marked out from year to year in various parts of four °

_ different fields as convenience of cropping dictated.

In the case of the oats, the crop was spoilt by weather in 1909. In the other eight years the average crop with no manure was 382 bushels

| per acre; with 3 cwt. superphosphate per acre it was 49 bushels; 1 cwt.

nitrate of soda in addition increased this to 562 bushels, and 2 cwt.

nitrate of soda to 65 bushels. In the case of the mangolds the plant _ failed in 1906 and 1gog, and only the average of the other seven years _is considered. The crops were as follows :—

tons cwt. - No manure ioe fo ae ues ae 17 16 4 cwt. super we ahel Osi ere tee bys Me LO 4cwt. ,, and 2cwt. nitrate of soda We BQ ee ABC E use). si) A Cwite A Bee 38.0 AMCWiti. <7, - 45) © CW. He ee AR

Dr. Bernard Dyer remarks that the experiments, which are being continued, appear to show that even land that has become through _bad farming locally notorious for its poverty, may be possessed of

4 sufficient inherent capability to yield abundant crops if treated with

| the proper fertilisers, and to give at the same time a good profit by | their use.

Manuring of Grass Land (Results of Grass-Manuring Experiments, | Dr. Bernard Dyer and Mr. F. W. E. Shrivell, 1910).—These experi- | ments were carried out at eight stations in various parts of England _and Wales. The general scheme is that one acre is set aside and “divided into eight plots, which are manured annually with different | dressings. The main crop is cut for hay, and the yield of each plot

| iS given in the report.

_ Manuring of Grass Land (Univ. Coll. of North Wales, Agric. Dept., Bull. 3, 1910).—An experiment was carried out on a field at Quirt that

416 SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. [AUG.,

had been let for grazing for a number of years, and had been dressed with no other manure than basic slag. Various combinations of potash and phosphates were applied, but with no striking results on the weight

of crop. A considerable effect was produced, however, on the quality

of the herbage. Where no manure was used it was poor and full of weeds, containing little clover; but on the manured plots white clover was abundant, and there was some red clover.

Manuring for Milk (Midland Agric. and Dairy Coll., Bull. 1, IgI0-11).—This experiment was begun in tIgog for the purpose of ascertaining whether superphosphate and sulphate of potash would give profitable returns on pasture land used for grazing cows for milk. A field in poor condition adjoining the college farm was taken, and two plots of four acres each were fenced in. The soil was of a strong, clayey

nature, typical of most soils on the Keuper Marl formation. On

account of indications of lack of lime, 10 cwt. per acre of ground lime was applied on both plots in the spring of 1909. On one plot 4 cwt.

of superphosphate and 13 cwt. of sulphate of potash were applied —

immediately afterwards, while to the other plot no manure other than the lime was given. No further manures were used in 1g10. The effect was tested by comparing the milk yield of the cows. Two cows were grazed on each plot for a fortnight; they were then changed over, the two that had been on the no-manure plot going to the manured plot, and vice versa. This continued for five months, so that each lot of cows visited each plot five times. In order to allow the cows time to get accustomed to the different pasture, the milk of the second week of each fortnight only was taken into account, and the amount doubled to represent the fortnight’s milk. By thus changing the cows from one plot to the other the effect of differences between the cows was minimised, and the only factor that would influence the result would be the manures applied.

Owing to the manured plot having much improved, a third cow was put on it on May 16th at the same time as the other cows, and kept on the same plot till the end of the season. In 1909 the third cow was introduced in July. During the five months the yield of the two cows while on the unmanured plot was 6,688 lb., and while on the manured plot 6,841 lb. The yield of the third cow on the latter plot was 3,392 lb., so that the total excess on the manured plot in I910 was 3,545 lb., or 86 gallons, per acre. This confirms the result obtained in 1909, when an increase of 84 gallons per acre was obtained. The milk yield of the unmanured plot was 1,157 lb. more than in 19009, which would appear to indicate either an improvement of the pasture from the use of lime, or that it was a better grazing season, or perhaps a combination of the two causes. |

Manuring of Seeds Hay (Midland Agric. and Dairy Coll., Bull. 2, I9gi0-11).—This trial has been carried out during four years at twenty

centres altogether, in order to find whether seeds hay could be profitably

manured, and if so, the best mixture for the purpose. Twelve plots

of one-twentieth acre have been manured at each centre, care being

taken to choose land as even as possible in character. Two plots

were left unmanured, two received nitrogen and phosphates, and six | complete dressings of varying composition. Taking the average Of |

the twenty trials, the most profitable results have been given by the following two complete mixtures :—(1) 100 lb. sulphate of ammonia,

- c= a a

| | | | | 1911.) SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 417

208 lb. superphosphate, 200 lb. kainit; (2) 100 lb. sulphate of ammonia, 208 lb. superphosphate, 50 lb. muriate of potash. These both gave an increase of about 1o cwt. of hay over the unmanured plot, which, at #3 per ton, is calculated to leave a profit, apart from residual value, | after allowing for the cost of the manures, of about tos. per acre. Manuring of Potatoes (Midland Agric. and Dairy Coll., Bull. 3, _ Igto-11).—A trial of the effect of artificial manures in addition to the | usual farmyard manure was made at four centres in Lincolnshire and ' at the College farm. The conditions and soil varied somewhat, and at ome centre no farmyard manure was used. The best yield was obtained from a mixture of 13 cwt. sulphate of ammonia, 4 cwt. | superphosphate, and 14 cwt. sulphate of potash per acre, with from 12 to 20 tons of farmyard manure. This dressing cost 44s. per acre, and gave an average increase in crop over the plot without artificials of 32 cwt. of ware potatoes. Various other mixtures, including nitrate of lime, calcium cyanamide, fish meal, and some proprietary potato _manures gave smaller increases for a similar cost of manure. _ Manuring of Mangolds (Midland Agric. and Dairy Coll., Bull. 4, igto-11).—In the course of preliminary trials extending over five years, _a standard dressing of artificials for use. with farmyard manure for _mangolds was determined, and during three subsequent years this dressing has been further tested, and has given the best results. It is made up as follows:—Sulphate of ammonia, too lb., applied at seeding ; nitrate of soda, 130 lb., at singling; superphosphate, 750 Ib., at seeding; either sulphate or muriate of potash, 120 lb., at seeding; and common salt, 24 cwt. applied in March. This was used in addition ‘|}to from io to 25 tons per acre of farmyard manure. It cost 55s. 6d. ‘per acre, and in any year always on the average gave a profit, the -mangolds being valued at 12s. 6d. a ton. _ Superphosphate or Mineral Phosphates for Swedes (Midland Agric. and Dairy Coll., Bull. 7, 1910-11).—It is commonly thought that soluble phosphates are desirable as being more available for the immediate requirements of the plant, but there is every reason to believe that soon ‘after they are applied to the soil they combine with lime, and are more or less completely changed to the insoluble form. There are conse- - quently good grounds for thinking that the practical value of soluble phosphates is due, not so much to their being taken up in that state by the plant, but to the solubility ensuring minute sub-division and even distribution throughout the soil particles. If fineness of division is the object in view, it was thought that an experiment could be usefully carried out to ascertain whether the same object could be _lbtained by reducing ordinary mineral phosphates to a fine powder, thus saving the cost of treating them with acid to form superphosphate. The experiment forms, therefore, a comparison between the mechanical and chemical preparation of phosphates. Nitrate of lime is also being vested, as well as the effect of ground lime, in order to see whether there |s reason for the opinion that insoluble phosphates are more beneficial pn soils lacking in lime and rich in organic matter. _ This report contains the results which have been given by 500 Ib. *uperphosphate, 173 Ib. Florida phosphate, and 250 lb. Charleston phosphate, these amounts containing equal quantities of phosphate. \s the experiments have only been in progress for one season it would 2© premature to draw conclusions at present, but they are sufficient 12 io

Uf

to show that the mineral phosphates are likely to be well worth attention in the problem of swede manuring. ae

LIVE STOCK,

Fecundity of Sheep (Royal Agric. Coll., Cirencester, Scientfi Bull. No. 2, 1910).—It is generally held that, in the case of anima having usually one or two young at a birth, the disposition to bear twins is hereditary, and this work has for its object the investigati of the point in the case of sheep. In July, 1909, twelve pedigree Oxford Down twin theaves were purchased, six from mixed twin: and the other six from ewe twins. (In this report the three kinds 0 twins are spoken of as (1) ram twins, 7.e., both male; (2) ewe sa i.e., both female; (3) mixed twins, i.e., one of an Sex ies th autumn these We ae were put to a pedigree Oxford Down ram i and lambs were dropped as follows :— i Lot I.—Mixed Twin Ewes... ... 9 lambs from 6 ewes, including 2 pairs of - are (1 ewe died after lambing) mixed twins and I of ewe twins.

Lotil,—Hwe Twins...) % 7. | 5 lambsarom:s ewes. No twins. The next season, with the same ram and ewes, the results were. | Lot I.—Mixed Twin Ewes... ... 9 lambs from 5 ewes, including 3 pairs of 4 mixed twins and I pair of ewe twins. Lot IIl.—Ewe Twins... ... ... 6 lambs from 6 ewes. No twins. : All the twins were borne by the ewes from mixed twins, and ewe twins nearly all produced ram lambs. The experimental flock too small, however, and the results so far obtained too few, to ics more than very tentative conclusions. as Breeding from Ewes at an Early Age (Jour. South-Eastern Ag Coll., No. 19, 1910).—The object of this experiment is to find to w extent breeding from ewe tegs (i.e., tupping at seven months inst of at one year and seven months) may be carried on without appreciabl reducing the size, vigour, and constitution of the ewes. From results in 1909 it was calculated that the production of a lamb in the fir year entailed a loss of 5s. 8d. on the ewe, compared with those t were not bred from. In November, 1909, the same two lots of ew were mated with a Southdown ram iamb, i.e., both lots were twet months old; one lot was mated for the second time, and the ot lot for the first time. Forty-three ewes gave birth to. fifty-four lam three ewes being barren. All the lambs did well, and there was no noti able difference between those from the two lots of ewes. The weighi in 1910 took place on September 8th—seven weeks earlier than in year before, as both lots were sold at the autumn sales. Owing this there was an all-round decrease in weight compared with 1909 decrease that is much greater in the case of the ewes that had been bred from once, although these still remained ahead of the o in average weight. At this time (thirty months) the average weight of the ewes that had had two lambs was tor lb., and of th that had had one 110’'7 lb. There was thus a difference, owing to | lamb in the first year, of 93 lb. At 4d. per ib. this would be wot 3s. 1d., and the loss of 5s. 8d. in the first year was reduced to” amount. ; INSECT AND FUNGUS PESTS. : ae Potato Spraying with Woburn Bordeaux Paste (Jour. of De Agric. and Tech. Instruc. for Ireland, Vol. xi., No. 3, April, 1911)

I91I.] SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. AI1Q

The spray generally used in Co. Louth, where these experiments were carried out, is Burgundy Mixture, or soda Bordeaux, made with 8 lb. sulphate of copper, 10 lb. washing soda, and 4o gallons of water. With this was compared the Woburn Bordeaux Pasté, which is made according to the formula of Mr. Pickering, Director of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm. It contains about two-fifths the amount of copper sulphate in ordinary Bordeaux mixture, and no excess of lime, and was found by Mr. Pickering to be much more efficient than the ordinary kind. In addition, milk of lime Bordeaux mixture, containing 8 Ib. sulphate of copper, 4 lb. quick lime, and 4o gallons of water, was compared with the above two mixtures.

In 1909 potato blight was not nearly so prevalent as usual, and the results of the experiments were not considered sufficiently conclusive. In 1910 the experiments were carried out at four centres, the soil being a light loam, or, in one case, a limestone loam. At all four centres two plots were tested with the Woburn Bordeaux Paste and the soda Bordeaux mixture respectively, while at three of the centres an unsprayed plot was added, and at two of the centres an additional plot was sprayed with milk of lime Bordeaux mixture. At three of the centres two sprayings were given, the first during the first week in July, and the second a fortnight later; at one centre only one spraying was given, Viz., in the second week of July. All plots were sprayed at the rate of 120 gallons per acre of the respective mixture at each spraying.

The blight was very virulent in 1910. The Woburn Bordeaux Paste proved not nearly as efficient as soda or lime Bordeaux mixture, the haulms dying down much sooner, and the resulting growth of weeds being much greater on the plot sprayed with the paste. Lime Bordeaux mixture gave much the best results, but was only tested at two centres. The plots sprayed with the soda Bordeaux gave, on the average, 23 cwt. of saleable potatoes more, and 3 cwt. of diseased potatoes less per acre than the plots sprayed with Woburn paste.

Investigations on Potato Diseases (Jour. Dept. of Agric. and Tech. Instruc. for Ireland, Vol. xi., No. 3, April, 1911).-The Department of Agriculture for Ireland has established a temporary station at Clifden, Co. Galway, for investigating potato diseases, and this number of the Department’s Journal contains a full report on the work done during 1910. A few points of interest to potato-growers in Great Britain are noticed here.

“Stalk” or ‘‘Sclerotium Disease’’ (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Mass).— From observation of the position of the affected part on the plants, and _ from experiments, it is concluded here that plants can be infected | directly by this disease, by means of air-borne spores, and that the | intermediary action of the soil is not necessary. This is contrary to the opinion usually held, which is founded on some experiments by |S Bary. The point is of practical importance, for if infection occurred

only from the soil at the base of the plant, remedial measures would ‘need to be applied to the plants at such places only, whereas if the infection is more or less general over the plant, the whole of it would \Tequire to be suitably protected. A number of methods of checking | the disease were tried. These included dressing the soil with quick- lime and with Burgundy mixture, spraying the soil and the plants with Burgundy mixture, lime- washing the stalks, dusting the stalks with lime and sulphu?, and spraying with liver of sulphur solution. Rieke 2

420 SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. [AUG,,

The results were disappointing, spraying with liver of sulphur four times during the season being the only treatment that seemed to have — any effect in reducing the number of affected plants, and that but a e slight one. The most striking results were from two plots where only one row of plants, 3 feet apart, was planted, instead of three rows, as _ on the other plots. This seems to show that there is far less chance of infection when the plants are well isolated than when they are — crowded together, mutually shading each other, and having their — stalks surrounded with more or less moist stagnant air. Such wide — planting would not be practicable on a large scale, but less close plant- ing than is sometimes seen may be desirable. A number of similar — treatments were tried for Botrytis, which often accompanies Sclerotinia, but without any satisfactory result. =

Black Stalk Rot (Bacillus melanogenes).—An organism has been isolated and proved to be the cause of this disease. It was shown that - the organism is also capable of causing rot in turnips, swedes, carrots, and parsnips, but not in mangolds. Experimental proof of the infection - of plants directly from the soil has not been obtained, and this is | considered as showing that the soil of Ireland is not as yet much contaminated. The spread of the disease was shown to be mainly due to the unsuspected planting of infected seed potatoes. The danger of using apparently healthy tubers from a previously diseased crop | as seed was demonstrated in a remarkable manner, no less than nm 94 per cent. of the plants derived from the seed succumbing to Black | Stalk Rot. Great care should be taken in excluding all infected tubers | from the pits, as it was proved that the bacillus can pass through the skin of a healthy tuber, in the absence of wounds, through the breathing . pores. Cool, dry conditions prevent the rot from spreading to an} degree, and such conditions should be established in making the pits Affected plants should be removed from the crop and burnt.

Corky Scab (Spongospora subterranea Johns.).—Ten varieties of | potatoes have been tested, but none have been found immune to the disease. Spore-balls of the organism would seem to pass unharme through the digestive tract of a pig, and the manure of the animal be a source of infection to a potato crop treated with it. The cank form of the disease was proved to be more infectious than the s form. It was found that clean seed may become contaminated bei planting by contact with diseased seed. Liming was definitely show both in 1909 and Igto, to increase the proportion of diseased tubers the crop. Several methods of treatment of affected seed tubers resul in a most satisfactory checking of the disease. These were soaki in formalin solution (1 :600) for three hours, soaking in copper sulphé solution (1 per cent.) for three hours, soaking in copper sulphate solutio as before, followed by rolling in slaked lime, soaking in and cove with precipitate of Burgundy mixture for three hours, and we the surface and rolling in flowers of sulphur. Where copper were used, however, the total yield of tubers was quite conside reduced. The best yield was given with the formalin treatment, the next best with sulphur.

ie pe at ey See

Lime, chloride of lime, and gas lime were found to increase te an of disease. Treatment with copper sulphate brought about some | reduction of the scab, but also decreased the yield. ie

1911.) SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 421

Up to the present, the organism has not been found on any plant ether than the potato.

Lime-Sulphur Wash (Jour. South-Eastern Agric. Coll., Wye, No. 10, Ig10).—These investigations were undertaken by Mr. W. B. Burgess with a view to discovering (1) the best proportions of lime and sulphur for making the wash, and (2) the chemical changes which the wash undergoes when exposed to the air under conditions similar to those which obtain when the wash is used as a summer spray. The wash was considered only as a fungicide for use on the leaf in the summer. | The self-boiled lime-sulphur wash is usually recommended for _ summer use as it contains less sulphur in solution than one boiled _ over a fire, and is therefore less likely to injure the foliage. It is _ pointed out, however, that boiled washes can be diluted till they contain

the same amount of sulphur as self-boiled, and a much larger volume is thus obtained from the same amount of sulphur. | The aim is stated to be to get the greatest possible quantity of _ sulphur into solution with the least possible quantity of lime. With this object small quantities of wash were made with five different proportions of the ingredients, ranging from roo lb. lime, 100 Ib. sulphur, and 100 gallons water, to 100 lb. lime, 300 lb. sulphur, and too gallons water, and analyses of each were made. The results obtained were insufficient for definite conclusions, but as far as could _ be judged the proportion of sulphur to lime should not exceed 2:1, and the most satisfactory formula appeared to be either 150 lb. or 200 lb. sulphur to too lb. of lime and too gallons of water. A wash with 200 lb. sulphur was made under practical conditions with ordinary commercial materials, and contained in solution 1844 lb. of sulphur | anid 84 lb. of lime. | The changes in the fluid after spraying were investigated by exposing it in a thin layer on glass plates and examining the changes in chemical composition produced. Mr. Burgess concludes that lime- sulphur wash as a summer fungicide acts in two distinct ways—(1) as a contact spray, the polysulphides in the wash acting in a similar way to liver of sulphur; (2) as a protective coating to the leaves, due _to the thin layer of sulphur in a fine state of division deposited from the thiosulphates and polysulphides by decomposition. _ This sulphur would be much more efficient than flowers of sulphur for two reasons: (a) the former adheres very closely to the leaves, _in fact, cannot be removed by the most drastic washing; thus a very /great drawback in the use of flowers of sulphur is overcome. (b)- _ Owing to its fine state of division, the deposited sulphur would oxidise | more quickly than flowers of sulphur, and thus prove a more powerful | fungicide, as its action probably depends on the formation of the | sulphur dioxide.

It is probable that the chief value of lime sulphur wash lies in _its use as a means of applying free sulphur to leaves. p| es to the question of injury, the polysulphides are the most likely | to damage the sprayed plant, as liver of sulphur where used too strong is known to cause severe leaf scorching. However, these compounds have been shown above to be very rapidly decomposed, so their injurious | action would not be very prolonged.

Little appears to be known about the action of thiosulphates on /host-plants or fungi. Some preliminary trials with sodium thiosulphate

—

422 SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. [AUG,,

on hop leaves showed that even with 20 per cent. solutions, only i insignificant injury was done just at the tip of the leaves. This points — to the fact that little injury is likely to come from this source. All possibility of injury would be removed by the first rain after spraying, as all soluble constituents of the wash would be washed off, leaving a layer of free sulphur with a little calcium sulphate or sulphite.

HORTICULTURE AND CIDER. :

Pruning of Apple and Pear Bushes (National Fruit and Cider Institute Report, 1909).—The bushes on which the pruning experiments are = being carried out were only laid out in 1905, and it is too soon yet to draw any definite conclusion. At present it appears that except for very strong-growing varieties, where root pruning is probably desirable to force a crop, and for very weak-growing varieties, — i where severe winter pruning may be required in the early stages ome encourage good wood formation, the less the trees are pruned the better, — when both growth and cropping qualities are considered. If this proves © to be the case it will confirm the results of pruning experiments carried on under quite different conditions at the Woburn Experimental Fruit ‘ Station. Ls, 4

Use of Market Varieties of Apples for Gider (National Fruit and Ciden 3 Inst., Report, 1909).—Market varieties of apples are usually considered — of little value for cider-making, but it has been suggested that more attention should be given to their use, as a means of utilising small, unsaleable fruit, and of avoiding a glut on the market. A number of market varieties grown in the Institute plantations have been analysed, and small-scale tests have been made to ascertain the type of cider — produced. From the results it is seen that with very few exceptions — the juice is poor in sugar and tannin, while the acidity is high. The ~ rate of fermentation is excessively high for cider purposes. In the — report it is stated that it is clear that the use of market fruit alone for cider-making in the usual way can only be extremely limited a | regards the type of cider produced. The kind of beverage produced ae ordinary methods will be a thin, dry cider, lacking in body and of marked acidity, probably possessing poor keeping qualities, and exceed- ‘ingly liable to acetification. This has proved to be the case in the few instances where tests on a practical scale have been made at the Insti- tute in past seasons. These tests have, however, shown that it is prac- ticable by suitable treatment to produce a palatable and marketable beverage, even although it may not bear comparison with a cider made | from true vintage fruit. There has been nothing in the flavour of nae ciders to constitute any serious drawback, and indeed in one instan it was so good that a really delicate dry cider was produced by suitable blending. | al

There appear to be two directions in which satisfactory results may be expected. The first consists in the utilisation of a moderate quantity | of true vintage fruit of the sweet and bitter-sweet types to blend with the market sorts. By mixing suitable proportions of each type it possible to obtain a juice of fair average richness in saccharine matter and of modified acidity and astringency. Such a blend can be allowed to ferment to dryness, and a very fair, dry cider may be produced.

a &— -~ee io ae ice. «5

ae nn ee ee

at

=e see

ae oo

ig a

1911.| ADVISORY COUNCIL ON HORSE BREEDING. 42

(eS)

may even be possible in special cases to retain some natural sweetness by filtration, if the vintage sorts selected possess very slowly fermenting juices. The other course of action which may be adopted is to increase the original amount of saccharine matter in the juice by the addition of sugar in such quantity that, when completely fermented, the liquor will contain sufficient alcohol to restrain acetification. Such cider can then be stored long enough, without deterioration, for the excessive natural acidity to be gradually toned down and mellowed until it is no longer too pronounced. It may then be consumed as dry cider, or, if preferred, sweetened shortly before use with a further addition of sugar. A product of this type cannot be compared with a high-class natural cider, but it may be none the less palatable, wholesome, and saleable. In districts where considerable quantities of apples are grown for market it is certainly worth while to devote more attention to the ques-

_ tion of cider-making than has been given in the past, and to develop _ this means of profitably utilising surplus fruit. It would, however, be

a mistake to regard market varieties as capable of supplanting vintage varieties for the production of the choicest types of cider.

SeaterAL NOTICES, AND CIRCULARS.

A meeting of the Advisory Council on Horse-Breeding, appointed

_ by the President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, was held

on Thursday, July 6th, in a Committee-room

Advisory Council of the House of Lords, under the Chairman- on Horse Breeding. ship of Lord Middleton. Among others present were H.R.H. Prince Christian of Schleswig-

Holstein, K.G., the Duke of Portland, K.G., Viscount Helmsley, M.P.., Hon. Alexander Parker, Col. Hon. Charles Byng, Sir Merrik Burrell,

_ Bart., Major-General J. F. Brocklehurst, C.V.O., Mr. Algernon Turnor, Geeeevajor A. L. Langman, C.M.G., Major W. H. Fife, Capt. John Neengour WP.) Mr. C. C..Hurst, Mr. J. L.: Nickisson, Professor

| Penberthy, Mr. W. Phillpotts-Williams, Mr. R. S. Tilling, and Mr. _R. Whitehead.

The Board were represented by Mr. A. W. Anstruther, C.B., an | Assistant secretary; Mr. S. Stockman, Chief Veterinary Officer; Mr.

F Mel. McCall, Assistant Veterinary Officer; Mr. F. W. Cre, a | Superintending Inspector; and Mr. E. B. Shine; and the War Office

| by Major Lathom Cox. _ Mr. E. B. Wilson and Mr. A. B. Charlton, Joint Secretaries to the

| Council, were. also present.

‘The Chairman submitted for the information of the Council a state- ment as to the references made to the Standing Committee by the | Board, and the recommendations made by the Committee thereon, | viz.

. dion Spring Show.—That the veterinary examination under the | Board’s Registration Scheme during the current year and prior to entry | fa the show should qualify a stallion for exhibition at the show.

bs That exhibitors be allowed to enter as many stallions as they like

‘in a District Class, and that they be allowed to take all premiums | awarded to them.

es a

424 ADVISORY COUNCIL ON HORSE BREEDING. [AUG.,

That every King’s premium stallion should ‘travel,’ and not be — allowed the option of ‘‘standing”’ in a district.

That the method of payment for ‘travelling’ be altered from Ios. 6d. a service to an award of fifty guineas to be paid at the close of the season.

That no fee in excess of the prescribed fee be charged (unless the owner of the mare offers to pay it) for the service of half-bred mares located in the district for which the premium was awarded, unless and until seventy half-bred mares have been served, inclusive of mares purchased by a County Committee and mares in favour of which nominations for free service have been issued.

Registration of Stallions.—That the rules should contain a schedule of diseases and defects which should absolutely disqualify a stallion for registration, as follows: Cataract, ringbone, roaring, navicular disease, sidebone, shivering, whistling, bone spavin, stringhalt, and defective genital organs.

That the registration year be from November 1st to October 31st.

That the veterinary surgeon employed to examine a stallion should — be required to report upon the suitability of the stallion for breeding purposes, as well as upon the soundness of the stallion, and be required — to report fully as to any diseases or defects other than those scheduled which, in his opinion, render the stallion either unsound or unsuitable — for breeding purposes. : ‘

Brood Mares.—That grants be allocated only to those counties where a Brood Mare Organisation existed, or where the necessary machinery could be put into motion without delay, and that the organisation of the scheme in such counties should be completed on a substantial basis | before the scheme be extended to other counties. |

On the motion of H.R.H. Prince Christian, seconded by Major- General J. F. Brocklehurst, the following resolution was unanimously | adopted: ‘‘That this Council approve the recommendations made to | the Board by the Standing Committee. 4

Mr. A. W. Anstruther, C.B., gave a summary of the operation | of the Board’s scheme since the last meeting of the Advisory Council. | He expressed their obligations to Lord Middleton and the members | of the Standing Committee for the help and advice given by them. They were also indebted to the County Committees and their secretaries, | upon whose co-operation so much of the ultimate success of the scheme depended.

Considering the short notice that they were able to give in respect | of the Spring Show, he considered the entries satisfactory, and he Eoped the alteration of the rules referred to would conduce to more | entries in the future. |

The whole of the grant allotted for the purchase of brace mares had been allocated. This part of the Board’s scheme had proved very | popular. No difficulty had been experienced in purchasing mares and} finding suitable custodians, and the mares seen by their inspectors | appeared, on the whole, to have been judiciously chosen, and ik to, make good brood mares. : |

Free nominations for service of mares by premium stallions had been well taken up, though it was hoped that in future years the ratio of soundness in the mares presented for service would be higher. The)

1o1t.) DEVELOPMENT FUND AND FARM INSTITUTES. 425

average number of mares served by King’s premium stallions was, on the whole, satisfactory, as for the first two months of the service season it was forty-three per stallion.

As regards the registration of stallions, the position was most encouraging, as with the promised co-operation of the breed societies and organisers of the principal Agricultural Shows they hoped to make the application of the scheme universal, the certificate of the Board to be accepted at all shows during the season. The number of stallions registered was 305, of which 102 were thoroughbreds.

For the mountain and moorland ponies the sum of 4200 had been allocated this year with the assistance of the Polo and Riding Pony Society. It was not found possible to award premiums, but money had been distributed in prizes at selected shows in the respective districts.

Conferences would also be held with a view to elaborating a specific

scheme for pony stallions and for pony mares, pack horses, &c.

He wished to impress upon those sending in schemes that he hoped, with the necessary funds, the Board would be able to carry on these subsidiary proposals side by side with the main scheme.

In response to the Chairman’s invitation, various suggestions were made by members of the Advisory Council, and were referred to the Standing Committee for consideration.

Since the date of the above meeting the Board have decided to

adopt and carry out the recommendations made to them by the Advisory Council.

The Board of Education issued the following circular to County Education Authorities on July 14th :—

, SIR, Aid from the 1. I am to inform the Authority that the Development Fund

ie Treasury, upon the recommendation of the for the Provision Development Commissioners, have decided to and Maintenance of jake an advance from the Development Fund Farm Institutes. to the Board of Education in order to enable the Board to make additional Grants in aid of the provision by County Education Authorities of Agricultural Education, in so far as that falls within the province assigned to the Board of Education by the Memorandum of Arrangements between the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Board of Education, issued on the 22nd of September, 1909 (Cd. 4886 of 1900).

2. The Grants will be distributed under detailed Regulations which the Board hope to issue at an early date. They will be given, in accordance with the proposals made by the Board after consultation With representative members of County Education Authorities and in the light of the Report of the Rural Education Conference on County

‘Staffs, and concurred in by the Development Commissioners and the ‘Treasury, in aid of the provision by individual Counties or by com-

binations of Counties of County Staffs of Agricultural Instructors

working from Farm Institutes as their headquarters. The several types of work within and without a Farm Institute which a County Staff -tmight undertake in appropriate circumstances are described in detail

in the enclosed Memorandum on the Principles and Methods of Rural

Education:* It is intended that a Farm Institute should serve as the © headquarters for the miscellaneous and itinerant work of the Agricul. 2 Ft tural Staff, other than that done in regular local courses of instruction, A = i and for educational demonstrations and similar purposes, and that it |) should also provide accommodation for central courses of instruction : ti! in agriculture and kindred subjects. These central courses might (7) © include, for example, (i) a 16 to 20 weeks’ winter agricultural course 4 for. the sons of small farmers, who have acquired some practical |) ) 6 experience on the land since leaving Elementary Schools, (ii) shorter |) \"

courses in dairy work, poultry-keeping and the like during spring and (74). summer, and (iii) vacation courses for teachers of rural subjects in 3 Bat

local continuation courses. The buildings of an Institute should include . (a) an educational block with class-rooms, ljaboratories for students: 3 rt and staff, dairy, poultry stores, carpenters’ and smiths’ shops, &c., — es and, where necessary, bee-keeping and fruit-preserving stores, (b) resi- jot

dential accommodation for the Principal, and (c) such other accommo-

dation as may be desirable. Suitable equipment for the educational |) 4a» work will, of course, be necessary, and additional provision may in a i some cases be required for the institution of an Information Bureau | 4 and a Library in connection with the work of the Staff outside the daa ro Farm Institute. et

3. Aid will be granted from the Development Fund towards both — ; be | the provision and the maintenance of Farm Institutes. The grant in a ms aid of the provision or enlargement of a Farm Institute will be limited .

to an amount not exceeding in any case 75 per cent. of the total approved cost of the provision or enlargement. The maintenance of a |) 4} Farm Institute will be aided in two ways. The Authority providing (7) the Farm Institute will receive grants under the Board’s ordinary Regu- lations for Technical Schools, &c., in respect of the instruction given : by the County Agricultural Staff in regular courses. To these will be 7 added a contribution from the Development Fund in respect of the miscellaneous and itinerant work of the Staff, which will be so limited that the total Exchequer aid distributed by the Board shall not exceed 50 per cent. of the total approved cost of maintaining the Institute anc = its Staff. The small amount of aid at present given towards the mis-— | cellaneous and itinerant work of a County Staff under Article 34 of | the Regulations for Technical Schools, &c., will be discontinued, and the Board’s Grants, otherwise than out of the Development Fund, wis | in future be limited to regular courses of instruction. @ | 4. On educational grounds the Board of Education regard it | essential for the successful working of a Farm Institute that there should be available and in close proximity to it a farm and garden. These will not only be required in connection with the internal courses — |

S 2 SS i SS o- a

= 7 =

ce

= a

| ae & =

”

and gardeners of the country. In some cases a ‘‘small holding ” ‘for demonstration purposes may with advantage be added. The farm and garden should be conducted on business principles, so far as may consistent with their primary use for educational purposes; but it probable that such use will as a rule entail some annual deficiency up a profit and loss account. Under the Memorandum of Arrangemen

fei) DEVELOPMENT FUND AND FARM INSTITUTES. 427

between the two Boards it will be for the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to distribute any State aid which may become available for the purposes of a farm and farm buildings. That Board will, it is understood, in fact seek an advance from the Development Fund for the purpose of enabling them to aid Local Education Authorities to equip and maintain farms in connection with Farm Institutes.

5. It will as a rule be desirable that the value of a Staff of Agricul- tural instructors should be fully recognised in a County before it is given permanent establishment in an Institute, and the Regulations will, therefore, make temporary provision for grants towards the main- tenance of a Staff of Instructors, which has been appointed in advance of the provision of its permanent headquarters, as an initial step in the more complete organisation proposed for a County or a group of Counties. .

6. The sums which will be advanced to the Board of Education up to March 3ist, 1916, from the Development Fund for the purposes explained above will not exceed in all 4,325,000. It is understood that the Development Commission are not prepared to recommend the making of any other advances during this period for the purpose of aiding the provision of such branches of Agricultural education as fall within the province of the Board of Education. In these circumstances Local Education Authorities will doubtless recognise that no useful purpose will now be served by their undertaking the preparation of applications to the Treasury for direct advances from the Development Fund, and will instead make application to the Board of Education for aid towards Farm Institutes under the forthcoming Regulations.

7. In making grants under this scheme to Local Education Authori- ties, the Board of Education have undertaken to secure that the grants shall not have the effect of reducing the amount of any expenditure at present incurred by the Local Education Authority out of rates or other local resources upon work of the type to be aided, or the amount of any contribution made by the Authority out of such funds to the higher types of educational work conducted by Agricultural Colleges. It is also essential that only such Farm Institutes shall be provided and maintained by aid from the Development Fund as are really necessary, and in this connection the Board will give close consideration te the possibility and desirability of combination between Counties for the purpose. In view of the limitations placed upon the funds at the Board’s disposal, it may be necessary to impose limitations upon the number and size of the Institutes to be aided in any individual County.

8. The detailed Regulations will be supplied to the Authority as soon

_as they can be prepared. Many points of detail in regard both to the

substance and form of applications will require settlement and will need

_ Careful consideration, and the Authority should therefore defer for the

moses

Hl }

_ Present the completion of any scheme they may have it in contemplation | to make, either alone or in conjunction with other Counties, as it will

be impossible for the Board to deal with any applications relating to

| Farm Institutes or County Agricultural Staffs until the Regulations have

been. published. ees I am, Sir, Your obedient Servant, E. K. CHAMBERS.

428 FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. [AUG.,

The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have received from the Development Commissioners the following statement respecting applica- _ > tions for advances from the Development Fund > Rae doce FORE for the eseEs of motor services in e

rural districts :— i:

Development Fund The attention of the Development Com- , for Motor Services jnissioners has recently been called to the in Rural Districts. question of assisting, by advances from the — Development Fund, the establishment of motor services in rural districts. _ They have adopted the following as conditions with which they think that all schemes for that purpose should comply before they can be | recommended to the Treasury :— nf

(1) Application should be made only for an advance towards the A | initial capital expenditure necessary. -

(2) The application should be for an advance by way of loan rather 7: than by way of grant; rates of interest and terms of repayment will be | fixed according to the circumstances of each case. |

(3) A local contribution should be forthcoming of a reasonable | propor. “hy tion of the capital sum required. ¢

(4) It should be shown that full provision is or will be made for putting in order (where necessary), and for maintaining the roads on which the service is to run. he

(5) Proper provision should be made for maintaining the servider i without recourse to the Development Fund. . |

Applications for

oi — —'—- es a.

A Conference, arranged by the President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries between delegates from the Berkshire and Adjoining — Counties Dairy Farmers’ Association and 3 Carriage of Milk representatives of the Great Western Railway _ by Rail. Company, took place at Reading on July 3rd ; with reference to the railway facilities afore for the milk traffic in the area embraced by the Association. . Mr. J. Cornelius, of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, ofan sided, and the following gentlemen were present: Mr. W. A. Mount, — M.P., Mr. J. Lousley, Mr. T. Latham, Mr. F. Habgood, Mr. R. Ce Maebet. Mr. W. G. Clift, Mr. W. Farrant, Mr. A. E. Scutt, Mr. Rew. Pyke, and others, representing the Association; and Mr. J. Dunster, Mr. J. V. Williams, and Mr. H. J. Rule representing the railway company. “3 After discussion, the railway representatives promised that va

of the questions raised by the Association should receive consideration. —

- Fatty == B

No further outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease have been reported —

in Middlesex. The Board have caused very close inquiry to be made as to the origin of this outbreak, but have

Foot-and-Mouth obtained no evidence throwing any light on Disease in the subject. The Board have made Orders Middlesex and Sussex. Withdrawing, as from the 8th inst., all restrictions imposed by them on the movems

of animals in connection with these outbreaks. ; On the 17th July the Board received a report of suspected Foot-at

————— ee

t

———

IQII.] IMPORTATION REGULATIONS. 429

Mouth Disease in cows and calves at Road End Farm, Udimore, near Winchelsea, Sussex, and on the 18th disease was found on The Ham- mond’s Farm, five sheep being affected, and also among some sheep at Float Farm, both being in the vicinity of the first-named outbreak. The existence of the disease was confirmed in each case, and the Board ordered the slaughter of the whole of the stock of these three farms, viz., 86 cattle, 2,300 sheep and lambs, and four swine; while as a matter of precaution 160 sheep which had been exposed a infection were also slaughtered. A large number of sheep outside the infected places were examined, but nc evidence of disease was found.

The Board have made an Order, which came into operation on the loth inst., modifying the restrictions in connection with these out- breaks. Kestrictions will, from the date of the operation of the new Order, be in force only within a zone of approximately six miles of Udimore. No part of Kent is included in the Order.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

Importation of Potatoes into the Commonwealth of Australia.—By a Proclamation dated March 17th, 1911, under the Quarantine Act, 1908, the importation of potatoes from any country into the Commonwealth is prohibited unless :—

1. They are accompanied by an official certificate, dated and signed by a responsible officer of a Government Department of the country of origin, identifying the potatoes, specifying the quantity, and certifying—

(a) That at the date of the issue of the certificate they were free from the disease caused by Phytophthora infestans (known as Irish Blight), and from the disease Chrysophlyctis endobiotica (known as potato canker, black scab, aoe disease, and cauliflower disease in potatoes) ;

(b) That they were grown in the country named;

(c) That they were grown at least twenty miles from any place known, after due investigation, to be or to have been within five years infected with either of the said diseases;

(d) That they were packed in the country of origin in clean, new packages.

2. The bags, crates, or other packages containing the potatoes are marked on the outside with the name of the country of origin and with other distinguishing mark or marks.

Sections 3 and 4 deal with the conditions to be fulfilled by the consignee on arrival of the potatoes in Australia, and provide for their

Importation Regulations.

being planted and cultivated in quarantine.

The above restrictions are relaxed in respect of potatoes imported for food.

Importation of Live Stock into South Africa.—The Diseases of Stock Act, 1911, of the Union of South Africa, repeals various laws of the several States of the Union and substitutes certain provisions, of which

the following is a summary as regards the importation of animals _ into the Union from oversea countries.

Before any animals can be imported a written permit must be

430 IMPORTATION REGULATIONS. [AUG.,

obtained from the principal veterinary officer. The latter, before grant- — ing the permit, must be satisfied that the country of origin is free from diseases to which the stock in question is liable, or, if not, that y his requirements have been complied with; or, in the case of stock from — any part of Africa outside the Union, that the stock itself is free trom disease.

Imported animals are to be subject to isolation for at “leat oa days. Cattle are subject to the tuberculin test, and animals react will be destroyed without compensation. Where any disease other than — tuberculosis is suspected, such tests may be made as are prescribed by the regulations for the particular species of stock.

The veterinary officer at the port of entry may order the stock to be inoculated, dipped, disinfected, sprayed, branded, and muzzled or other- wise secured before the permit of the principal veterinary officer is — issued. The expenses of such treatment, together with the cost of maintenance of the animals during isolation, must be borne by the owner. Stock which is infected or suspected of being infected, or which has been in contact with infected or suspected stock, may be destroyed, re-exported, or kept under such conditions as the principal — veterinary officer may determine, the method adopted being left to ae choice of the owner if this is made within seven days.

inspection of Imported Potatees in South Africa.—The South African = Union Department of Agriculture has issued the following particulars | as to the inspection of potatoes :— ws

Importers of seed and table potatoes and all others interested dre requested to note that the Union Department of Agriculture has decided — to inspect all potatoes introduced into the Union of South Africa from Le oversea at the port of entry. Inspectors will be stationed at Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, and Durban, and every box or bag, as the case may be, will be opened and the contents examined. rotting, diseased, fungus-infected, scabby, or insect- or worm-infested potatoes will be removed, and destroyed by fire without compensation to the owner. .

Any lot of potatoes found to be infected with Black Scab or Warty_ Disease (Synchytrium endobioticum Percival) will be rejected entire and any lot found to be infected with a bacterial disease deemed attack sound tubers will also be rejected if the infected potatoes ar judged to constitute 5 per cent. or more of the consignment. Lots judged to be infected with such a bacterial disease to a less extent thar 5 per. cent. will probably be admitted for consumption, but not for s sale as seed.

No consignment will be passed for admittance into the coun’ unless (1) the consignee surrenders to the examining officer a decla tion from the consignor showing the country and local place of orig of the potatoes, giving data that establish the identity of the consign ment, and declaring that to his best knowledge and belief the fungous disease known as Black Scab or Warty Disease (Synchytrium endo- bioticum Percival) has never been known to occur on the farm or farms where the potatoes concerned were produced; and (2) unless the con — signee, if called upon to do so by the examining officer, produces ¢ ar official certificate from the Government Department of Agriculture of the country of origin in which it is certified at a date not more than

I9i1.] AGRICULTURAL CONGRESSES AND EXHIBITIONS. 431

nine months previously that the department, shire, county, or other such territorial division in which are situated the place or places de- clared as being the source or sources where the potatoes were produced are deemed by the Government to be entirely free from the said disease. The examining officer may require that an attested copy of the Govern- iment certificate be surrendered to him with respect to any or all con- signments. A certificate with respect to any place will be considered invalidated if the disease is recorded to be present there in a later- issued certificate or in an authoritative report. The official certificate required may be made as an endorsement on the consignor’s declaration.

A minimum fee of 23d. per case or bag will be charged for sorting and a further charge of 3d. per case or bag will be made for every I per cent. or fraction of 1 per cent. of potatoes which it is found necessary to remove. ‘Thus, if three cases in a hundred cases, or if four to five cases are condemned, the fee will be at the rate of sd. per case.

Importers and others interested can obtain copies of the regulations when issued on application to the Acting Secretary for Agriculture, Pretoria, or the High Commissioner for the Union of South Africa, London. It is expected that the regulations will be in force in time to admit of their application to the first consignments of potatoes which will arrive from Europe in the present season.

importation of Dogs into the Straits Settlements.—The Federated Malay Siates Government Gazette, of 26th May last, contains certain rules which have been published for general information relating to the importation of dogs into the Straits Settlements.

Under these rules, which amend the Quarantine Rules of 1908, it

_ is provided that no person shall bring any dog into any Settlement either from another Settlement or from a place outside the Colony, unless a permit is first obtained from the veterinary officer of the Settlement into which the dog is to be brought, or from such officer _ as may be empowered to issue such permit.

| In granting such permit, the veterinary officer may, in his discretion, _ impose such conditions as to observations as may be considered necessary, _ and may require the dog on landing to be detained in quarantine for a _ period not exceeding three months.—(Board of Trade Journal, July 13, IQII.)

Barley and Hop Exhibition at Ghicago.—The second International Brewers’ Congress and an International Barley and Hop Prize Exhibi-

Agricultural tion will be held at Chicago from October 12th Congresses and to 22nd next. The first Congress was held Exhibitions Abroad. in connection with the Brussels Exhibition in 1910. The Congress will be divided into six sections for the discussion of the following questions connected with brewing: (1) Science of brewing (chemistry and biology); (2) Agriculture (barley and other | cereals, and hops); (3) Practice of. brewing and malting; (4) Materials (cereals, raw and prepared, and miscellaneous); (5) Engineering, re- frigeration and fuel; (6) Economics (legislative, dietetic, and social). | There will be an er cieen exhibition of brewing machinery, materials, | and products, and in connection with this the International Competitive Prize Exhibit of Barley and Hops; eels of agricultural experiment

432 NOTES ON THE WEATHER IN JULY. [AUG.,

stations demonstrating results in the cultivation of pedigree barleys and hops; educational exhibits, comprising collective exhibits of barley and hops for countries, states, or sections; brewing materials; scien- tific exhibits, comprising laboratory instruments and equipment, biologi- cal cultures, drawings, analytical methods, &c.

A subscription of $5 (41 os. tod.) entitles to membership in the Congress and a report of the proceedings. This should be received by August 31st by the Secretary-General, 1508 Republic Building, Chicago.

The Congress will welcome delegates from the scientific institutions and trade organisations interested, and the sending of exhibits by such institutions and by growers of products that are suitable for the exhi- i bition, as well as the. attendance of individuals interested in the industry. Copies of the invitation to and rules of the Congress and the rules and regulations for the Barley and Hop Prize Exhibition can be ~ seen at the Board’s office. Ss

International Gongress and Exhibition of Apiculture.—H.M. Consul at Turin (Mr. J. H. Towsey) reports that an International Congress of Apiculture is to be held at Turin, under the patronage of the Italian — Government, from roth to 12th September. In connection with the Congress an International Exhibition of Apiculture will be held from 1oth to 20th September. Applications for space should be sent to the | offices of the Executive Committee of the Exhibition, 2 rue Po, Turin. —

Copies of the programme of the Congress and Exhibition may be seen at the Commercial Intelligence Branch of the Board of Trade, 73 Basinghall Street, London, E.C., where also a few copies are avail- — able for distribution.—(Board of Trade Journal, July 13, 1911.) © te

During the first week, July 2-8, the weather was very fine over the | whole of England, and little or no rain fell. In Scotland there was rain _ on several days, but by the end of the week the

Notes oe the fine weather had extended there also. Warmth

Weather in July. was “unusual,” rainfall “light” or “very | light,” and sunshine ‘‘abundant” or ‘‘very abundant” almost every- where. | N.

{n the second week the weather was very fine and dry generally, no rain being experienced except some slight falls in the north and west at the end of the week. Sunshine was et abundant ’’ in every | aoe: of Great Britain, and rain ‘very light” or ‘‘nought.” Warmth | was “unusual” oe except in England N. E. and E., where it | was ‘‘ moderate.” 4

During the third week the conditions were still very fine over the greater part of England, but a little rain fell at times in the nort - western and north-eastern counties and in North Wales. The warmth | kept up, but sunshine was rather less than in the week before, and below the average in Scotland and the north-west and north-east of | England.

During the fourth week the weather in England, although mos fair to bright, was more variable than during the preceding week, while — in Scotland the general condition was unsettled and rain frequent. violent thunder storm occurred in parts of southern England, and ot cver the country generally. *

IQII.| CROP CONDITIONS ON AUGUST IST. 433

The Reports furnished by the Crop Reporters of the Board on the agricultural conditions on the 1st August, especially refer to the effect upon the crops and live stock of the prolonged

Crop Conditions period of drought and heat. With the excep- in Great Britain tion of wheat, of which the prospects have on August Ist. improved to an extent indicated by 2 per cent.

on the probable yield, and of hops, which on the whole appear to have maintained their position, all crops have more or less deteriorated. The superiority of wheat over the other corn crops has increased during the month, and while in yield it will be the “crop of the year,’”’ reports as to its quality are also satisfactory. With the exception of North Wales and the West Midland division of England an average or over average yield may be expected in each division, with a result for the whole of the country of a crop some 3 per cent. above the average of the past ten years. Both barley and oats have suffered irom the drought, the latter, in particular, being frequently described as thin and patchy. Both crops have ripened prematurely, and the grain is light. In none of the divisions of the country is the yield of barley expected to reach an average; while the results for oats are still less promising, the yield for the country as a whole being fore- casted at 8 per cent. below average. All three cereals are short in the straw, and the harvesting of each is in progress throughout the country. Beans are also short in the haulm and have suffered consider- ably from attacks of ‘“‘fly’’ as well as from the drought. They are now expected to be as much below the average as oats. Peas also have suffered from the lack of rain, and in some districts are reported to have dried up. The yield, which on the ist of July was regarded as about average, is now anticipated to be 5 per cent. below it.

Potatoes are generally described as being in a healthy condition with a good growth, and marked freedom from disease. Repérts show that early varieties have been lifting lightly, and the lack of rain will tend to diminish the weight of the main crop. In Wales and Scotland the yield promises to exceed the average, but in England an under average yield is predicted, and for the country, as a whole, the result will be about an average.

Roots have suffered from the long spell of dry weather, though mangolds have been less affected than turnips and swedes. Mangolds have made little progress and are generally backward, and the yield for all divisions of England and Wales is expected to be below the | average. Turnips and swedes are frequently described as a poor plant, and backward, and are much in need of rain. In Scotland the early ‘sown pieces are progressing more satisfactorily than the later sown.

The hay crop was secured in good condition, very quickly, and with little labour, the weather being for the most part favourable. The yields both for ‘‘seeds’”” hay and meadow hay are lighter than were anticipated a month ago. Both crops are now put slightly lower than a month ago, and the total supply will be considerably below average.

Reports on hops in the south-eastern division state that the bine is slack - Owing to the drought, and rain is needed. Vermin is not now ‘generally prevalent, but the yield is not likely to reach an average. In the West Midland division reports are variable, and an average yield may be obtained, but for the country as a whole the crop is not expected to come up to an average.

| NG |

434 NOTES ON CROP PROSPECTS ABROAD. [AUG.,

All classes of fruit, and particularly orchard fruit, have suffered from the drought, which has caused a large proportion of apples, pears, plums, and cherries to fall from the trees. Strawberries were about an average crop, while the remaining crops both oi small fruit and tree — fruit are considerably under average.

Pastures have been very much burnt up by the heat, the scarcity of grass necessitating resort to oil cake and other feeding stuffs. Water has been very scarce in some districts, and stock have suffered in consequence. Where the water supply has been maintained stock have done fairly well, and crop reporters frequently express surprise that the condition of the herds and flocks has been so well kept up under such trying circumstances. There are frequent references to the reduced — supply of milk, the result of which has been apparent in the Weekly Return of Market Prices. ‘Summarising the reports and representing an average crop by 100, the appearance of the crops on the 1st August indicates yields for Great Britain which may be represented by the following percentages :—Wheat, 103; barley, 96; oats, 92; beans, 925 — peas, 95; potatoes, 100; mangold, 97; ‘‘seeds’’ hay, 93; meadow ~ hay, 89; hops, 98.

The Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics for July, 1911, issued by the International Institute of Agriculture, gives the following forecast of © the present cereal harvest from information —

Notes on Crop received in time for publication on the 22nd

Prospects Abroad. July :—

Single Numerical Statement of the Produc- tion of the more important Cereal Crops in the Northern Hemisphere.— The area which has been harvested, or which is about to be harvested, of the four most,important cereal crops—wheat, rye, barley, and oats—is now known for a number of countries in the Northern Hemisphere, and we are also able to give an approximate estimate of the probable pro- duction. Uniting these data in a common table and comparing them with last year’s figures, we have the following results :—

Wheat.—The area has increased from 97,483,400 acres to 100,778,100 acres. The single numerical statement of the area, i.e., the ratio, in ete figures, between this year’s area and the area last yeas is 10374 :

The production has increased from 188,100,100 qrs. to 198,166,870 qrs. The single numerical statement of the production, i.e., the ratio, in percentage figures, between this year’s pioduenion and the proudction last year, is 105°4.

Rye.—The area has decreased from 6,585,960 acres to 6 359,800 acres. The single numerical statement of the area is 996. |

The production has increased from 15,059,900 qrs. to 15,526,500 qrs. The single numerical statement of the production is 103'1.

Barley.—The area has increased from 9,674,100 acres to 9,863,300 acres. The single numerical statement of the area is 102’. =.

The production has increased from 31,719,773 qrs. to 34,161,700 hg The single numerical statement of the production is 1077.

Oats.—The area has increased from 7,382,900 acres to 7,409,000 acres. The single numerical statement of the area is 100°4. |

EO. | NOTES ON CROP PROSPECTS ABROAD. 435

The production has increased from 31,549,100 qrs. to 32,161,300 qrs. The single numerical statement of the production is 1org9.

In order to obtain an exact interpretation of these data, it should be borne in mind that—

The figures are only approximate. As revised figures are received at the Institute, these will always be included in the tables of the following month.

The figures for India and Tunis are the same as those published in the June Bulletin, no revisions having been received.

The figures of production for the other countries have come to hand during the past few days. With the exception of those for Belgium, Roumania and Denmark, the data have been furnished in absolute figures. The first two of these countries have supplied the figures of yield per acre, while Denmark has given the production in a percentage of the average production for the past ten years. In these three cases, therefore, the yield per acre and the percentage figures have been reduced to absolute figures.

Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Supplement, July, 1911.—This supplement contains revised figures for the estimated production of wheat in Italy and Roumania, and an estimate of the spring wheat crop in the United States. Taking these into account the total estimated pro- duction of spring and winter wheat in the following countries: Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Great Britain, Hungary including Croatia and Slavonia, Italy, Luxemburg, Roumania, Switzerland, United States, British India, Japan, and Tunis, amounts to 226,288,000 qrs., as com- pared with 216,964,356 qrs. last year.

The single numerical standard, 1.e., the ratio, in percentage figures, between the estimated production this year and the production obtained last year thus becomes 104°3, in place of the figure previously obtained and quoted on p. 434.

France.—The report of the Ministry of Agriculture on the state of _ the crops on July ist gives the condition of winter wheat as good in _ thirty-five departments, and satisfactory in forty-eight departments. Spring wheat was good in twenty-five departments, satisfactory in _ thirty-six, moderate in one, and poor in one. In the case of the remain- _ ing departments, four for winter wheat and twenty-four for spring wheat, there was no information or the crop was not grown.—(Journal Officiel, July 21st, 1911.) _ Hungary.—According to the report issued by the Hungarian Minister of Agriculture, dated July 25th, the estimated crop yields are as _| follows :—Wheat, 22,220,000 rs. ; rye, 5,980,000 qrs.; barley, 8,690,000 _ S.; Oats, 9,340,000 gqrs. The maize crop has suffered considerably, its _ 8rowth having been arrested by the prolonged heat. These figures are | rie greater than the estimate of July 11th.—(Dornbusch, July 31st, IQii. Be Roumania.—The British Consul at Bucharest, Mr. Errol MacDonell, ina dispatch, gives some information on the state of the local crops collected from an official publication dated the 30th June. Owing to the rains that fell at short intervals and the warm weather, all crops _ Stew rapidly, and at the time of the report were in good condition.

GG

| |

i

436 NOTES ON CROP PROSPECTS ABROAD. [AUG,

It was feared, however, that the quality might suffer owing to the great heat subsequently. Autumn wheat, rye, and oats ripened in the last half of June. In the plains and towards the sea the crops were in good condition, with large ears full of heavy grain. Notwithstanding a small amount of damage caused by rain, wind, and some hail, a fine crop of wheat and barley is to be expected. The oat crop also was expected to give a very large production.

Maize was sown in the first decade of June in some districts, and owing to rain and cool weather growth was good, especially where the rain was plentiful. The second hoeing was nearly finished at the end of June, and in some districts the cob had already formed.

World’s Hop Crop.—In their report, dated the 1oth July, on the hop season Igio-11, Messrs.. Barth & Son, of Nuremberg, state that the area under hops in the world in 1910 was 233,544 acres, against 240,634 acres in 1909, but that the production per acre was large; in fact, the firm regard it as one of the largest of the past thirty years. The quality of the crop suffered considerably from the cold wet weather during harvest time, and the drying of the hops was at times much impeded. Prices in Germany were very low at the beginning of the season, and have fluctuated considerably, but generally they have gradually advanced, until at present they are at their highest point. There is a great scarcity of stocks at the present time, and only a world’s record crop will satisfy — the demand. The tg11 plant has wintered well in all countries, and the general prospect is fairly good.

Russia.—A report in the official Commercial and Industrial Gazette of July 26th, forwarded by the British Commercial Attaché at St. Petersburg, sums up the prospects of the grain crops in Russia as follows:—In general, according to information received from all the sixty-three Bourse Committees, the grain crop in European and Asiatic Russia this year is an average one, considerably less than that of last year. The prospects are satisfactory for all grains in the west, south- west, and the south, and in places, especially in the governments of | Ekaterinoslav, the Tavride, Kharkoff, and Kieff, very satisfactory. In the centre of the Empire the outlook is somewhat worse, though inclining towards an average yield. In the central and lower Volga, in | the basins of the Kama and Bielaia, as also in the Ural region, it is already clear that the crop will be below the average, and in places even bad. In Siberia, with the exception of the government of Irkutsk, the Altai districts of the Tomsk government, and some separate districts of a few other governments, there is a complete failure of the grain and fodder crops. The reserves of grain this ee are everywhere limited, and are considerably smaller than last year’s. |

United States.—The Crop Reporting Board of the United States : Department of Agriculture estimates the yield of winter wheat at 455,000,000 bushels, as compared with a final estimate of 464,000,000 | bushels last year. The average quality of the crop is put at 922, | against 92°6 last year. The average condition of spring wheat on August Ist was 59°8, against 73°83 last month, 61’0 on August rst, 1910, and 82°3 the ten-year average on August 1st. The average condition of the oat crop on August 1st was 65°7, against 68°38 last month, 81'5 on August Ist, 1910, and a ten-year average of 82°2. The average conditio of barley on August Ist was 66°2, as compared with 72°1 last month,

19oi1.| ANIMAL DISEASES ON THE CONTINENT. 437

7o'o on August Ist, 1910, and a ten-year average of 85°1.—(Dornbusch, August gth, 1911.)

The Department of Agriculture has informed the International Institute that the estimated production of spring wheat in 1gi1 is equal to 1058 per cent. of that of 1910. On this basis the Institute has calculated the probable production this year to be 244,751,000 bushels, compared with 231,334,000 bushels last year, and the production of all wheat 702,580,000 bushels, compared with 695,247,000 bushels last year.—(Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Supplement, August 1, 1911.)

Germany.—The German Imperial Statistical Bureau estimates the condition of the crops on August Ist as follows :—Winter wheat, 2'6; spring wheat, 3:0; winter rye, 2°6; spring rye, 2'7; barley, 2°5; oats, 2'9; potatoes, 3:0 (2=good, 3=average).

Canada.—The Census and Statistics Monthly for the month ended June 30th states that the condition of the field crops was then on the whole quite satisfactory. The condition of the crop, compared with the average yield in the last three years is as follows (1oo=average for 1908-10) :—Winter wheat, 89; spring wheat, 112; barley, 107; oats, 107.

The following statement shows _ that, Prevalence of Animal according to the information in the possession

Diseases on the of the Board on August Ist, 1911, certain dis- Continent. eases of animals existed in the countries specified :—

Austria (week ending July 12th). Anthrax, Blackleg, Swine-fever, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (7,952 H6fe), Glanders and Farcy. Belgium (fifteen days ending June 15th). Anthrax, Blackleg, Rabies, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (1,464 ** foyers ”’ in 289 ‘“‘communes”’). Bulgaria (week ending July 14th). Anthrax, Glanders and Farcy, Rabies, Sheep-scab, Swine-fever, Swine Erysipelas, Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Denmark (month of June). Anthrax, Swine Erysipelas. France (month of June). Anthrax, Blackleg, Glanders and Farcy, Rabies, Sheep-pox, Sheep- scab, Swine Erysipelas, Swine-fever. | Foot-and-Mouth Disease (3,958 ‘‘étables”’ in 944 ‘‘communes”’). Germany (on June 30th). Glanders and Farcy, Swine-fever, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (20,793 infected places in 3,737 parishes). | Holland (month of June). Anthrax, Foot-rot, Swine Erysipelas, Foot-and-Mouth Disease | (18,241 outbreaks in 10 provinces). Hungary (on July sth). __ Anthrax, Rabies, Swine Erysipelas, Swine-fever, Foot-and-Mouth ___ Disease (7,480 ‘‘cours”’). Ltaly (week ending June 12th). | Anthrax, Glanders and Farcy, Rabies, Swine Erysipelas, Swine- __ fever, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (1,549 cases entailing 29,540 | animals),

| | }

AGG AGRICULTURAL LABOUR IN JULY. [AUG,,

Montenegro (sixteen days ending April 15th). Foot-and-Mouth Disease (54 ‘‘ étables’’ infected in 11

Norway (month of June).

Anthrax, Blackleg.

Roumania (nine days ending July 13th). a Anthrax, Dourine, Glanders and Farcy, Pleuro-pneumonia, Rabie Sheep-pox, Sheep-scab, Swine Erysipelas, Swine-fever. s

Russia (month of March).

Anthrax, Cattle-plague, Glanders and Farcy, Pleuro-pneumoni Rabies, Sheep-pox, Swine Erysipelas, Swine-fever, Foot-and-Mo Disease (77,126 cases in 1,350 ‘‘communes”’

Servia (eight days ending July 15th). i Anthrax, Rabies, Sheep-pox, Swine-fever, Foot-and-Mouth Disez (139 cases in 4 ‘arrondissements ’’).

Spain (month of April). Anthrax, Blackleg, Dourine, Rabies, Sheep-pox, Sheep-scab, Swin Erysipelas. .

Sweden (month of June).

Anthrax, Blackleg, Swine-fever.

Switzerland (week ending July 23rd). Anthrax, Blackleg, Swine Erysipelas, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (2 ‘“étables’”’ and 180 ‘‘alpages-paturages”’ entailing 17,879 animal of which 63 ‘‘étables”’ and 36 ‘alpages-pdturages’’ were declar during the week).

ee

communes”), —

The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have been furnished by Board of Trade with the following report, based on returns from corre- spondents in various districts, on the deme Agricultural Labour 5, agricultural labour in July :—

in England Fine weather prevailed throughout | J during July. and agricultural employment was consequet uninterrupted. Some day labourers, however, were short of work the early part of the month, as the absence of rain checked the gro of the root crops and diminished the amount of hoeing to be done. ~ corn harvest began in several counties before the end of the mo and the crop stood up well, permitting the use of machinery wher available. The supply of day labourers was usually sue requirements. : : Northern Counties.—The continuous dry weather somewhat hind hoeing at the beginning of July owing to the backward state of root crop, but there was a brisk demand for extra labour for making. The supply of day labourers was, however, in general sufficient. a Midland Counties.—Haymaking commenced early; the crop, ho ever, was rather light, and being also in good condition, hand | was reduced toa minimum. In several districts the corn harvest fol on before the end of the month. There was a fair demand fo labourers, which was, however, generally fully met by the supply. scarcity of men for permanent situations was reported in the B

I9I1.| THE CORN MARKETS IN JULY. 439

(Cheshire), Barrow (Leicestershire), and Pershore (Worcestershire) rural districts.

Eastern Counties.—Employment was regular throughout the month. Day labourers were generally in good demand for hoeing roots and haymaking, although in some districts the supply was somewhat in excess of requirements.

Southern and South-Western Counties.—Owing to the dry weather the growth of weeds was checked, and consequently the root crops did not require so much hoeing as usual. The hay crop being light and easily cut, there was no great demand for extra labour, the supply in most cases being quite sufficient. Some scarcity of day labourers was, however, reported from the Wantage (Berks), Wells (Somerset), and West Penwith (Cornwall) rural districts. Men for permanent situations were in demand in the Chippenham and Devizes (Wilts), Dursley (Glos.), and Liskeard (Cornwall) rural districts.

Pre CORN MARKETS IN. JULY. C. KAINS-JACKSON.

During the season just before harvest the weather is the leading influence, but it is seldom that all other influences are so completely eclipsed as they have been for the past thirty-one days. The forcing heat had brought the prospective date of new crop deliveries well forward by the end of the month, and thereby checked advancing tendencies; but the general opinion that production, while of over- average quality, would be lacking in bulk and quantity except in the case of wheat, made itself felt, and holders of grain at Lammas were confident of values both for old crops and new.

Wheat.—The statute markets during July seldom included a 33s. average from any leading centre for British wheat, while an average below 30s. was even more rare. Value, therefore, was unusually level for the old crop towards the close of the season. New wheat was

_ Offered at Mark Lane on the 31st, and 33s. to 34s. per 504 lb. was about

the price; 1s. to 1s. 6d. above this would have been paid if the grower could have promised delivery before the Bank Holiday. At Norwich on

_ the 29th rubbed-out samples were shown, and a price of 32s. for delivery

to local mills on or before August 12th was obtained. The majority of farms, however, declined to ‘‘sell forward,” and the tone of trade was quite firm. Prices ruling at the close of the month for imported produce were about as follows, the mean values on July 31st, 1910, being given, for the sake of comparison, in brackets. Best Russian, 36s. 6d. per 496 lb. (40s.); No. 1 Northern Manitoba, none (43s. 9d.); No. 2, 37s. od.

_ per 480 Ib. (435.); Australian, -36s. per 480 Ib. (4o0s.); Argentine, 35s.

per 480 lb. (none); No. 2 White Calcutta, 34s. 9d. per 4096 Ib. (38s. 6d.), and Red Karachi, 335. od. per 496 Ib. (37s. 6d.). Durum was in fair Supply a year ago at 37s. to 38s. per 480 Ib., but is not now on offer. Sales of British wheat for eleven months of the cereal year have been smaller than anticipated, but an unusually large quantity is believed to have been used on the farm, largely for poultry purposes. Imports for the eleven months have been decidedly less than last season. The

440 THE CORN MARKETS IN JULY. [AUG., —

shipping year ends July 31st. Returns of breadstuffs’ exports (including _ 6(Cf flour as wheat) are not yet fully verified, but will probably show record se i totals, about 74 million quarters against 623 millions last season. Russia . ! and Europe S.E. have led the wheat export trade. Shipments of the : month were 557,000 qrs. from North America, 789,000 qrs. irom South — : America, 1,326,000 qrs. from India, 2,176,000 qrs. from Russia, 254,000 cs qrs. from Europe S.E., and 544,000 qrs. from Australia. The large a Indian shipments were noticeable. The supply on PReesse on 31st was a 2,910,000 qrs., a very ordinary total. .

Flour.—Holders of flour have had a very unfavourable month. The weather has been against the condition of supplies in warehouse, and at the same time has been adverse to a good inquiry for bread. Thus bakers were buying less than usual in the identical weeks when millers