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AN
ACCOUNT
OF THE
SYSTEMS OF HUSBANDRY
ADOPTED IN
THE MORE IMPROVED DISTRICTS
OF
SCOTLAND ;
WITH
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE IMPROVEMENTS OF WHICH THEY ARE SUSCEPTIBLE.
BRAWN UP FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,
WITH A VIEW OF EXPLAINING HOW FAR THOSE SYSTEMS ARE
APPLICABLE TO THE LESS CULTIVATED PA'RTS IN
ENGLAND, AND SCOTLAND.
BY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE
SIR JOHN SINCLAIR, BART.
PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The Second Edition.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
" Knowledge is power " BACON. EDINBURGH:
Printed by James Sallantyne 4' Co.
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH;
LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN, LONDON; AND
JOHN CUMING, DUBLIN.
1813.
BtacK Annex
5
o 5
ADVERTISEMENT
TO THE
FIRST EDITION.
I HAVE at length the satisfaction of laying before the Public, an Account of the Systems of Hus- bandry adopted in the more improved districts of Scotland. It was drawn up at the request of a most respectable friend, (Sir Joseph Banks), who thought, that such an investigation would be pro- ductive of beneficial consequences to the agricul- tural interests of the united kingdom ; and he ur- ged, that it was incumbent upon a native of Scot- land, while presiding at the Board of Agriculture, and possessing all the means of information which that situation afforded, to undertake the task. Being occupied with many other avocations, no- thing but the respect which I entertain for the opinion of so zealous a friend to improvement,
VI ADVERTISEMENT TO
could have induced me to engage in so arduous an attempt. Indeed, the labour and difficulties attending it, have gone far beyond every idea I could have formed of them. To execute the task in a satisfactory manner, it seemed to me neces- sary, personally to examine several of the more improved districts in Scotland, to converse with the farmers in their own fields, to explain to them distinctly, not only the general objects I had in view, but also the particular facts I wished to as- certain ; and to obtain from them, not hasty an- swers, to questions suddenly put, but details, ma- turely considered, and carefully drawn up. The reader has now an opportunity of examining the result of the whole investigation. The Author claims the merit only of collecting, condensing, and digesting, the important information which was most liberally furnished. The credit of the knowledge which this Work may contain, belongs entirely to the intelligent and public-spirited Farmers from whom that information has been derived.
I trust that there are several observations con- tained in this Work, which will prove of service in those districts of England, where the cultiva-
THE FIRST EDITION. VU
tion of arable land, owing to the attention of the farmer having been principally directed to the management of grass land, to the profits of the dairy, and to the breeding of stock, has hitherto been but a secondary object. At the same time, it has been my wish, to make this Treatise useful also to the farmers of Scotland ; and for that pur- pose, I have incorporated a variety of hints, which attention to English Husbandry, and the commu- nications of many respectable correspondents in the southern part of the united kingdom, have enabled me to suggest.
I cannot submit this work to the consideration of the Public, without congratulating my country, on the anxious desire to obtain agricultural know- ledge, which now so universally prevails in every part of the united kingdom. Indeed, when I con- sider that zeal for improvement, and that thirst for useful information, by which the British Isles are, at this time so peculiarly distinguished, I cannot entertain a doubt, that Agriculture will soon reach a degree of excellence in this country, which it has never hitherto attained in anv other:
^
and that the merit of discovering the most effec- tual means, " of providing food for man? the first
Viii ADVERTISEMENT, &C.
of all political objects, will, in future ages, be at- tributed, to the skill, the spirit, and the enter- prise of British Farmers.
JOHN SINCLAIR.
CHARLOTTE SQUARE, EDINBURGH, 24M February, 1812.
ADVERTISEMENT
TO THE
SECOND EDITION.
FROM the anxiety to obtain Agricultural inform- ation, another Edition of the Husbandry of Scot- land has become necessary. In preparing it for the press, every endeavour has been made to ren- der it as correct as possible, and to explain seve- ral particulars which had not been sufficiently discussed in the former impression. The Author more especially alludes to the subject of Straw, the importance of which cannot be too highly es- timated, but which had not been treated of at much length, either in the First Edition of this Work, or in any former Publication.
CHARLOTTE SQUARE, EDINBURGH, > 15th July, 1813. )
CONTENTS
OF
VOLUME FIRST.
Page.
Of the various Circumstances which have contributed to the Excellence of Scottish Husbandry, and an Explanation of the Plan of the Work, .; 1
PART I.
CHAP. I. — ON THE POINTS WHICH REQUIRE ATTENTION, PRE- VIOUS TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF ARABLE CULTURE, 11
Sect. 1. Position of the Farm-house and Offices, ib.
— — 2. The best Construction of a Farm-house and Offices, 14>
3. Size and Shape of Fields, 30
• 4. Of Fences, and Gates, 4-3
. 5. Of Draining, 52
. 6. Of the Roads on a Farm, audits Neighbourhood, ... 63
•• 7« Of Instruments of Husbandry, 71
- — 8. Of Live Stock,. 105
1
Xii CONTENTS.
Pager
Sect. 9. Qf the Soil and Sub- Soil, the Climate, the Elevation and Exposuret and the Situation of a Farm in regard
to Markets 150
Conclusion of the Chapter, 153
CHAP. II. — OF THE PARTICULARS CONNECTED WITH THE AC- TUAL CULTIVATION OF AN ARABLE FARM, AND THE MOST ADVANTAGEOUS MEANS OF MAINTAINING ITS STOCK, 155
Sect. 1. Of Ridging, 156
2. Manuring, 171
3. Ploughing, 213
4-. Fallowing, , 234-
5. Crops usually cultivated in Scotland, 258
6. Rotation of Crops, 311
7« Solving, 34-3
8. Weeding, 356
9. Harvesting Grain, and preparing it for the Miller, 365
10. Of Straw, its Value, and Uses, 376
ADDENDA.
No I. Hints Regarding the Question, whether all the Strata of a Farm should be Converted into Dung, or partly Consumed in Feeding Stock, 4-31
2. Some additional Particulars regarding Threshing- Mills, , „,.,. 436
AN ACCOUNT
OF THE
HUSBANDRY OF SCOTLAND,
MORE ESPECIALLY AS PRACTISED IN
ITS BEST CULTIVATED DISTRICTS.
INTRODUCTION.
Of the various circumstances which have contributed to the excellence of Scottish Husbandry, and an explanation of the Plan of the Work.
JDEFORE giving any explanation of the plan proposed to be adopted in drawing up the following work, it may not be improper, briefly to point out those causes, which have principally contributed to the excellence of Scottish Hus- bandry, as practised in its more improved districts, several of which, however, are not to be considered as solely appli- cable to the northern part of the kingdom.
1. Though the climate of Scotland is in general rather unfavourable to cultivation, (a disadvantage which the Scotch farmers have assiduously, and often successfully en- deavoured to counteract) yet the country, on the whole,
VOL. i. A
2 INTRODUCTION.
enjoys several natural advantages of considerable import- ance. Its maritime situation, and its numerous bays and arms of the sea, together with the lakes and streams with which it is so amply provided, not only tend to promote its commerce, but are also favourable to its agriculture. It is also largely furnished with those essential requisites for im- provement, limestone and marie; and it possesses, in most of its districts, that most important article, fuel, in consider- able quantities.
2. Owing to the establishment of parochial schools, the farmers of Scotland had, in general, all the advantages of a good education, and having thence acquired a taste for reading, became not only fond of perusing works on agri- culture, but were anxious to avail themselves of any inform- ation they might thus obtain. Hence the culture of artifi- cial grasses, and the best mode of applying them by means of soiling, with various other useful practices, spread rapidly over the whole country. Numbers of Scotch farmers, also, were accustomed to travel, with a view of acquiring useful information, and of comparing their own practices with those of other districts.*
3. Many of the proprietors of land in Scotland, who were distinguished by the acquisition of useful, rather than of showy accomplishments, took a delight in rural occupa- tions; and, in various districts, now under a complete sys- tem of husbandry, they either improved their estates them-
* An intelligent farmer once remarked to me, that he derived more advantage, by travelling about to see the improvements of others, than by attempting to make discoveries of his own. Almost every Scotch farmer has travelled through his own county, and some of the neigh- bouring ones ; many have visited England, and some have even pene- trated into Flanders, for the express purpose of obtaining agricultural information.
INTRODUCTION. #
selves, or encouraged their tenants to exertion, establishing for that purpose a most liberal system of connexion between the two classes.
4. It became a custom in Scotland, at an early period, to grant leases for an adequate term of years, without the possession of which, no material improvement, on the part of the tenant, can possibly be expected ; and to that circum- stance, perhaps more than to any other, is the excellence of Scottish husbandry to be attributed. Indeed, extensive im- provements have not taken place in any part of England, but where the same custom has prevailed. In regard to the granting of leases, nothing can be more ill judged, than for a landlord, both to neglect his immediate interests, and to prevent the future improvement of his estate, in order to procure a little political influence, which a generous pro- prietor can always command, when he may have occasion for it, without keeping his tenants in a state of slavish de- pendence.
5. In many parts of England, where estates are possess- ed by tenants for life, or under the fetters of a trust, it is questionable, whether leases of a considerable endurance can be granted, or whether old pastures, though in extent beyond any real advantage to the estate, can be broken up ; whereas in Scotland, even when land is under a perpetual and strict entail, leases may be granted for thirty-one years, and upwards, without any unnecessary restrictions against arable cultivation, and the tenant is enabled to do every thing that the proprietor could have done himself, had he retained possession of the land.*
* The act 10. Geo. IIF, c. 51, A, D. 1770, introduced by the late Sir James Montgomery, is favourable to the improvement of entailed property. By that statute it is enacted, that every proprietor of an en- tailed estate, who shall lay out money in inclosing, planting, draining, or
4- INTRODUCTION.
6. The inferior capitals of the Scotch farmers, when their improved system of husbandry commenced, rendered it necessary for them, to study economy in the management of their farms, to cultivate their lands with fewer horses, with cheaper implements, and with a smaller number of servants ; and hence originated a system of management, distinguished by two important advantages, economy and simplicity.
7. In the more improved districts of Scotland, the farms are in general of a proper size for arable culture. Small lots are beneath the attention of an opulent and intelligent farmer. Much time is lost in the cultivation of small farms, and the comparative expence is much greater, where the servants and cattle have not constant occupation ; whereas, with a farm of a proper size, (the extent of which will be the subject of future discussion f ) every hour may be ad- vantageously employed.
in erecting farm-houses anil offices for the same, shall be a creditor to the succeeding heirs of entail, for three-fourths of the money laid out, provided that the amount claimed, shall not exceed four years' free rent of the estate, at the first term of Whitsunday, after the demise of the heir who expended the money. The expence of building or repairing the mansion-house or offices, becomes also a debt against the heir of entail, to the amount of three-fourths of the money expended, if the claim does not exceed two years' free rent. It may, however, be ne- cessary to observe, that certain formalities are required to be attended to, in expending the money, and constituting it a debt against the heirs of entail. By this statute, which is entitled, an act " for encouraging the Improvement of Land in Scotland, held under Settlements of strict Entail," it is lawful for the proprietor, to let leases for 31 years, or for 14 years and one existing life, or for two existing lives, under certain con- ditions as to inclosing, if let for longer than 19 years; and proprietors may let building leases, of not more than five acres extent, under certain conditions, for any period not exceeding 99 years, f See Dissertation I, Part II, On the Size of Farms.
INTRODUCTION.
8. Soon after improvements began, the rents of lands were progressively increased, without the spur of which, neither industry in cultivation, nor economy in manage- ment, can in general be expected. Oppressive and sudden additions ought certainly to be avoided ; but without a fair income for his land, no proprietor ought to part with a control over his estate, more especially for so long a period as nineteen or thirty-one years. A tenant, on the other hand, who obtains a lease of some duration, and on liberal terms in regard to covenants, can well afford a reasonable augmentation, either at once, or at different periods of his lease, on a rent that was previously moderate.
9. It was a circumstance peculiarly favourable to the improvement of Scotland, that the farmers, in general, were liable to no material burden, but their rent to the landlord, by whom the land-tax, and, since the year 1633, the stipend to the clergyman have been usually paid. * Wherever there is any uncertainty in regard to the sums to be exacted, (more especially if the burden increases with the industry exerted) no farmer will attempt any expensive improvement Hence one of the advantages of a recent law, by which the servitude of thirlage, or bondage to any particular mill, may be legally commuted. The personal sei'vices also, to which the Scotch peasantry were, at one time, subjected, and which were often indefinite, are now almost entirely exploded.
* One-half of the parochial schoolmaster's salary is paid by the te- nantry, together with one-half of the expence of maintaining the poor. This, however, is a trifling object, as the expence of supporting the poor is chiefly defrayed by voluntary collections at church on Sundays. The Scotch farmers are also liable in payment of the property-tax, and either to statute labour, or road assessments.
6 INTRODUCTION.
10. A considerable proportion of the most fertile land in England, until bills of division and inclosure were in- troduced, (which have in some degree alleviated the evil, though not to the extent that could be wished for) was actually debarred from improvement, by the common-field system ; whereas in the more improved districts of Scot- land, owing to a general Bill of Inclosure passed by the Scotch Parliament in 1695, every farm, for many years past, has been a distinct possession, or been held in seve- rally.
11. The expence of labour in Scotland, does not differ materially from that of several extensive districts in Eng- land ; and the day-labourers in that country, certainly execute as much work, within the same period of time, as those in Scotland; but the servants employed in husbandry in Scotland, are in general more tractable, are satisfied with homelier fare, have fewer perquisites, are less accus- tomed to waste their time and their wages unprofitably, are generally married, and thence steadier in their conduct, are more regular and constant in their hours of labour, and having commonly received a better education, are thence less addicted to debauchery, or to any irregularity of conduct.
12. In Scotland, the laws are favourable to cultivation and improvement, a circumstance to which the excellence of the Scotch husbandly is greatly to be attributed. Re- gulations exist, which facilitate the division of commons and of common fields; fences erected between two dis- tinct estates, are made at the joint expence of the owners ; the value of the tithes of any estate, can be fixed by the de- cision of the supreme court of justice, and when once fixed by a legal valuation, and converted into what may be called a corn rent, the amount cannot afterwards be increased : The possessor of any estate can, in general, exonerate his
INTRODUCTION. 7
property from all indefinite demands upon it, of a feudal nature ; leases are interpreted, by the courts of law, favour- ably to the tenant; and the occupiers of land, in general, are not subjected to any arbitrary burdens, under the name of Poor-rates.*
13. The establishment of banks, and the extension of paper money, have certainly materially contributed to the improvement of Scotland, f Enterprising farmers have thus been supplied, when necessary, with aid to carry on their operations, and have obtained a better price, and a readier payment, for their commodities ; — no small induce- ments to exertion. Where the public banks, or their branches, also, are established, the savings of tlie prudent and economical farmer, have not only been safely deposited, and borne an interest of from 3 to 4< per cent,, but were al- ways ready at his command.
14. In the last place, the character of the Scots, indus- trious, economical, intelligent, and persevering, and their habits of life, calculated to maintain that national character, would naturally enable them to reach a considerable degree pf excellence, in any art or science, to which their attention might be peculiarly directed.
Other causes, as will appear in the course of the follow- ing investigation, may have also indirectly contributed to the improved state of Scotch Husbandry; but the circum- stances above detailed, will, it is believed, sufficiently ex-
* I say in general, for there .are exceptions to this rule in several of the southern counties.
f The celebrated Sir James Steuart, in his Political Economy, (last edit. vol. iii, p. 197) says, " To the banks of Scotland the improvement of that country is entirely owing" Without going so far, it may be safely asserted, that to the improvement of Scotland they have materially contributed.
8 INTRODUCTION.
plain, why that system should have reached a considerable degree of perfection, and may, in various respects, be ac- counted a pattern for other districts, similarly situated, in so far as regards arable cultivation.
We shall next proceed, to explain the nature of the plan intended to be adopted, in the prosecution of this important enquiry. It is proposed to divide the Work into Two Parts.
PART I.
This Part will be purely practical, explaining, first, the best practices of the most distinguished Scotch farmers, re- garding those points which require attention, previous to the commencement of arable culture ; and, secondly, those particulars, which are connected with the actual cultivation of an arable farm, and the most profitable means of main- taining its stock. This part of the work will be concluded with, 1. A general view of the improved Systems of Hus- bandry adopted in Scotland; 2. An account of the im- provements of which those systems are susceptible ; and, 3. Some observations on the n.eans by which the useful practices of the best Scotch farmers, may be most advanta- geously disseminated throughout the less improved districts of England and Scotland ; together with a general view, of the public and private advantages which may be derived from their more general adoption.
PART II.
There are some questions, however, connected with the husbandry of Scotland, and with the improvement of that country, which are rather of a more abstruse nature, the
INTRODUCTION. 9
explanation of which requires a good deal of research, and much reflection thoroughly to comprehend ; in particular, 1. The size of farms; 2. The means by which a liberal sys- tem of connexion can be established between the landlord and tenant ; and, 3. The characters of those who are em- ployed in agricultural labour, in the more improved dis- tricts of Scot and. These are points, which it is thought more advisable to place in a distinct division of the work, and to discuss in separate dissertations.
In an Appendix, some information will be given, con- nected with the improvement of Waste Lands in Scotland, (a subject to, which the public attention cannot be too frequently called) and some other particulars, respecting which the author trusted, that the information he had to communicate, would be acceptable to the public.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE POINTS WHICH REQUIRE ATTENTION, PREVIOUS TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF ARABLE CULTURE.
J3EFORE a farmer commences the actual cultivation of an arable farm, there are several particulars which will re- quire his attention, as, 1. The position of the Farm- House and Offices •, 2. Their Construction ; 3. The size of the Fields ; 4. The mode of Fencing; 5. The Draining necessary; 6. The Roads on the Farm ; 7. The Instruments of Husban- dry; 8. The Live Stock; and, 9. The Soil, the elevation and exposure, the climate, and the situation of the farm in regard to markets.
It is proposed to discuss each of these points, as briefly as their importance will admit of, in separate sections.
SECT. I. — Position of the Farm- House and Offices.
THE first point that any judicious farmer would resolve to ascertain, in regard to any farm he would wish to oo
12 POSITION OF THE FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.
cupy, (more especially if it were of considerable extent, namely, from 300 to 500, or 1000 acres) would be, whether the farm-house and offices were properly situated, and erect- ed as nearly as possible in the centre of the farm. In many cases this would make a difference in point of rent, of from Is. to even 5s. per acre, according to the size of the farm, and various local circumstances therewith connected. The difference is calculated, by some intelligent farmers, at the expence of a plough, or L.I 00, and on very extensive farms at nearly L.200 per annum.* If the house and offices are placed in the corner of a large farm, a part of the land will often be neglected by the farmer ; less manure will be sent to it; the expence of cultivation is materially increased; the strength of the horses uselessly wasted in going backwards and forwards, instead of being employed in profitable labour* whilst the remote part of the farm is left, in what in Scotland is called an outfield or aftenoaU state, that is to say, in mise- rable pasturage occasionally broken up.
In the improved districts of Scotland, this is a point as much attended to as the circumstances of the case admit of, more especially when any new buildings are constructed.-^
* Mr Walker of Mellendean states, that the old farm-buildings on his farm of Rutherford, before he got possession of it, were placed on the very extremities of the ground, and the acclivity from them being consi- derable, the upper part of the iand of course got a very small share (if any) of the manure. The principal buildings are now nearly central, for 800 acres, and another set of offices equally so for the remainder; by which means the corn is carried a much shorter distance to the barn-yard, and the dung to the fields at much less expence. These, and other conveni- ences, he calculates are equal tea saving of nearly L.i'00/>cr <mnum.
t It is remarked by an intelligent correspondent, that the farm-build- ings in the more improved districts of Scotland, are in general much more convenient than those to be met in almost any other country ; and that
POSITION OF THE FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 13
How different from that state of feudal barbarism, (which may still be found in some districts in England) where all the farm-houses of a parish were collected into a village, originally for the sake of mutual protection and defence, and where all the neighbouring fields were cultivated in common. In such crises, one yoking a-day, is frequently the plan adopt- ed for working the servants and horses, to which, in conse- quence of the distance of the fields from the residence of the farmer, the name of journey is most emphatically and pro- perly given.
There can only be one reason for not having the farm-house and offices in a central situation, and that is, when a better command of water, for family use, for the farm stock, or for driving a threshing-mill, can be had else-where. Sometimes, also, wind cannot be commanded in the centre for the use of a threshing-mill, by which a great saving in the labour of horses might be obtained. These, however, are only excep- tions to the general rule ; for it may be laid down as an axiom in agriculture, " That the farm-house and offices ought to be placed, as nearly as possible, in the centre of a farm."
Where the circumstances of the case will admit of it, the farm-house and offices should front the south, should be sheltered from piercing winds, and the fold-yard should en- joy the benefit of the morning sun in winter. The farm-stead should be placed on an elevated situation. It is not only healthier for the farmer, his family, and his servants, but carts will bring home the corn in harvest time, with least waste, when going up hill, and when empty, they can return to the harvest field, in very urgent cases, with a quicker step, which will much expedite the getting home and securing
in a large farm, there is the difference of at least the labour of one man throughout the year, between a convenient and inconvenient set of offices.
14? CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.
the farm produce. The manure from the farm-yard so si- tuated, will all be conveyed down-hill to the fields, in the cheapest and most expeditious manner.*
SECT. II. — The best Construction of a Farm- House and Offices.
THIS is a most material point for the consideration both of the farmer and of the landlord, and the rent to be paid, ought certainly in some measure to depend, on the goodness of the accommodations with which the occupier is provided.f With convenient offices, it is evident, that the grain produ- ced on the farm, can be better preserved, and more advan- tageously separated from the straw, and prepared for mark- et. The live-stock also on the farm, can be more easily and regularly fed ; and being thus kept in better order, must consequently be fitter for their work, or for the mark- et. The propriety and advantage likewise of having suit- able accommodations for the farmer, his family and his ser- vants, need not be dwelt upon. The expence of erecting such buildings must be considerable when first laid out, but no liberal landlord, who has the sum requisite at his com-
* Remark by an intelligent correspondent. It may also be observed, that when the house is built on an elevated situation, the farmer will have it in his power to see what is going on all around him.
•f Even minutt<e may be of great consequence to a tenant ; for instance, in the erection of barns, more especially if the walls are rough, it is of importance to have a projecting stone or brick at every aperture for thB
CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 15
mand, will grudge to lay it out for the comfort and benefit of an industrious tenant, who pays an adequate rent. Every convenience afforded to the farmer, for enabling him to carry on his business with as little expence, and to as much advantage as possible, must indeed greatly enhance the value of the farm, and will insure to the landlord, should he have occasion to seek for a new tenant, abundance of competitors for a situation in these respects so eligible.
Where convenience and utility are the objects princi- pally attended to, it is recommended by an intelligent agriculturist in Roxburghshire, who has had great ex- perience in the erecting of such buildings, (Mr Walker of Wooden) to have the farm-house of three stories, the kitchen-story half sunk. This makes the house itself drier, as it is necessary to take such peculiar precautions against dampness in the foundation, and less roofing will furnish the farmer with the accommodations he may require. He adds, that he has made plans of farm-houses, both of that construction, and with only two stories, having the kitchen and dairy behind ; but he knows that the house of three stories gives most satisfaction to the occupier. Others ob- ject to this plan, maintaining, that though a half-sunk story may tend to make the upper floor drier, yet that it is very apt to be damp itself; that it likewise gives much more trouble to the mistress of the house in superintendence; and that the noise from tho kitchen is often disagreeable, more especially when a number of servants assemble toge-
admission of air, to prevent the access of vermin ; and in laying the foundation of barns, that material object, the exclusion of vermin, ought always to be kept in view. If the foundation stones were regularly cut like bricks, and jointed, it would prevent the possibility of vermin getting in at that part of the building. But where it is the custom to have barns, with floors of board, into which loaded waggons are admitted, the exclu- sion of vermin is impossible.
16 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.
ther in the evening. Hence a double house of two stories, with a back jamb, (or lean-to, as it is called in England) and wings attached to the house, is preferred by many farmers.*
In regard to the expence of erecting new farm-steads, it cannot be properly estimated, as the price of building, and the expence of materials, vary in every district. In some publications it is stated at from two and a half to three years' rent of the farm. It is evident, that this can only refer to farms of a small size. In larger occupations, when the landlord receives a considerable rent, the allowance must be higher.
As to farm-houses and offices, the following princi-
* Opinions vary much regarding the proper construction of farm- offices. Mr Stewart of Billhead is of opinion, that farmers who occupy from 200 to 300 acres, or who have capitals from £ 1000 to £ 2000, ought to be satisfied with a double house of one story, with garrets for various apartments ; which will afford convenient accommodation at a moderate expence. Captain Henderson of Aimster, in Caithness, on the other hand, recommends a lean-to, back-jamb, or to-fall, as it is called in some parts of Scotland, which furnishes as much accommodation, in the two lower flats, as a double house, and at less expence. But Mr Wight of Ormiston greatly prefers Mr Walker's plan of three stories, as better than a house with a wing and back-jamb, which is neither so neat nor handsome, besides requiring a greater extent of building and roofing in the first erection, and a greater extent of roofing to keep up ever after. In the half-sunk story, dampness can certainly be excluded, and the noise of the kitchen can also be shut out, either by proper deaf- ening, or by removing the kitchen to that end of the house least occu- pied by the family. Mr Walker of Mellendean is decidedly of opinion, that in a dry situation, the same conveniences can be had at a much less expence, in a house with a sunk story, than in one with wings, and he has accordingly erected of that construction one on his farm at Ruther- ford.
1
CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 17
pies ou'rht to be kept in view, when such buildings are to be erected.
1. The house and offices should be on a scale propor- tionate to the size and produce of the farm, having utility, and not ornament, principally in view ; though, at the same time, every landlord of taste, in fixing on the site and plan of a new tarm-house and offices, will certainly not totally overlook the embellishment of the country. Not only the original cost, but the very expence of keeping unnecessary buildings in repair, is a heavy burden upon any property, which it is for the interest both of the landlord and of the tenant to avoid. The house and offices should afford am- ple convenience to the farmer in carrying on his business. On the other hand, all superfluous buildings, and useless decorations, ought to be avoided ; for, as Dr Coventry has well observed, durable economy should be preferred to shifting taste.* Nothing can be more absurd, than the enormous barns usually attached to all the great farms in England. Grain in the straw, keeps infinitely better in the open air, than in close barns ; it is less apt to be destroyed by vermin, and saves the enormous expence of construct- ing and repairing great barns. Threshing-mills, when ge- nerally introduced, will soon prove the absurdity of erect- ing such unnecessary buildings.
2. The accommodations necessary for preparing the grain for market ought never to be too scrimp. The threshin^- barii, for instance, must be sufficiently spacious to contain one stack of grain in the straw, in case of an unfavourable season. In good weather, it is the common practice to take in the corn when it is threshed, in which case no more room is necessary than to hold the machinery, and the peo-
* See Discourses on Agriculture, p. 5. VOL. I. B
18 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.
pie employed to manage it. The straw-barn, as recom- mended by Mr Walker of Wooden, should be so large as to pile up the straw of two stacks when threshed, so that a considerable quantity of straw may always be kept in good order for fodder. Indeed, the straw-barn ought to be so contrived, as to keep different kinds of straw separate, at least separately accessible, for fodder, and for litter, as bean or pease haulm, the straw of white corn, &c. Where cattle are fed on straw, (which it would be better to dis- pense with, if richer food, as will afterwards be explained* could be provided for them) the farmer would otherwise be obliged to thresh more frequently than he would wish to do. There ought to be a granary adjacent to the barn, in which the grain, when threshed, may be put, the lower part of which will furnish space for a cart-shed, which ought to be large enough to hold two carts for every plough. Others recommend, that the granary should be placed under the roof of the barn itself, by the addition of another floor, into which the grain, when dressed, may be conveyed by " hoisting tackle," driven either by the thresh- ing-mill, or by hand, from the ground-floor.*
3. In regard to the size of the stables, cow-houses, and feeding-sheds, much must depend on the manner in which the farm is occupied ; as to the feeding-sheds, in particu- lar, whether it is most advantageous to rear young cattle for the grazier, or to fatten older stock for the butcher > but it is a* rule that ought never to be departed from, not to stint them in point of space, but to give the stock ample accommodation.f Where horses are kept in stalls, Mr
* Farmer's Magazine for June 1812, p. 225.
•|- Mr Sliirreff's observations upon this subject are well entitled to at- tention. He thinks that all horses so heavy and large that two are
CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 19
ferown of Markle is of opinion, that five feet of room in breadth is required, to give each horse comfortable accom- modation, and that the stable ought not to be less than
capable of drawing a plough, ought to have divided stalls, at least five feet wide each, that they may lie at ease ; and every horse feed sepa- rately, and, if he choose, that he may feed leisurely, whatever be his provender. The stalls may slope, say one-eighth of an inch to the foot; from the bottom of the wall, below the manger to the gutter, which ma\ be ten feet from that wall, and two feet from the back part of the divi- sion. There ought to be five feet for a thoroughfare between the gutter, and the other side-wall, behind the horses. The length of the stall will admit of a broad-bottomed manger, for holding clover and other greeii herbage for soiling. The racks will not hold enough of this fodder, anil its weight compresses it so much, that the horses cannot, without diffi- culty, draw it out. Green herbage should be divided between the man- ger and rack, when working horses are foddered up for the night. Stables in which horses are soiled, ought to have openings in. the roof, for allowing the heated air to escape in hot weather, and which can be shut in cold. The width will allow of shelves and pins for the furniture of each pair of horses, immediately behind their stalls.
Cattle in general have by far too little room. Working oxen, large feeding cattle stalled, and milch cows, should have stalls four feet wide, or even more, and as long as those of horses. Were all those animals fed separately, they would no doubt thrive much better than when they are fed in common. Cattle should be foddered at the head, and littered and cleaned from behind. They .should stand single, unless they are of the same age, and have been bred together. Cattle suffer much from being huddled together, and stewed close up in a low-roofed cow-house in winter, particularly milch cows, more especially if sent out to drink cold water in frosty weather, when in a heated state. The urine of both cattle and horses should be carefully collected, by means of retentive gutters, into reservoirs, and carried out and regularly sprinkled over the surface of the dunghill. Much valuable manure is lost, by neglecting to have these accommodations erected along with the buildings in which the stock is to be kept.
Where economy must be attended to, separate stalls may be objected fo on account of the expence: in that case a pair of work-horses may
20 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.
eighteen feet wide, upon the supposition that the horses all stand with their heads to the wall, which is the custom for farm-horses in all stables recently built. In this way the access is easy in the longest stable, both for removing the dung, and supplying the horses with provender. With respect to cattle, he adds, that it requires three feet eight inches to give due room to a bullock of 45 stone Amster- dam weight ; and if the house is fifteen feet in breadth, or at the most sixteen feet, cattle may not only be comfortably accommodated, but full access permitted to supply them with food, and remove their dung. Many cattle-houses are not made more than fourteen feet in width, some of them even less ; but fifteen feet may, on the whole, be con- sidered as a very proper size. At the same time, where the expence can be afforded, more ample space may be given, and will probably be found advantageous.
4. It is maintained by some, that the farmer should have a view, from a window in that room where he usually sits, of what is going forward in the farm-yard,* the very idea of which, it is said, keeps the servants in awe, and may often prevent negligence and depredations. It is cer- tainly desirable, that the farmer should be able to command a view of the other parts of the farm from the windows of
be accommodated in a space of sixteen feet by eight, leaving room for bringing them their food and litter, and carrying away the dung. Cows require nearly the same room in the breadth of the cow-house, but usu- ally stand much closer together ; so that on the average six feet may serve two cows for the above purpose, where the breed is not large. In many feeding-houses for cattle, for the convenience of feeding at the bead, there are holes left in the wall, with shutters, to allow of putting in the food.
* It is known that a farmer has on every door a large patch, painted of a different colour, as white upon black or black upon white, that ho may see at a distance when any one of them happens to be open.
CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 21
his house, if a situation sufficiently elevated for that purpose can be obtained.
5. The house should be situated at a moderate distance from the offices, say from twenty to forty yards. When in the line of the square, the farmer and his family are dis- tressed with the unwholesome vapours of the dunghill, which are also extremely unfavourable to the keeping of provisions.
6. It is of great importance to have either a pavement, or a good road, all around the farm-yard and dung-pit. Farmers suffer more than is commonly imagined, by ha- ving their carts and cattle struggling in farm-yards, through piles of straw and dung, where this is neglected.
7. It is highly expedient to raise the party-walls above the roofs of the offices, to prevent the communication of fire, more especially where the offices are thatched.
8. It is also desirable to have two reservoirs for urine, when cattle are stall-fed in any number. As soon as one is full, it should remain in that state till it becomes putrid, previous to its being taken away, and the other in the mean time may be filling. This plan is strongly recommended by Mr Allan of Craigcrook, near Edinburgh. It is likewise proper, in order that the urine may be as strong as possi- ble,* and to prevent an accumulation of wet, that the build- ings should not admit water to go inwards from the roof, at least in wet climates, but that where water is likely to
* It has been remarked, that urine may be too strong, unless it is di- luted ; and that if it is kept too stale, some of the most valuable parts of it may evaporate. There is certainly no better mode of applying urine, than to mix it, as soon as possible, with peat, or if that cannot be had, with fine earth, or straw, tanners bark, or saw-dust.
1'2 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.
be too abundant, it should be taken away by spouts and drains.*
9. It is evident that the access to the house and offices should be as commodious as possible. The road should be kept in good order. The corners of the garden and inclo- sures to be rounded instead oi square, by which, owing to the great facility of turning, many accidents may be pre-" vented, injurious both to the carts and to the cattle.
10. A command of water is essential ; it is desirable, there- fore, that the house should be situated near some river or stream ; but if that cannot be obtained, ponds and wells, and the means of conveying water by troughs to the feed- ing-houses, both for horses and cattle, and to the dairy, should be constructed. Nothing can be more injurious to stock, than to compel them to drink at ponds, the water of which is not perfectly salubrious. A bore, made according to Elkington's plan, would in general raise water to supply any part of the offices.
11. As an appendage to farm-houses, a kitchen-garden is of infinite importance, and may be more profitable to the occupier, than any part of his farm of the same size. This is certainly less essential, since potatoes, turnips, and other articles have been cultivated in the fields ; but stiil it is ex- pedient for a farmer, to have a garden for other articles ;
* It is said, that where abundance of litter is given in the yards, it hardly ever happens that too much wet gets to them, and that there is sometimes a want of moisture in dry winters. There must, in this re- spect, be a diversity in practice, between the eastern and the western districts of the kingdom. On the eastern coasts, the water that falls from the roofs, may be required, for the litter, though it would be much better to saturate it with urine, and to take great pains in collecting it for that purpose. In dry seasons, on the coast, sea-water may be used with great advantage.
CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 23
to enable him also to try experiments, with new plants, on a small scale ; to train up his rising family to an attention to such objects, and to furnish his table with small domestic luxuries, which no farmer would be willing to purchase, if he can procure them at home.
12. It is a peculiar feature of the improved husbandry of Scotland, that in all the best cultivated districts, cottages are considered to be as indispensable as a barn or a stable. They should be placed at some distance from the farm offi- ces, and it is desirable that there should be a small byre for their cows, near their houses, so that the women and chil- dren may have no pretence to come near the farmer's offi- ces, except when called on. These byres should be acces- sible at all times to the farmer, or his confidential servants ; and an allowance of straw and hay, (or sometimes a few turnips) should be regularly served out, and divided among their owners, at a certain hour every day. If the cows are not soiled, it is not uncommon to keep a field in grass, near the cottage, for the summer pasture of the servants cows ; but if the farmer resides on the ground, they usually pasture along with his own.
In conformity to these principles, the annexed sketch has been drawn up, pointing out the proper position of a farm- house and offices, accompanied by the plan of a farm, whe- ther the soil be of a strong or of a light description : and explaining the rotations adopted, according to the most im- proved systems of Scotch husbandry.
It would be entering into too wide a field, to dwell on the various offices necessary for the accommodation of a large farmer, more especially as that subject is very fully detailed, in a valuable paper, printed in the communications to the Board of Agriculture,* and will be fully explained in the
See a paper on Farm-buildings in general, by Robert Beatson, Esq.
24 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.
General Report on the Agricultural State of Scotland, now preparing to be laid by the Board of Agriculture, before his Majesty, and both Houses of Parliament. But it may be necessary to dwell on two points : 1. The construction of convenient places for feeding cattle, for the purpose both of consumin:* the turnips, and the straw raised on the farm, and for converting the surplus straw into dung ; and, 2. On the best plan of a stack-yard.
In regard to the feeding cattle, three plans have been suggested for that purpose : The first is to feed them in large open yards ; the second, in feeding-houses ; and the third, in small open sheds, or what, in Berwickshire, are called Hammels or Hemmels, with separate straw-yards at- tached to each.
The plan of fold-yards is certainly the cheapest, being in general formed by the offices which aftbrd shelter to the cattle ; but where a number of animals, of all sorts and ages, are suffered to mingle together, many accidents must hap- pen, and the cattle must often be injured, by going through a yard full of straw and dung, and often very deep, in which they are apt to sink, * and by master cattle preventing the others from feeding. Though this plan might answer for young cattle, where divisions are made by walls or hurdles,
Communications to the Board of Agriculture, v. i. p. 3. But by far the best plan of a farm-house and offices hitherto published, is to be found in Mr Kerr's valuable report of Berwickshire. It is founded on actual experience, and comprehends every convenience essential to the accom- modation of a large farmer.
* This is often the case, though in well-regulated farms the dung is never suffered to remain in the court or fold-yard, but is carried out, be- fore it becomes so rotten that the cattle can sink in it. This is sometimes done in wet weather, that the dung may have sufficient moisture to make it ferment, but is better done in frosty weather, when more can be carri- ed in each cart, and the fields are less liable to be poached. "
CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 25
yet it would never do, for feeding valuable cattle for the butcher.
Feeding-houses are, in some respects, well calculated for fattening cattle, and are less objectionable in the immediate neighbourhood of a market. The animals are kept warm and quiet, and each can have the due portion of food al- lotted to him ; but the animals having no exercise when thus stall-fed, cannot be so healthy, nor the meat so whole- some, as when kept in fold-yards or open sheds. The legs of cattle also, more especially in the case of heavy oxen, when confined to one spot, are so apt to swell,* that they are hardly able to go to any distance. Where a less confined mode of feeding is adopted, the cattle not only thrive better, but the expence is considerably less.
On the whole, the third plan, that of Hammels, though the most expensive, yet is certainly to be preferred. I first had the satisfaction of seeing them at Mr Robertson's of Ladykirk, in Berwickshire. An engraving of this excellent plan is annexed, which will give an idea of the form of the construction. The advantages of it are described by Mr Robertson in the following terms : " I have found these " hammels or cattle-sheds, much better than any large or " open court and yard Cattle kept in great numbers, waste " more straw, they fight, and hurt one another with their " horns. All this is prevented when they are kept in sepa- " rate divisions ; and, above all, in these hammels, we can " give them what meat we choose, and in what proportion " we think proper ; and can separate those of different ages, " which ought not to be associated together."
This plan, however, is not confined to cattle ; a spirited
* It is remarked, that the legs of cattle fed in stalls on yams, or ex- clusively on raw potatoes, are particularly apt to swell.
26 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES,
farmer on the estate of Ladykirk, having long used exactiy the same buildings for his horses, and with very great suc- cess. He had lost none by death for a number of years, and they seldom have colds or any other disease.* His horses lie in these open hammels in winter, and it is remarked, that in frosty weather, when snow is falling, and lying on the ground, the animals do not go under cover, but prefer to lie out, with their backs and sides covered with snow. It is well known, that if a horse is kept out in winter, he will have no grease, nor swelled legs, and perhaps no other dis- ease. These hammels seem to have all these advantages, at the same time that they protect the animal from damp, and prevent his back from being kept wet by heavy or long-con- tinued rains. Every farmer who keeps a large stock of horses, occasionally loses one by inflammation, brought on by coughs and colds; but the horses of the farmer alluded to, become aged, and he has not had occasion to purchase a young horse for several years. It is evident, that horses taken out of a warm stable, perhaps with some degree of perspiration on them, when they stand behind a hedge in a cold day, either to have their corn given them, or when the servants are taking their dinner, must be much more liable to catch cold, than it' they had been hardened by be- ing kept in open sheds in the manner above described.
The celebrated George Culley, (whose death the agricul- tural world has recently had reason to lament) though he approves much of the hammels., or sheds with a small fold, or curtain, annexed to them, where only two pr three cattle
* MrKerr fully confirms the advantages of this plan, having repeated- ly seen these open-horse hammels at Mr John Herriot's, tenant at Lady- kirk farm ; each shed holds two horses, with a niche for their harness.. To each there is an open small straw yard. Each has a water trough, and each a gate large enough to admit a cart to take out the muck.
CONSTRUCTION OP A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 27
can be kept in one place, yet observes, that few farmers can have such expensive conveniences. Almost every farmer, however, can have open sheds, and folds adjoining, with mangers under the sheds, and close wooden hecks, or stand- ing mangers in the folds, where from six to twelve steers or queys can be kept together, and are at liberty to feed and rest, either in the sheds, or the open parts, and although the master cattle will eat where they chuse, the rest have so many places to eat at that they are never at a loss. It is found that cattle thrive best in this way. Those who are so disposed, make exceedingly fat, and the slower feeders, are always fitter to turn into the pasture in May, than when tied up under either shed or byre. This mode of feeding, therefore, is now generally adopted on both sides the Tweed. If a very wicked mischievous beast happens to be amongst the lot, it must be put by itself. It is to be observed, that the steers and queys, are always kept in separate folds, and are now universally made very fat when three years old.
The proper arrangement of a stack-yard, is of more con- sequence than is commonly imagined, and is capable of much improvement.* It is a common practice, to begin building the stacks at the corner opposite to the entering gate from the farm, packing them as close as possible, by which they are deprived of air, and if any of them should shew a tendency to heat, it is extremely difficult to get them turned over, or put into the threshing mill. Mr Mitchell of Balquharn near Alloa, has arranged his stack- yard on principles peculiarly well planned and judicious.
* In the Berwickshire Report, p. 86, the rick-yard is directed to be ploughed into twice-gathered ridges 21 feet broad. By this means, as the ricks seldom exceed 12 feet diameter, there are 9 feet free between the rows for air and carrying in sheaves. No allowance for heating, as a good farmer has no heated stacks.
10
28 CONSTRUCTION OF A FAIlM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.
His stacks are divided into regular rows, and there is a road on each side of every double row, besides a road round the whole yard.* This plan is attended with the following ad- vantages : 1. By these parallel roads, there is a greater de- gree of ventilation ; 2. He can remove any stack he pleases, as necessity or markets may require; 3. In the hurry of harvest, there is no confusion or loss of time, whatever may be the number of men or horses employed ; and, 4. By ha- ving the rows and the stacks regularly numbered, there is no difficulty in ascertaining what each field of the farm pro- duces. That plan was originally suggested by that respect- able agriculturist Mr Erskine of Mar.
Two points on the subject of farm-houses and offices in general, remain to be discussed : 1. By whom they ought to be erected ; and, 2. By whom they ought to be kept in repair.
In regard to the first point, it is certainly desirable, as a general principle, that the landlord, who has a permanent interest in the soil, should be at the expence of all substan- tial improvements.! But unfortunately that cannot be the case in regard to entailed estates, where the proprietor has
* As four rows, if the stacks are pretty large, will in general he suffi- cient, two roads will be enough, one through the middle of the longitu- dinal direction, and one round the whole yard.
+ Mr Church of Hitchill in Dumfries-shire, observes, that the farm- house and offices ought to be erected free of expence to the tenant. Many an industrious individual has got the character of a bad farmer, by having been unguardedly led to exhaust his capital on buildings, so much so, as to disable him from bestowing a proper proportion of it on the cul- tivation of the soil. Inclosing ought to be done at the expence of the landlord, and the fences reared or maintained at the mutual expence of landlord and tenant. In short, all great permanent improvements on a farm, should be executed by the landland, and in consideration of these, let the tenant pay a higher rent.
CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. £9
only a life-interest in the property, and cannot borrow mo- ney for expensive erections, notwithstanding the provisions of an act for promoting the improvement of such estates. Sometimes, also, the tenant has a greater command of ready money than the landlord, and will lay it out with more eco- nomy, and to more advantage. In that case it may be most advisable for both parties to arrange a plan, by which the buildings are to be erected by the tenant, the farm being let proportionally, at a lower rent, and he receiving a cer- tain sum for those buildings, according to their value, at the termination of his lease. * It must be acknowledged at the same time, that every plan, which tends to abstract the tenant's capital from the culture of the grounds, is unfriend- ly to the interest of agriculture.
As to repairs, the farm-houses and offices in the more improved districts of Scotland, are usually built in a sub-
* Mr Milne of Alvah, near Banff, remarks on the subject of farm- buildings, that few farmers have capital sufficient for a farm of 200 acres, the expence of stocking which, at a moderate computation, costs L.2000 sterling ; and if new houses are required, which very often happens, « great deal more is necessary. Any allowance the proprietor gives for building, is seldom or ever paid until the end of the lease ; the tenant's capital is thereby very much drained, before the fields can receive much benefit. It also often happens, that the outgoing tenant has a consider- able claim for houses, and in many instances they are so ruinous, that the farmer can neither trust himself or cattle with any degree of safety, but he must be at a great expence in repairing them. In such cases, the landlord should certainly give every assistance he can afford. In regard to the plan of valuing the whole premises at a tenant's entry, and again when he removes, it is remarked by an intelligent correspondent, that such a system is rather hazardous. The price of wood, its workmanship, and other materials, vary so much in the course of a lease of even nine- teen years, that he has known a tenant, to receive a great surplus sum at his removal, without his having laid out a single shilling, the value of building materials having so much increased.
30 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.
stantial manner, and it is in general the practice, that the tenant shall keep the house in repair. It is a great addi- tion to the landlord's income, to be exonerated from so heavy a charge, which in England amounts to from 5 to 15 per cent, per annum, on the rental of farms above 100 acres. In Berwickshire, the calculation is, that a thoroughly well- built farm-house and offices, which must cost about L.3000, ought to be kept in repair, during a lease of 19 years, for L. 100 in all, and left in thorough repair for an equal sum, which will only be at the rate of 10 per cent., on one year's rent, and will hardly exceed \ per cent, on the rental per annum ; and in Scotland, laying the repairs on the tenant, is rarely found to be attended with any material loss.
On the whole, it can hardly be questioned, that it would make a difference of from L.50 to L. 100 per annum, in the expence of labour, where the particulars above mentioned have been properly attended to, when farm buildings are erected.
SECT. III. — Size and Shape of Fields.
THIS is a point, which, in so far as regards arable cul- ture, has been brought to a considerable degree of perfec- tion, according to the system of husbandry adopted in the more improved districts of Scotland. Nothing can be more absurd, with a view to the culture of grain, than to have a number of small inclosures, irregularly shaped, surrounded with high hedges and trees ; and such a system perhaps general in a flat country, where so much shelter is unneces- sary. Such a plan is peculiarly reprehensible, where horse*
SIZE AND SHAPE OP FIELDS. 31
and cattle are the principal objects of attention, as soiling, (or giving them cut green food in yards, or houses) is greatly preferable to pasturage. On these grounds, it is proper to explain, what in Scotland is considered to be the best size of fields, in an improved arable district, and the principles on which that system is founded.*
The circumstances on which the size of fields ought to depend, are principally the following :
1 . The extent of the farm in which they are situated ; 2. The nature of the soil or subsoil ; 3. The rotations adopted ; 4. The number of ploughs in the farm ; 5. The command of water ; 6. Access to roads ; 7. The elevation of the ground ; 8. Its being in pasturage or otherwise ; and, 9. The nature of the climate.
1. Extent of the Farm- — The size of fields ought cer- tainly, in some measure, to depend, on the extent of the possession. In small farms near towns, from six to twelve acres may be sufficient ; but where farms are of a proper extent, from twenty to even fifty acres, and in some in- stances as high as sixty. One of my correspondents in- deed states, that his inclosures are about twenty Scotch, or twenty-five English acres each, and that he would certainly enlarge them, were he not restricted to that size by his lease. Mr Brown of Markle, whose knowledge in every branch of agriculture is so well known, considers a field of thirty Scotch, or thirty-eight English acres, to be a proper medium size, when permitted by local circumstances, for large farms.
* So inveterate is the prejudice for small fields in England, that though the expence of fencing has now become enormous, they are still persevered in, even in new inclosures, under the authority of acts of parliament, by which the charges of that important branch of agricultu- ral improvement are greatly increased.
32 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.
2. The Nature of the Soil and Subsoil. — The best si2e of fields for arable cultivation, must always depend upon the nature of the soil and subsoil. When the soil is chiefly dry, it is of consequence to have the fields large, as it tends to accelerate the ploughing, harrowing, reaping, &c. ; but when it happens to be strong clay, it then becomes a mat- ter of prudence, to contract the size of the fields, chiefly for the purpose of keeping them as dry as possible.* In di- viding a farm, however, it is proper to separate the light and the heavy soil. They are not only better calculated for different crops and different rotations, but are fit to be wrought at different seasons. It is a fortunate circumstance, when a farmer possesses as much ground of each kind, as will make a full rotation, so that both may be carried on at the same time. In turnip soils, the following plan has been recommended by Mr Carnegie of Hailes, in East Lothian. Where the farm would admit of it, he would divide the whole into eight fields of thirty acres each, under a rota- tion of, 1. Turnip; 2. Wheat and Barley; 3. Grass; and 4-. Oats : and he would have two breaks or divisions in each field, one half, (or fifteen acres) of the inclosure in turnips, and the other in grass ; and when ready to consume the turnips, he would strip one half of them, and give them to the sheep on the grass : He would then move back the flakes or hurdles, and would allow the remaining half to be consumed on the ground, with liberty to the sheep, to pasture over the whole grass, while eating the turnips, taking care never to give the stock more than a certain number of days' turnips at a time. Thus there would be
* Remarks by Mr Rennie of Kimblethmont,
SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS* 33
four fields with white crops, after turnip and grass.* Others recommend giving the sheep as much fresh turnips each day as they can eat, as the turnips, when not consumed on the day given, are often damaged by the wet and frost, or destroyed by the sheep going over them. Mr Walker of Mellendean concurs in opinion, that on turnip soils, where it is necessary to consume the turnips upon the ground, the fields should never much exceed thirty acres, if the situation will admit them to be made of that size. When they are larger, it becomes difficult to give the sheep the quantity necessary at a time, without confining them all round with nets or hurdles, which is always attended with much loss. When one division is done, and a new one taken in, the sheep should always have liberty to fall back, and rest upon the cleared ground, which they naturally do, by which means the turnips are kept much cleaner, and a great deal of meat saved ; and he has always found, that a field of the above dimensions, will contain as much stock, of any kind, as can be fed together with advantage.
3. The Rotation adopted. — It is considered to be a pro- per rule, that whatever is thought to be the rotation the most suitable to the soil, the fields should be, in some mea- sure, apportioned accordingly ; that is to say, a farm with a rotation of eight courses, should in general be divided into eight fields ; six courses into six fields ; five courses into five fields, and four courses into four fields or inclo- sures.f That rule is laid down by Mr Murray, (Kirkland-
* It is stated, as an objection to this plan, that the grass land could not be ploughed and sown, till the turnips were consumed, which would render it impossible to have autumn wheat upon the clover ley, and even the oats in March, could not be sown in time for the last of the turnip.
t The size, it is said, should be equal to the fallow-break, or the por- tion of the farm under fallow. The fields under fallow should be of the
VOL. I. C
34 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.
hill), with a view of having the whole field under one crop. At the same time, on a farm of 400 acres, under a four years' rotation, instead of having four fields of 100 acres each, it would be better to have the farm divided into eight fields of 50 acres each, and having two of these fields un- der one kind of crop. It is proper likewise to observe, that where the climate is uncertain, and the soil various, the following judicious practice has been adopted, that of having a proportion of every kind of grain cultivated in the strong part of the farm, and another portion in the lighter part. This gives the tenant a fair chance to have an equal crop, whether the seasons are dry or wet, and whether they are favourable to the one species of soil or crop, or to an- other.
4. Stock on the Farm. — It has also been observed, that the size of the fields should be somewhat in proportion to the number of horses and ploughs on the farm ; for in- stance, where six two-horse ploughs are kept, and where it is difficult, from the nature of the soil, to keep fields of a larger extent sufficiently dry, fields of from eighteen to twenty-two English acres, are considered to be a convenient size : there is less risk, in that case, of being overtaken by bad weather, and prevented from completing the prepara- tion of the land for the intended crop ; for with twelve
average quantity of the farm, and the other crops will become so of course. Every farmer of experience endeavours to have, and knows the comfort of having, the produce of the farm, as equal every year, as the soil and circumstances will admit of. On this subject, Mr Stewart of Billhead remarks, that though it may answer the farmer in possession, to have the farm divided according to the rotation he practises, yet that it will be found generally advantageous for the proprietor, to have it divided into double the number of fields that may be required for a four or a five years' rotation, in case any alteration of system should become necessary.
SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 35
horses in the spring season, a field of that size, can always be finished in four days.* In regard to the live stock not employed in the culture of the farm, it is well known, that cattle feed better in small numbers, than in great herds.
5. Water. — It is necessary in every field actually to be pastured, to have a supply of water, the command of which is more likely to be obtained in large, than in small inclo- sures. A correspondent, whose fields are small, complains of their being so ill-watered, that the stock, when pastured in some of them, cannot get a supply, even in winter.
6. Roads. — It is essential that each field should have con- venient access to the farm-road ; so obvious a point need not be dwelt upon.
7. Elevation of the Ground. — It is also evident, that the size of the field, ought in some respects to depend on the flat- ness or elevation of the ground. Even on dry land, if there is a rise on the ground, from fifteen to twenty chains is length sufficient; for where the ridge is longer, the horses
* Remarks by Mr Peter Mitchell in Stirlingshire, and Mr James Cuthbertson in East Lothian. On this subject, Dr Young of Stone- haven justly observes, that the fields should be of such a size, as to admit the operations going on upon them, to be finished in a short time, by the stock on the farm. If the fields are of too great an extent, in proportion to the stock kept, a considerable interval must occur between the sowing of the first and last part, especially of barley and big, where generally the last ploughing and sowing take place together ; and it will in general be desirable, to have the whole fields cleared at once, in har- vest There will also be a saving of labour, particularly in the instance of harrowing a crop in seed-time; as, in ordinary sizes of fields, the sowing can be soon accomplished ; by which the frequent turnings are avoided, that would otherwise take place, if it were necessary to sow the field in several portions. Whenever rolling is required, whether for grass seeds, for reducing the ground, or any other purpose, much of its benefit may be lost, in an extensive field, because, being usually done across, it cannot well be accomplished till the field is completed.
56 SIZE AND SHAPE OP FIELDS.
are too much fatigued, if compelled to plough a strong furrow, up-hill, farther in one direction.
8. Pasturage. — Where the system of grazing and tillage is alternately followed, (more especially where the fields are pastured for two or three years or more), it is convenient* to have the fields about twenty-two Scotch, or twenty- seven English acres ; because the farmer generally wishes to have his stock divided, which cannot well be done with larger fields, and if they are of a smaller size, too much ground is occupied with fences. Besides, if grass fields are let for pasture, such a size suits graziers best, and con- sequently they rent considerably higher, than fields would do of a larger, and consequently a more inconvenient de- scription. Unless where there are small fields near the house, it is desirable to have some part of the green-crops near the farm-offices. For if the fields are all large, the whole lot of turnips or clover might be removed to the outward boundary of the form; whereas if fields are of a moderate size, it is possible to have a part of these crops at a convenient distance.*
9. Climate. — The last circumstance to be considered in determining the proper size of fields, is the nature of the climate. In dry and cold climates, small enclosures are desirable, on account of shelter : whereas, in wet countries, the fields under culture cannot be too open and airy, for
* Remarks by Mr Brown, Cononsyth, by Arbroath. Another corre- spondent observes, that some extent is desirable for fields in pasture, to attend the stock pasturing over its surface. Fields from ten to twenty acres, however, are large enough for grazing. When few cattle are put together, they remain more quiet, than when there are many, which is very desirable for fattening stock. In a wet autumn, much grass is de- stroyed by treading, and in large fields more grass is destroyed by thfr feet of the cattle, than consumed by their mouths.
SIZE AND SHAPE OP FIELDS. 3?
the purpose of drying the ground, of bringing forward and ripening the grain, and of enabling the farmer more easily to secure it, during any unfavourable harvest, by a free circulation of the air.
It is now proper to make some observations on the shape of fields, the form of which should be square in strong, and oblong in turnip lands, uniformity of soil being at the same time attended to.
Square Form. — It is evident, that it is advantageous to have the fences in straight lines, and that fields when large, should be square,* and when small, more especially in tur- nip soils, of an oblong form, in order that the ploughing may be dispatched with as few turnings as possible. Some people, whose farms are of a waving or uneven surface, and who inclose with hedge and ditch, carry their ditch through the hollows or best soil, with a view of raising a good hedge ; thus, often sacrificing, for the sake of the fence, the form of their field. A straight line, however, is pre- ferable, even though it should be necessary to take some particular pains to enrich the soil for the thorns, when it is thin and poor, on any elevation.f By means of the square form, an opportunity is afforded, of ploughing in every di- rection, when necessary, and less time is lost in carrying on all the operations of husbandry in a field of that form, than of any other shape. Where the waving form is ne- cessary to secure proper water-runs, plantations may be so
* Mr Kerr justly remarks, that in hanging grounds, the ridges and furrows ought always to have so much obliquity, as to reduce the field nearly to the circumstances of one situated on a plain. The operations of ploughing, harrowing, carting, &c. are thus materially facilitated| and jthe filling up, or sanding of the furrows effectually prevented.
t Remark by Mr Church, Hitchill, near Annan,
38 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.
disposed, as to reduce the fields to squares or oblongs, and the fences to straight lines.
Oblong Form. — An intelligent correspondent is decidedly of opinion, that all farms, more especially those of a light soil, are best divided into oblong fields, because, when oc- cupied either as a grazing, or a breeding farm, oblong fields are so easily and simply subdivided, and water can almost in every case be got, by making proper ponds, in the meeting or joining of three or four fields, the gutters or ditches of which fields will convey water to the ponds. This is a great advantage in fields under a turnip crop, as it is easier to cut off, or divide the turnips with hurdles or flakes, or nets, &c., and the sheep can be fed off with the greater convenience ; always keeping in view, to take off a certain proportion of drills, for giving to the feeding cattle in the sheds or folds, &c., or to sheep upon the ad- joining stubbles or pastures, in proportion to the state the ground is in ; land in a rich state having the greater pro- portion taken away. Nor is it any objection to the oblong shape, that the ridges may be too long, as that can be ea- sily obviated by cross head-lands or head-ridges, which in any soils can be made at any place, according to the length of ridge most agreeable to the taste or opinion of the pro- prietor or occupier.* Even where the land has a wet, damp, or retentive subsoil, an oblong form may be advisable, for the head-ridges can be made in those parts most suitable
* On this subject it is remarked, that head-lands are never admissible, except to get rid of wet, or in consequence of deviations of soil, and hence a difference of culture ; and that ridges cannot be too long, where land is inclosed, as it gives occasion to fewer turnings, and is ploughed at less expence of time and labour.
SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 89
for taking off the water, as well as to suit the proper length of the ridges, with gutters or gripes where requisite.
Uniformity of Soil. — It is necessary, at the same time, to attend to uniformity of soil, and many farmers have to la- ment, that the inclosures on their farms are laid out, more with a view to beauty than utility, and that regularity and uniformity of appearance have been chiefly kept in view, whilst little regard has been paid to a point infinitely more essential, that of having the several fields of the same sort of soil j hence soils of the nature most heterogeneous, are thus unfortunately mingled in the same field. One farmer .complains, that this principle has been so little attended to on his farm, that he has ridges, one half consisting of a strong wet clay, and the other half of a sandy soil, fit for turnips. A spirited correspondent proposes to obviate this objection, by altering the texture of the soil. He observes, that there are fields, partly consisting of strong soils, and partly of light, where probably there are not above one or two acres of the latter, for ten or twenty of the former ; and where almost every year the culmiferous crops fail on the light soils from drought. He therefore suggests, that at any slack time, whether in winter or summer, when the field is under fallow, it would be proper to employ two carts and horses, with four fillers, and to cover the acre or two of light soil, with the strong soil contiguous. Draining per- haps would, in the first place, be necessary ; but the soil in the field would ever after be uniform. In fields where light soils predominate, the same plan reversed might be adopt- ed. The principal objections to this plan, are, 1. The ex- pence, and 2. That the subsoil remains the same ; but the idea is certainly excellent wherever it is practicable. The advantages of attending, as much as the circumstan-
40 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.
ces of the case will admit of, to the principles above laid down, shall now be stated.
1. Every farmer who has attended to the subject, will ad- mit, that it is a material drawback to cultivation, if the fields, instead of being regular in size or form, are laid out arbitrarily, without attention to any judicious system; and where the whole farm is divided into fields of various sizes, from 5 to 10, and thence to 20 or 30 acres each, it is ex- tremely difficult to equalize them, so as to suit any judici- ous rotation of crops; whereas, by having fields of a proper size, the whole strength of a farm, and the whole attention of the farmer, is directed to one point, which gives an emu- lation to the ploughmen, when they are assembled toge- ther.*
2. It is evident, that small fields are liable to many ob- jections. Besides the original expence of the inclosures, and the injury to grain crops produced by want of circula- tion of air, and the shelter given to numerous small birds, the very site of numerous hedges, with their attendant ditches, and the uncultivated slips of land on both sides of them, rob the farm of a much greater quantity of arable land, in proportion, than when divided into large fields. The crops in fields thus sheltered, must also be moi'e liable to disease, as the rust and the mildew, the exclusion of air encouraging the growth of fungi, or the mushroom tribe. Hedges and ditches likewise, more especially if accompa- nied with hedge-rows, exhaust the ground near them of its fertility, whence the grain is of inferior quality ; they nou-
* Rectangular fields of considerable size are advantageous, as it may be thereby known whether the ploughmen have done their duty ; that is, if there is one man in the whole who can be depended on. Indeed, in fields of this shape, the work done, is known by the length of the ridges, and number of furrows, of a certain breadth ploughed.
SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 41
rish weeds, the seeds of which may be widely disseminated, or exclude the wind and drought after the crop is cut down, keeping it longer from being stacked. Even for meadows, these small inclosures are injurious, by preventing the cir- culation of air for making or drying the hay. Where fields, on the other hand, are of a proper size, less ground is was- ted, there are fewer fences to uphold, and fewer birds to destroy ; the crops of grain can be more early harvested, being more.exposed to wind, and they are less apt to suffer in dry and clear weather ; and though small inclosures are better sheltered in winter, which is favourable to the growth of herbage for pasture, yet the opener they are in summer the better ; for in hot weather the cattle and sheep always go to the airiest places.* But the principal argument in favour of large fields is this, that in small fields, much time and labour is wasted by short turnings, &c. ; hence an in- telligent farmer, (Mr Mitchell of Balquharn) has well ob- served, that if fields are of a regular shape, and the ridges of a proper length, five ploughs will do as much work as six ploughs infields of a small size, and of an irregular shape ; and every other part of the business to be performed, as dung- ing, sowing, harrowing, reaping and leading, will be executed, though not altogether, yet nearly in the same proportion.
Some additional remarks regarding the size and shape of fields remain to be stated.
1. Though fields, on the whole, should be of a large size, yet there is a great convenience in having a few smaller fields near the farm-house j for family cows ; for rams, on. farms where sheep are kept j for trying on a, small scale,
Remarks by Mr Robertson of Almon,
42 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.
useful experiments j also for raising tares, lucern, sainfoin, &c. and for various other purposes.*
2. Where inclosures are found too large for particular purposes, the field may be effectually subdivided by sheep- flakes, or hurdles, a sort of portable fence, well known to every turnip-grower. When carefully set, they are a com- plete fence, at least for sheep. By this means great advan- tage is derived, from the constant use of the land that would otherwise have been occupied by stationary fences, and the expence of subdivisions, which, on a large farm, would ne- cessarily have been numerous, is thereby avoided. f
3. In some cases, the size of fields should vary with the size of the farm, more especially when there is a diversity of soil. In a farm of 200 acres, it is contended, that there should be 8 inclosures of 20 acres each, and 4 of 10. In a farm of 300 acres, 8 inclosures of SO acres each, and 4 of 15 acres; and in a farm of 700 acres, 8 inclosures of 50 acres each, and 12 of 25 acres. Thus dividing a farm into eight, twelve, sixteen, or twenty inclosures, according to its extent, and varying the mode of cropping according as
* Remarks by Mr Robert Kerr, the intelligent Reporter of Berwick- shire ; Mr Wilson of Simprin, and others. Mr Stewart of Hillside also observes, that it is often found convenient to have some small inclosed fields upon extensive farms, where the general plan of management is calculated for large fields. Besides the purposes mentioned in the text, it may sometimes be necessary to turn out young horses, mares and foals, and old horses, and to have small fields of ruta baga, and other winter and spring vegetables conveniently situated for the farm-offices, and dis- tinct from the large fields. It might not answer the purpose, to have di- visions for these in large fields separated by sheep flakes. Besides the expence and inefficacy of that plan, the succeeding crop rojght not suit that of the large fields.
f Hints from Mr Hunter of Tynefield, and Mr Cuthbertson, near Prestonpans.
OF FENCES, AND GATES. 45
the soil is light or strong, the strongest soils being put into the smaller inclosures.
Of such importance does it seem to Scotch farmers, to enlarge the size of fields, to reduce their number, and to put them into as regular a shape as circumstances will ad- mit of, that it is one of the first circumstances attended to, wherever the Scotch system of husbandry has been intro- duced into any part of England. By means of that reduc- tion, a considerable extent of ground is obtained, and the land is rendered better calculated for the production of corn.
Here it may be added, on the authority of a farmer, (Mr Brown of Markle), who has paid particular attention to this subject, that where inclosures are made by hedge and ditch, the quantity of ground lost upon ten acres, amounts to not less than one-tenth, in other words, that a ten-acre field is reduced to the size of nine acres, which is a strong argument against small inclosures.
I have been led to dwell longer, than otherwise would have been necessary, on the interesting subject of this sec- tion, as it is a topic which has not hitherto been so much attended to as its importance deserves.
SECT. IV.— Of Fences and Gates.
IF the fields are of a proper size, it will add greatly to the value of a farm, to have them judiciously fenced. Hedges of a proper construction, with trees regularly planted in the corners of the fields, (see the annexed en- gravings of the plan of a clay-land, and turnip-land farm),
44- OF FENCES, AND GATES.
not only beautify a country, and improve the temperature of the atmosphere, but actually increase, perhaps from 2 to 5 shillings per acre, the intrinsic value of the land.
Jn the more improved districts of Scotland, the farmers are not partial to small in closures. They are of opinion, that the fences take up a great deal of land which might be employed to much better purpose ; that they are extreme- ly injurious to the roads along which they maybe carried; that hedges furnish a shelter for birds, which do much mis- chief to the crops of corn, when they are sown or ripen- ing ;* that the want of air is extremely prejudicial to grain in all the stages of its growth, and in particular that near hedges, its quality is greatly inferior ; above all, that when the crops are cut down, the produce of an open field must be ready much sooner for being brought in, than in the case of small inclosures, to which scarcely a breath of air has access. There is certainly much justice in these obser- vations, though one of them might be obviated, were the le- gislature to pass an act, for limiting the height of all hedges to four feet and a half, the height at which hedges are kept by our most skilful agriculturists.
It is admitted, that inclosures are of some use to stock, as they require, if pastured in the fields, shelter from heat, as well as from cold ; but where the practice of soiling is adopted, sheep is the only species of stock that ought in general to be fed out of doors, and they prefer airy situa- tions. Where there is any old tur£ or permanent pasture,
* Others contend, that though sparrows, and other small birds, do harm, yet, on the whole, that they are beneficial, by destroying caterpil- lars and the various sorts of moths, butterflies, and insects, which attack the ears of corn. Small inclosures, however, first nourish these vermin by the warmth and shelter they afford, and then it is proposed that other vermin should be protected to destroy them.
OF FENCES, AND GATES. 45
on a farm, a high fence is desirable, for the sake of promo- ting moisture, which is favourable to the growth of grass; and hedges, and hedge-rows, as Mr Kerr well observes, give a rich and sheltered appearance to a country, while the want of that ornament occasions many fertile and high- ly cultivated districts to appear neglected, cold, and deso- late.*
The sort of fences chiefly known in Scotland are : — 1. Open drains, which, incidentally at least, answer the purpo- ses of a fence; 2. Stone walls; and, 3. Thorn hedges.
1. Open drains sometimes answer the double purpose of dividing fields, and of freeing them from superfluous water; and they are not liable to some objections, which have been, urged against other sorts of fences. Where stock, how- ever, are pastured in fields thus separated, unless accustom- ed to that sort of fence, as in Carse-lands, they sometimes fall into the ditches, and are killed or materially injured ; and if any paling is erected to prevent such accidents, it sel- dom lasts long.
2. Stone walls are of various descriptions. They have one advantage, that, according to a common saying, " They are major from their birth ;" or, in other words, are in their greatest perfection as soon as made. They have, however, this disadvantage, that they are getting worse every day. The propriety of erecting such a fence, de- pends much upon the nature and quality of the stone, the vicinity of the quarry where it is dug, and the possibility of
* Berwickshire Report, p. 132. Others contend, that a former is not bound to attend to appearances, but to the real advantages of a system ; and that where sheep are pastured as stock, moveable fences of hurdles or flakes might supersede hedges on dry soils, in the four-course hus- bandry. Others contend, that hurdles are a very unsafe and expensive sort of fence, only fit for temporary purposes.
4-6 OF FENCES, AND GATES.
obtaining lime at a moderate expence, by which the con- struction of the wall can be so much improved, and render- ed much more durable. Where all these advantages are combined, stone walls, though not so ornamental as hedges, yet are preferable in point of utility ; for the benefit of the inclosure is immediate.
Among the various sorts of stone wall usual in Scotland, there is one, known under the name of the Galloway or snap-dike, of which it may be proper to give some account. It was invented in that district, and thence has spread over various other parts of the kingdom. Mr Smith, in his very able survey of Galloway, has given the following description of this species of wall : It is built, for the most part, two-thirds or three-fourths of its height double, i. e. the two sides are formed of two different sets of stones, resting against each other, and connected together by stones, which from time to time are laid across the dike. On the top of this double dike, a set of long stones are laid horizontally across the dike, projecting a little on each side ; and above these, the remainder is built single, which, from the irregular figure of the stones, leaves apertures through which the light appears.* There was a great im- provement on this mode of fencing invented by the late John Macadam, Esq. of Craigengillan, by putting on the top of the dike, as close as they can be laid together, stones placed edgewise ; and when a considerable extent has been thus laid, thin stones are driven in, like wedges, at small intervals, which bind the whole so firmly together, that, when well built, a stone can hardly be taken out of the top without an iron-crow.f
* General View of Agriculture of Galloway, by the Reverend Samuel Smith, p. 83. + Ditto, p. 87.
OF FENCES, AND RATES. 47
3. The white thorn is considered to be preferable to every other plant for a fence, being, when placed in a proper soil, a quick grower, becoming strong by age and attention, not running at the root as the black thorn does, and having prickles for its defence.* It certainly requires continued care for a number of years, in order to be rendered a good and permanent fence ; but when properly trained, and occasion- ally cut over, or dressed in the wedge-shape, it will last for ages.f If suffered to grow too tall, it always makes a bad fence, becoming open below, and from its height, the crops around must be injured. When hedges therefore come to a proper height and strength as fences, they ought to be cut into the shape of what is called a hog-main, i. e. brought to a point along the top, and preserved in that form by yearly switching.:}: This can generally be done for a farth- ing per rood of six yards six inches each. This plan ought always to be adopted along the sides of roads, as it keeps them dry, and preserves them from being broken up.
Hedges are often accompanied with hedge-rows, and sometimes by what are called belts of planting.
* See Kames' Gentleman Farmer, p. 272.
f See Kerr's Berwickshire, p. 186. There is some reason to hope, that the Cockspur thorn of America, may in some respects be preferable even to the white thorn ; and for trying that experiment, considerable quantities of seed have been commissioned from America, by the Board of Agriculture. Along the sea coast, the Tamariska Gallica, or rather the Germanica, has been recommended, as not likely to be materially af- fected by the sea breeze.
% The only objection to this is, that the farmer has frequent occasion for the cuttings of strong hedges to form temporary fences. But in oppo- sition to this it may be urged, that good fences cannot be obtained, un- less the hedges are regularly switched ; and that if they are allowed to stand, till a crop of wood or cuttings can be procured, the real object for which they were planted, will not be accomplished.
5
48 OF FENCES, AND GATES.
As to hedge-rows, Mr Wight of Ormiston very justly observes, that he considers them destructive to the fences themselves, as thorns never thrive near the tree-roots, nor under the drop of the tree. The roots, running into the field in all directions, never fail to break and damage the plough, and to interrupt the operations of the field. The corn growing under the shade and drop of the trees, is al- most universally laid down, of course not filled, unequally ripened, and not so soon ready for the stack-yard as the other parts of the field. In late and wet seasons, the corn is never harvested in proper condition, and in many in- stances it is totally lost. The grass under the drop, is also of inferior quality, compared to the other parts of the field, and is unwholesome to cattle and horses.*
In regard to belts of planting, they are peculiarly useful in hilly countries, from the warmth and shelter they afford. There is every reason to believe, that in such situations, beech is the best hedge, the old leaves remaining till the new ones sprout out, and shelter being thus given to the adjoining fields, even in the midst of winter. They must be strong or woody, however, to turn horses or cattle.
In flat countries, it is by far the best mode, to plant the corners of fields, which are not accessible to the plough, end where a great deal of useful timber may be raised. In the annexed engravings, that system is explained. It is pro-
* A respectable correspondent farther remarks, that hedge-row timber, especially ash, is a fatal enemy to corn. The influence of the roots, in attracting moisture and fertility, may be seen in a circular form, on every arable spot in their immediate neighbourhood. They are in fact the landlord's thieves, who steal from the tenant's crop every year, ten times the value of their own improvement. The same disadvantage is felt from trees in gardens. When trees also are cut down from hedge-rows, the thorns which grow among their dead roots generally die, especially if the trees cut down are of the fir tribe.
OF FENCES, AND GATES. 49
per to give a curve to the clump, that the plough may be turned more easily ; and one pond, properly placed, will water four fields. *
It is well known how expensive it is found in England, to make fences in new inclosures, owing to the price of posts and palings. That difficulty, however, is obviated by a plan adopted by William Forbes, Esq. of Callander, in the county of Stirling, of which he gives the following account.
Mr Forbes first causes a ditch to be cast five feet wide, and three feet deep. The mound is between four and five feet broad at the base, and of the same height. In this mound, with a margin of one foot back from the ditch, the hedge is planted. Beyond the mound a second ditch is cut three feet wide and two feet deep, or as deep as the bank can be made to stand. The whole fence, including the two ditches, occupies the space of about fourteen feet. By the time the hedge becomes a fence, the ditches are filled up completely by the earth of the mound, so that no ground is lost.
Mr Forbes also sometimes incloses the face of the mound, in which the hedge is planted, with turf on both sides, the height being four feet aad a half, which in the course of a year settles at four feet. This mound is soon covered over with a sward of grass, and at the same time that it is most efficient, it forms the most beautiful fence. The width of this mound at bottom, is five feet; at top it is from 12 to 14 inches. By the time that the hedge has become a fence, the mound forms an excellent top-dressing, the ditches arc
* The clumps in the engraving, are proportionably to the fields, on a larger scale, than necessary, when this plan is carried into execution,
VOL. i. »
50 OF FENCES, AND GATES.
filled up, and no more ground is occupied, than that which is taken up by the hedge.
These hedges are planted in single rows at the distance of four inches from each other; and at every three yards' distance, a plant of oak, elm, beech, or other valuable wood is inserted, for a hedge-row. The thorns are purchased when seedlings, and trained up in a nursery upon the estate, for two or three years before they are transplanted into the fences. By this process they are naturalized to the soil and the climate.*
By this means the expence of a paling, for defending the hedges, and the vexation of having that paling destroyed or stolen, which must often happen in populous districts, where wood is scarce, are prevented.
These modes of fencing adopted by Mr Forbes, have been carried on, not on a trifling or unimportant, but upon a great scale; for constructing the fences on the Callander estate, no less a number than six millions of thorns have been planted, and the line of these fences measures about four hundred miles in length. The trees of various kinds planted in the hedge-rows, amount to above 200,000.
If a farm is inclosed by thorn-hedges, and under the
* See Dr Graham's most valuable Survey of the County of Stirling, p. 123. It has been observed on this plan, that the thorns should be planted at nine inches and even a foot, instead of only four inches dis- tance from each other. The celebrated Bakewell, and even before him Mr Ralph Ward of Guisborough in Yorkshire, above 60 years ago, found, by repeated trials, that half a yard was the proper distance for quicks. The closer they are planted, the more they die off: and it is well known that any quick hedge, 20 or SO years old, is in that proportion, few of the thorns being nearer than half a yard from each other. When plant- ed about a foot however, they make more wood, and become sooner a strong and lasting fence.
OF FENCES, AND GATES. 51
alternate husbandry of tillage and pasturage, it is an excel- lent rule, when the fields are broken up, to cut down the hedges, in order to admit the wind. In this case they may be cut down according to circumstances, either to about six inches from the ground, or to between three to four feet, the former if the hedge is thin, the latter if of sufficient thick- ness. In the former case, all gaps ought to be carefully filled up by planting. In the latter case, the breast or face, is shorn to the stem. Gaps are best filled up, not by plant- ing, but by laying down branches in the gap, which take root.
In regard to gates for farming purposes, they ought to be strong and durable. The pillars or gate-posts, where blocks can be had of good quality and sufficient size, are often made of a single stone, being greatly preferable to timber, as not liable to rot. Sometimes round pillars are built of stone and lime, at other times oak, or larch, are employed, being more durable than even foreign fir, and sometimes living trees, of a proper size, are transplanted, with their roots, and are found to answer.
An excellent material for a field gate, is sound red fir, which is not very heavy, and is not liable to rot for some- time. Of late, cast-iron gates have been constructed in Scotland, which can be made fully as light as those of wood, and may be manufactured to any extent.
Gates are sometimes folding, consisting of two parts, which is necessary in wide spaces, where one gate, occupy- ing the whole, would be too large and heavy ; but the swing- gate, which turns on hinges at one side, and fastens by a latch at the other, and may occasionally be shut with a pad- lock and chain, is the most common in fences.
Some improvements in the construction of gates, have been suggested by Mr Menteath of Closeburn, and Mr
52 OF DRAINING.
Easton at Springkell, in Dumfries-shire, which will be fully explained in the General Report of Scotland.
SECT. V. — Of Draining.
THERE is hardly any point to which an industrious and skilful farmer would be more inclined to direct his attention, when he commences the occupation of a farm, than the state of its drainage ; for on that the success of his future operations must essentially depend. " Lay your land dry, " whatever may be the method pursued, or the expence to " be incurred, before you attempt any thing else," was the maxim of the celebrated Arbuthnot, and is the basis of good husbandry.
Mr Robertson of Ladykirk is of opinion, that with the exception of a few districts of dry loam, the greater part of the counties, both in England* and Scotland, stand more
« In EsseXj draining is found to be so essential for land under a regu- lar system of cultivation, or even in pasture, that they will go to the ex- pence of making small ditches over a whole field, filled with small stones, brush-wood, straw, &c. so as to collect the surface-water into what may be called veins or small reservoirs, though it costs from L. 15 to even L 20 per acre ; and though the eflects will not last above twenty or thirty years. This system, however, is often carried to excess, and the enormous expence attending it may be prevented, by adopting the prin- ciples which I believe were originally discovered by the celebrated Elk- ington. He ascertained, that in fields where the strata are not regular, there are often masses or pots of sandy soil, which absorb great quanti- ties of water, and which, when over full, occasion what are called land- springs, which, though only occasional and temporary, yet cause much
2
OF DRAINING. 53
in need of draining, than of manuring ; and that there are very few districts in either kingdom, where a perfect know- ledge of this essential source of improvement, is at all gene- ral. The difference it would make, were draining in Scot- land carried to the extent it might be, is beyond all calcu- lation.
In discussing this important subject, it is proposed briefly to touch upon the following points: 1. The nature of the open drains made in Scotland ; 2. Of under-drains ; 3. Of Elkington's mode of draining, as practised in Scotland ; 4. Of ponds made from drains ; 5. Of the obstacles to drainage in Scotland ; and, 6. Of the advantages which have been derived from it, at least in so far as these parti-- culars have been explained in the course of my recent cor- respondence.
1. It rarely happens, that any clay district can be culti- vated to advantage, without open drains, of various descrip- tions. In the Carse of Gowrie, the large drains, near the river, are from fifteen to twenty feet deep, and that valuable district has thus been rendered completely dry. In the summer season, it is necessary to clear all these large drains every year, so that the passage of the water may meet with no resistance; for there are miles of drains so connected, that an obstruction of six inches above the level, will impede the whole. It is necessary also to employ spademen every day the ploughs are in the field, to clear out the small drains as soon as the ridge is ploughed ; for in that flat country.
damage to the fields in which they take place. With uncommon sagaci- ty, Elkington discovered, by the herbage and other outward appearances, where these pots or strata lay ; and by making ditches from one to another, so as to connect them together, he drained the nek! at a trifling expence, as effectually as it was done by the laborious and expensive method adopt- ed in Essex.
54 OF DRAINING.
in a ridge of ten or twelve chains in breadth, there are per- haps three or four small open drains, provincially called Gaw Furrs, which go across the whole field, to carry off' the surface-water, and these must be cleared every time the field is ploughed.
On the subject of clay lands, Dr Coventry has well obser- ved, that a complete drainage is absolutely essential, as the first and fundamental step to their improvement. For that purpose, it is necessary to make proper ditches, open drains or water-courses, and to keep them clear. It is evident, that unless the water collected from the different " buts" or *; ridges," can easily get away, it will be to no purpose to facilitate its passage from these, or the general surface of the ground, by " water-furrows," or small cuts made by the plough or spade ; and the state of the larger ditches or open drains, with their best direction, is among the first things to be attended to by a cultivator.*
2. On the subject of under-drains, I have received an in- teresting communication from Mr James Andrew, farmer
* An intelligent correspondent informs me, that above twenty years ago, in making drains for carrying off the water from springs in the upper part of a field which appeared to require to be taken in hollow drains, for a great distance, he observed, that the water had a tendency to disappear about the middle of the field. He caused a pit to be dug at that place, six feet deep, and equally wide. Here the water got vent. He led the hollow drain into it, and filled the pit with field stones, which were co- vered with twenty inches of earth. The springs of water have never since appeared. He has since done the same in various situations, by carrying a hollow drain, only so far as the water appeared. Sometimes a gravel, and at other times a rocky bottom might be found, at five or six feet deep, which absorbed the water, and rendered farther draining unneces- sary.
This is a good plan, where the water does not again burst out, which often happens where the stratum does not end either in the bottom of a river, or in the sea.
OF DRAINING. 5">
at Tillylumb near Perth, who has invented a plan which seemed to him a new one, though it will appear, that it afterwards has been tried in foreign countries with success j but that does not lessen the merit of the ingenious cultiva- tor who first attempted it in Scotland.
Mr Andrew states, that the ridges on his farm had for- merly been broad, and much raised. His predecessor had levelled them by the plough, and when he entered into the farm, almost all the good earth had been thrown into the old furrows, and completely buried ; the crowns of the old ridges were at the same time so much stript of soil, that they were scarcely fit to carry any thing. It was absolutely necessary, however, to do something to bring the ground into a better state. As it lay on a gentle slope, cross drain- ing was attempted, but ineffectually. He had then resolved to gather up the ground to the old ridges, by as many ploughings as might be necessary to raise them nearly to their former height, and to throw a drain into every furrow, thus designing, by one operation, to dry the ground, to equalize the soil, and to give it a fallow. When these ope- rations were completed, he gathered up a small ridge into the furrows above the drains, to protect them from the sur- face water. The following sketch will give some idea of the nature of the operation :
Ridge. | CD I R^ge. | D | Ridge. | CD I Ridge- I CD I Ridge-
|
Small |
Small |
Small |
Small |
|
ridge & drain. |
ridge & drain. |
ridge & drain. |
ridge & drain. |
The breadth of the large ridges depends entirely upon the size of the original ridges, which varies considerably. As to the small ridges above the drains, they are about two
66 OF DRAINING.
yards each, and they are fully as productive as the large ones, and rather more so. Thus, it may be said, that not an inch of ground is lost by the drains, and the whole is rendered more fertile and valuable.
The drains are generally about two feet and a half deep,* and as narrow in the bottom as an ordinary spade can con- veniently work them He always thought it necessary to go down until a solid tilly bottom was found, in order that the water might always run immediately above the till. The drain was filled to the depth of a foot, or rather more, with small stones, the undermost being always carefully laid in by the hand, and the rest thrown in promiscuously above them. The stones were then covered with a little straw, and earth above all. The expence, on an average, cannot be calculated at less than from L.8 to L 10 per Scotch acre; but the outlay has been amply repaid, for every object Mr Andrew had in view has been accomplished. In its former state, the ground could only be ploughed at certain times. The farmer was at the mercy of every season, and found none so dry, that in a certain degree he did not suffer some injury ; but now, he can plough almost at any time, the seed can be put in if there is but a single dry day, and in the ordi-
* They are cut so deep, as to have what may be called a case in the till, or hard clay, for the stones ; and to obtain that advantage, a consi- derably greater depth was sometimes required. When this could be ob- tained at two feet and a half, Mr Andrew did not think it necessary to go deeper, as he found that the land was completely drained by such means. Shallowness can only be objected to in regard to durability; but the duration of drains does not so much depend upon their depth, as that the water in them has a proper run, and that they are protected from too much water from above. The natural slope of Mr Andrew's farm gave a quick run to the water ; and the second object was obtained by the small ridges, as the water chiefly run in the furrows between the large and small ridges.
OF DRAINING. 57
nary course of things, he can always rely upon a crop; the soil also being equalized, the crop is always equal. Mr Andrew expresses his regret, at seeing the mischief that has bee'n done, almost in every corner of Scotland, by the attempts which have been made to level high ridges by the plough ; and I certainly think, that before any proprietor or tenant resolves to carry any plan of that sort into effect, he ought to examine the result of the measures which have been adopted on the farm of Tillylumb.*
It is singular, that this plan, which Mr Andrew thought was a new discovery, should be the common system of Flanders, and should have been introduced into England by John Arbuthnot, Esq. of Mitcham in Surrey, who is considered by Mr Arthur Young as the best cultivator of strong arable land, and, indeed, the best general farmer, that he ever met with, in the course of his long experience. Mr Arbuthnot was convinced of the necessity of complete draining preparatory to every other exertion. After exa- mining the Essex plan of three feet ridges, as a remedy against wetness, which he found well enough adapted to loams through which the water freely percolates, he was convinced, that it was not at all adapted for soils so tenaci- ous as to merit the appellation of Clay, and that broad ridges, not exceeding two feet or two feet and a half in height, was the preferable system. The breadth he most approved ofi was that of two perches or thirty-three feet; and in each furrow, he dug and filled a well-executed hol- low drain, in the manner recommended by Mr Andrew. Under this system, the cleanness and magnitude of his crops formed a spectacle highly satisfactory to those who viewed
* Straighling the rirfges, however, as will afterwards be explained^ Sect. 1. Cliap. 2, is a most essential improvement, and can be done at a small expence, in consequence of a plan invented by a gentleman iu Yorkshire, which is described in the Appendix.
58 OF DRAINING.
them. The loss of ground also was trifling compared to the Essex mode, by which, out of three feet six inches, one- seventh part was lost in the furrow.*
There are few objects of greater importance, than to have this system extended over all the tenacious soils in the king- dom,
In regard to light soils, under-draining is a common practice. When artificial grasses are cultivated, it is usual to gather the stones upon the young grass into heaps, im- mediately after harvest, and to cart them off during the first winter frosts. If there is any appearance of a spout or land- spring in the field, the stones are applied to drain it off; where there is no spout or land-spring, if there is any hol- low or flat place through which a cross water-furrow runs, a drain is made very near, and in the same direction, for it is of the greatest consequence never to allow any water to remain upon the field.
As to new modes of draining, Mr Pringle of Ballencrief informs me, that in his neighbourhood, common pantiles have lately been used in the making of drains. After they are dug in the ordinary way, a small hollow is made in the middle of the bottom of the drain, taking care to leave a piece of firm ground on either side for the tiles to rest upon. They are laid with their convex side uppermost, and the earth is thrown in. The tiles hitherto used, have been those thrown aside, on account of some flaw rendering them un- fit to be employed in the roofing of houses, and they are sold at the kiln at 2s. per hui.dred, instead of 8s. 4d., the price of sound ones. A cart carries 400, which cost 8s.,
* See Mr Arthur Young's Letter to the Board of Agriculture, on the husbandry of three celebrated farmers, (Bakewell, Arbuthnot, and Duck- et) printed anno 1311. p. 18.
OF DRAINING. 59
and are sufficient to cover twenty-two roods of eighteen feet and a half each. The tiles are fourteen inches in length, but allowing for breaking and overlaying, the average may be reckoned about twelve inches.
In the few instances which have come under Mr Pringle'* observation, the water runs freely ; and he has no doubt, that in many places they would be less expensive than stones* but they could not answer where the bottom of the drain is soft and muddy. It is a pity they were not exempted from duty, when employed solely for draining purposes, as some description of bricks are by a recent act of parlia- ment.
3. Mr Newton of Currie-hill, near Edinburgh, informs me, that the soil of one-half of his farm lies on a ridge, sloping both south and north ; the subsoil is a strong blue clay in the highest part of the land ; but towards the north, the clay is nearer the surface, and of a worse quality, sub- ject to spouts, which have occasioned much expencc, and still require draining ; but the materials are becoming scarce. The under half of the farm, in regard to soil, is various : there are some spots of a few acres, of turnip land, upon a gravelly bottom ; but the greatest part of the low lands are a heavy soil, upon a clay bottom for two or three feet, and then sand. A great deal of this soil has been redeemed from bogs and pools by draining. Elkington's mode of draining was practised forty years ago by the late Mr New- ton, not by boring, but by filtering.
In regard to Elkington's system for draining boggy land, it has answered completely in various parts of Scotland. Mr Wilson, near Cullen, in BaniFshire, informs me, that he has had some boggy land drained effectually by means of that process; and Mr Church of Hitchill, in Dumfries- shire, has drained the mossy or springy ground on his farm, according to the Elkington system, with such sue-
60 OF DRAINING.
cess, that lie has brought it to nearly the same rotation as the land to which it is contiguous. Thus, by the exertions made by the Board of Agriculture, the principles adopted by Elkington have been successfully carried into effect, in remote parts of the kingdom.
4. Mr Robertson of Ladykirk has adopted an excellent plan in carrying on his draining operations; that of ma- king ponds of pure and excellent water from the conductors in every field, entering and leaving the ponds continually, and very far preferable to any standing pool.
5. Mr Wilson in Simprin, in Berwickshire, strongly in- culcates the advantage of draining, and laments that so es- sential an improvement should still be much wanted in Ber- wickshire, not from the want of spirit in the farmers, but for two reasons : 1. The want of stones in the low district, as there is not a sufficient quantity even to make the roads, which, in his opinion, is the first of all improvements ; 2. The shortness of leases. To remedy the first obstacle, thorns or brushwood should be used ; as he has already had such drains running for above nine years. As to leases, if they are not to be lengthened, the proprietor should cut the drains, and the tenants should fill them up. Freestone may be got at some situations at the expence of quarrying, as has been done in Berwickshire, by that eminent friend to improvement, Mr Robertson of Ladykirk. It may be proper at the same time to remark, that the common land- stones, gathered upon the fields, hardened by the atmos- phere, are much superior to any sort of quarry stones.
6. The advantages of draining are thus explained by Mr Jack of Moncur. His farm principally consists of a fine deep loam soil, of a brown colour. Its subsoil is a mixed clay of different colours, with some strata of very quick sand ; and in the sand there were great runs of water, forcing it- self up through the soil at all seasons, which very much in-
OF DRAINING. 61
jured the ground, as it stopped the labour in the early part of the season, encouraged the growth of natural grass, and kept the surface in a sour state, which in time of great drought became very hard and unproductive. But when this kind of soil is properly drained, it soon appears what can be effected by this first and greatest of all improve- ments : it makes the land so free and tender, that half the abour prepares the ground for the crop ; less seed and ma- nure is necessary ; and a more abundant crop may be de- pended upon in all seasons, as neither drought nor damp have any effect upon it.
Mr Allan of Craigcrook, also, considers draining to be the first improvement in agriculture, and that a large pro- portion of the land in Scotland, is ruined for want of it. He has drained land completely, where it was thought quite impossible, and has improved land, by that operation, that was not valued at 5 s. per acre, so as to be worth from L. 4> to L. 5. Could money, labour, skill, or industry, be more usefully employed ?
Mr Allan farther observes, that many people do not make the drains so deep as they ought to be ;* where the levels will admit of it, drains ought to be at least four feet deep, two feet wide at the bottom, and three feet wide at the top, and filled up with three feet of stones. Many, however, would object to such a drain, as too large and ex- pensive. He affirms, that he has derived more benefit from draining a field, than he would have from both dunging and liming it ; that is to say, the field carried more grain
* It is impossible to fix the deepness of drains to carry off springs. One invariable rule is, to cut through the stratum of gravel or sand in which the spring is found, and until a firm hard bed is got for the bot- tom of the drain. A great many drains are cut by far too shallow, to be of any use without boring.
62 OF DRAINING.
for two years, by being well drained, than it would have done with both lime and dung, without being drained : — After being drained, half the manure was sufficient.
Mr Andrew of Tillylumb also informs me, that though his draining cost from L.8 to L.I 0 per Scotch, or from L.6, 8s. to L.8 per English acre, yet the whole expence was in a great measure repaid, in several places, by the be- nefit derived from the drains, in the course of the last crop alone. The spring and beginning of summer 1811, was a very trying one for land, and more especially for the crop of wheat. For about nine weeks, during the end of April, the whole of May, and the first part of June, there were in- cessant falls of rain which greatly affected the crop, which in general had contracted a yellowish sickly hue, from which it never recovered ; but all this time, such was the effect of draining, that the crop on Tillylumb preserved its verdure, in so much, that several judicious farmers decla- red, that it was not in the smallest degree affected by all the rain that had fallen.
On the subject of draining, Mr Bruce of Grangemuir observes, that the farmers north of the Tweed labour under " great difficulties, in carrying on that essential improvement, for want of a law, obliging neighbouring proprietors to join in an operation of that sort. And it frequently occurs, that the only outlet to extensive swamps, is through the lands of others, who, from various causes, prefer keeping a neighbour under water. A law similar to that regarding fences might be made, that would be of infinite service. From another respectable quarter, I am also informed, that much land in his neighbourhood remains undrained, owing to the same circumstances.*
* See this point more fully explained in the Appendix. It is to be
OF ROADS.
SECT. VI. — Of the Roads on a Farm) and in its Neighbourhood.
THE advantages resulting from good roads need not be dwelt upon, as no country can be improved without these essential aids to cultivation. In various instances, the foundation of the improvement of several districts in Scot- land has been justly attributed to them. For instance, in that fertile tract of country, the Carse of Gowrie, prior to the year 1790, there was no road, that could admit of cart- ing through the winter or spring months ; every thing was to be carried to market on horseback, and the horses often sunk to their bellies. So great was the slavery of thresh- ing the grain, and carrying it to market along such roads, that many men, possessed of an active spirit, quitted the farming line, or went to places better situated in regard to roads. But now, the turnpike-roads in that district, are as good as any in the kingdom, and by the judicious applica- tion of the statute service-money, the greater part of the farmers have been enabled to make good private roads to their own doors, by means of which, 32 cwt. of coal may be carried upon a two-horse cart, from the harbours ; and 150 to 200 stone of hay, tron weight, or from one and a half, to two loads English weight, is carried by each two- horse cart, to the towns of Perth and Dundee. By these means, the expence of conveyance has been materially di-
hoped, that this measure will be taken up by the Highland Society of •Scotland, or the Board of Agriculture.
64- OF ROADS.
minislied, and the rent of land has of course been prodigi- ously advanced.
In another district, that of Clackmannanshire, the roads have also been much improved, by which the operations of the farmer have been greatly facilitated ; a greater propor- tion of work is performed at much less expence, the la- bour of the horses is much easier, a double quantity can be carried to mill and market, a greater quantity of manure conveyed, from the nearest town, or farm-yard, in a short- er period, and wear and tear of every sort greatly reduced. There is indeed no county in Scotland where the landed gentlemen have studied the improvement of their estates in, this particular, more than in Clackmannanshire, both as to public and private roads; and, of consequence, there is hardly a district in the kingdom so much improved in so short a period; land which let ten years ago at 50s. will now average L. 5 per acre ; the farms in general are enlar- ged, much better cultivated, whilst the farmers are more comfortable ; and it seems to be the greatest pleasure that the proprietors can enjoy, to add to the happiness and com- fort of their tenants, by good roads, convenient farm-house and offices, good fences, and leases of a proper duration.
Roads may be considered as of two descriptions : 1. Pub- lic roads, already touched upon ; and, 2. Private roads, to which none but the farmer and his servants have access. It is much to be lamented, that in several districts, where the- great roads are attended to, the private ones should be ne- glected, yet they form as essential a part of the farm as the houses and fences, and, like them, should be made and re- paired by stipulations between the landlord and tenant. There is nothing for which the latter can afford to pay a per centage better, than for a good road through his farm. Every farmer, therefore, ought to lay it down as a rule, completely to repair a certain extent of road each year, say
OF ROADS. €5
from fifty to five hundred yards, in proportion to the ex- tent of his possession, and a stipulation to that effect might be no improper clause in his lease. The roads, even on a large farm, would thus be almost insensibly gone over, and its value would thus be materially increased.
It is impossible, however, that any improvement can be made on the roads of the kingdom, unless broad wheels are adopted ; and it will appear from the following communi- cations, that they are as well calculated for farming, as for other purposes.
The Honourable Baron Hepburn informs me, that broad wheels are now introduced into East-Lothian, and that their use is spreading fast in that district, though the hus^ bandry servants, like their brethren in other counties, are much attached to ancient habits and usages, and averse to the introduction of new improvements. The Baron first used them for drawing turnips, and leading off stones from new-sown cut grass, but he had lately occasion to send his carts for some flags from the sea-shore, and as these flags were heavy and unwieldy, all his carts, including his broad- wheeled ones, were sent, to give a sufficient power of men to load them ; and as the road up the beech was steep, and through a dry and deep sand, it required three horses to bring up each cart to the top of that beach, although two horses brought the loaded cart home from that point. It was soon found, that the broad wheels rolled, and did not sink in the sand, and the loaded carts with broad wheels, were brought up with infinitely less fatigue or exertion to the horses. The servants immediately became converts to the utility and advantage of broad wheels, insomuch, that those who generally worked these broad-wheeled carts, re-? sisted and reluctantly yielded the use of those carts to their fellow-servants, when ordered to use them in carrying pc-» tatoes from the field. The result was, that the Baron has
VOL. I. E
66 OF ROADS.
been obliged to purchase a pair of broad wheels for each of his carts.
The Baron adds, he has no doubt that broad wheels will gradually creep into general use among the wealthy hus- bandmen, but a statutory enactment may be necessary to compel carriers of every description, (a numerous class), to adopt them, as broad wheels, by having more wood and iron, are rather more expensive. Five years, however, should be allowed to wear out the narrow wheels now in use. The sheriffs of counties should be directed, to be par- ticularly attentive in regularly intimating these statutory enactments, the first year, the third and the fifth years, at their several commencements, as the above description of people, arc generally very illiterate, and, indeed, inattentive to statutory enactments of any kind, as very few ever reach them, or awake their attention.
An eminent agriculturist on the borders, Mr Walker of Wooden, is of opinion, that if broad wheels could be brought into general use, it would be attended with a very great saving of expence upon the public roads ; at any rate, he is convinced that they are on many occasions of much importance to the farmer. In wet seasons they are pecu- liarly useful in leading home the crop from wet or soft lands, which have been sown down with grass-seeds ; in ta- king the stones from the same lands in the spring, when they are to be cut for hay ; and in leading turnips off wet lands. On such grass lands, while the ordinary wheels sink very deep, and greatly injure the ensuing crop, wheels of only double the ordinary breadth, make almost no im- pression whatever. He always keeps, therefore, three or four pair of these wheels for the purposes above mentioned. They are made at hardly any additional expence. JEach wheel is covered with two old iron rings of the common wheel, after they have become too thin for use upon the
OP ROADS. 67
road ; and as the broad wheels are seldom used but upon soft ground, these old rings last a long time, and they are attended with no trouble or inconvenience, as they are made to fit the axle-tree of the common wheels.
But if it be possible, by any means, to impress the public mind with a deep conviction of the advantage of broad wheels, the following observations, from an intelligent and respectable country gentleman; William Cunningham, Esq. of Lainshaw, will probably have that effect. He states his full conviction, that no person whose mind is open to con- viction, can make a trial of these wheels, for farming pur- poses, without at once perceiving their very great superiority over the old wheels. He is satisfied, that his farm roads will, in time coming, be maintained at one-fourth of the ex- pence hitherto incurred for that purpose; and, as he is draining his own farm to an extent not yet practised in this part of the kingdom, which necessarily requires a propor- tionate carriage of materials, he expects very soon to be repaid the cost of his new wheels.
He informs me, that he got one pair of broad wheels in the month of May, 1811 ; and that after a very short ex- perience of their effects upon the roads of his farm, he or- dered three pair more to complete the regular establish- ment of his farm, which consists of four single-horse carts. His wheels are five inches broad, and four feet six inches in height. They cost, at Morton's manufacture, Leith Walk, near Edinburgh, about L. 11, 18s. cash price. Common wheels of the same height, and about two inches and a half broad, cost, in Ayrshire, about L.8, 10s. Cylin- drical wheels, he affirms, are equally well adapted to every purpose, whether of road, carriage, or agriculture. In farming operations, their superiority is so great, that he thinks it would be for the interest of every extensive farmer to adopt them immediately, even if he should be obliged to
6S OF ROADS.
break up, and burn his old narrow wheels. He does not think that they will do, where roads have been deeply rutted by old narrow wheels, unless great care is taken to avoid the ruts ; but he is satisfied, that equal weights can be car- ried with them, and probably greater. They do not shake the horses on rough roads like the wheels with bent axles, and consequently are easier drawn. The weight of the wheels and axle is about 5 cwt. 32 Ib. Common wheels, with iron axles, weigh six or seven stones less. The body of the cart weighs 3 cwt. 16 Ib. With these wheels, he car- ries about 15 cwt. in single-horse carts, but if the roads were without pulls, a greater weight might be taken. He is determined, that all his farm wheels shall be of that de- scription ; he considers them to be the greatest improve- ment in agricultural machinery, since the invention of the th rc-fih ing-mill; and he conceives that every month's delay, that takes place in the general adoption of them, produces a great national loss.
Mr Morton states, that the broad cylindrical wheel, be- sides the advantages it possesses upon a good road, or causeway, is also more easily drawn over a new-metalled or gravelled road, than the common narrow wheel, in conse- quence of its having no tendency to remove, or disturb, the materials, having only the effect of levelling those stones which stand highest, and thereby rendering the whole more compact and smooth ; whereas, the narrow wheel presses the stones it bears upon, aside, and thereby forms a rut, in- to which it sinks, — consequently increases the obstacles it has to encounter. He also observes, that a small addition- al weight to the wheels, (say one half cwt. per pair), is of much less consequence than the same additional load to the body of the cart.*
* It is proper likewise to remark, that a cart with broad wheels goes
CF ROADS. 69
Perliaps the most striking fact in favour of the use of broad wheels is this, that the carts of the London and Edinburgh Shipping Company, have cylindrical wheels of five inches in breadth, and yet, with a single-horse cart, they frequently draw, (the weight of the cart and the wheels included), no less than forty cwt. or two tons, though there is a considerable ascent from Leith to Edinburgh, and the road in some places is not in the best state of repair. The Edinburgh and Leith Shipping Company use the same sort of wheels with equal success.
In regard to the encouragement that ought to be given to broad cylindrical wheels, Mr Cunningham is of opinion, that if cylindrical wheels were to come into general use, and were the toll rates much lessened in their favour, great inconveniences might result from the diminution of the re- venues of the tolls, which are in many cases mortgaged, in security for sums advanced to make and repair the roads, and in other cases there are contracts in existence for maintaining the roads for a term of years. — It is obvious, that till the existing debts are paid, and the current con- tracts have expired, no general diminution of toll-rates can take place; but were these objects once attained, he thinks, that the roads might be kept up, by levying one-half, or one-third, of the tolls now exacted.
The advantages which the nation would derive, fromadue attention to the important objects of roads and carriages, are not easily to be calculated.
Before the subject of roads is dismissed, it is necessary to observe, that in many districts, some plan should be
more solid and regular, and with less agitation than with narrow wheels, and consequently the machine, as well as the horses and the roads, wouk! last much longer, by which the expence of the additional orijjinaJ «ost *ould be amply repaid.
70 OF KOADS.
adopted, for enforcing a more impartial distribution of the road-funds;* and that, when new turnpike roads are form- ed, more care should be taken in the expenditure of the money laid out. No sum should be expended, nor any debt incurred, without accurately examining the ultimate expence, otherwise the whole funds will soon be exhausted, and the produce of the tolls will not clear the interest due by the trust. The business then becomes more and more troublesome to attend to, and the road is neglected.
It may be proper also to add, the substance of Mr Lou- don M'Adam's directions for repairing roads, extracted from a valuable communication, which I had the pleasure of receiving from him, regarding that interesting particular.
He is of opinion, that where there is a quantity of clear stone, equal to a foot thick, there is no occasion for any ad- ditional materials, when a road is to be repaired. The stones, to the depth of a foot, should be taken up, (one half of the road at a time, to prevent the communication from being interrupted), and then broken, so as to pass through a screen or harp, through which no stone, above an inch in any of its dimensions, can be admitted. The road should be laid as flat as possible ; the less it is rounded the better, provided it is not hollow in the middle. The broken stone should be laid evenly on the road, on a coat of six inches at a time, that the materials may be consolidated. Any ruts,
* The management of turnpike trusts ought to be regulated by a ge- neral law, so as to prevent jobs. To carry a particular object, meetings are sometimes held in one district, while they ought to have been held in the other, and other manoeuvres of a similar nature are perpetually going forward. Is it then to be wondered at, that roads should get into disrepair ? Tenants paying a certain rent, should certainly be allowed to vote in the disposal of the county assessments, to which they contri- bute so much, and in the proper application of which they are so mate- rially interested.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 71
that may at first be formed, should be immediately filled up. Every road should be made of broken stone, without any mixture of earth, or any other matter; no large stones to be employed, on pretence of bottoming, nor sand, earth, or other matter, on pretence of blinding. A road made of stone, effectually broken, will have a smooth, hard, even sur- face, which cannot be much affected by the weather, and will be nearly equally good at all seasons of the year.
SECT. VII.— Instruments of Husbandry,
IT is of peculiar importance, to adopt the best and most economical implements of husbandry, and in general, not to incur an unnecessary expence in purchasing them, nor to have more than are truly requisite. In these respects, the Scotch farmers furnish an example which ought to be generally followed ; for the number of the implements they use, are not only few, but they are distinguished by the simplicity of their construction, their efficiency, and their cheapness. A farmer is thus enabled to do the same work, at less expence, and he can afford to pay more rent, with- out even raising more produce.
In treating of this subject, we shall consider the nature and construction of the following instruments : 1. Ploughs ; 2. Harrows; 3. Carts; 4. Fanners, or winnowing ma- chines ; 5. The Threshing-mill ; and, 6. Miscellaneous Ar- ticles.
1. PLOUGHS. — Ploughs with wheels are in general too complicated, and their weight so great, as to require an ad-
72 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY;
ditional horse, or pair of oxen, to pull them along. In Scotland, therefore, the swing-plough is almost universally adopted, and rarely more than two horses are now made use of. The horses also are yoked a-breast, by which the advantage of their full strength can best be obtained, ani- mal power being most advantageously exerted, when em- ployed separately, and close to the work. Indeed, when horses are yoked one before the other, or harnessed at length, it is hardly possible that they can pull equally. The power of the fore horses must be exerted, to reduce the tra- ces to a straight line, which cannot be done without press- ing on the back of the hindmost horse, where the angle is formed, and consequently greatly distressing him : hence the superiority of ploughs drawn by two horses a-breast, and of single-horse carts. In regard to the operation of ploughing, also, it is to be observed, that less time is lost in turning, more especially in small fields, insomuch, that with equal ease, two horses a-breast will do at least one-tenth more work, than the same horses will perform when placed in a line.
The plough generally used in Scotland, is known under the name of Small's plough. But in some of the western counties, as in Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, and Clydesdale, a plough made by Mr Wilkic of Uddington is very common, and much approved of.* The same artist has lately intro- duced an iron plough.-]- In the neighbourhood of Jedburgh, Veitch's construction is justly celebrated, though the sour- ces whence its merits are derived are disputed. But as James Small is the artist to whom hitherto Scotland has been most indebted, I propose, in the Appendix, to ex-
* See Alton's Report of Ayrshire, p. 214. f Ditto, Addenda, p. 723.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 7'3
plain the origin, nature, and advantages of his improve- ments.
The ploughs in Scotland are now almost universally worked by horses; but some intelligent farmers on the bor- ders, think Jit of advantage to have some ploughs worked by oxen also, as they are not so high-priced, and more cheap- ly maintained ; they are of opinion, therefore, that any ex- traordinary stock, not constantly required, should be of that description.
For cleaning green crops, a double plough, which takes a furrow from each side of the row, is reckoned to be a great improvement, and if properly used, renders the mould as fine as that of a garden.
In general, the horses are yoked a-breast, and never in a line, excepting to take up the last furrow in a wet wheat seed-time, to prevent poaching.*
In some parts of Scotland, it is necessary to have strong ploughs, calculated for breaking up marshy ground, or old ley, where furze perhaps may abound, and, in such cases, four horses are necessary ; and farmers make it a rule, to have a spare plough or two, so that the horses may not be kept idle, in case one of the ploughs should accidentally break.
2. HARROWS. — The harrows used in Scotland are made partly of wood, and partly of iron ; but of late, harrows have been made entirely of iron, which are reckoned far superior to the common sort, particularly when harrowing deep lands, as from the narrowness of the bulls or bars, the earth does not clog them.f The construction of harrows
* Communication from Mr Gray of Gorgiemoor. t Communication from Mr Robert Hope of Fentoa,
74 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
must depend on the nature of the soil. Those which are best calculated for strong clay, cannot be suited to light sands and loams. It is a general rule, however, that the teeth should be round, as they keep themselves cleaner than the square, or any other shape, and work easier after the horses.
3. CARTS. — It is a general rule with Scotch farmers, that every man-servant shall have a cart, a plough, and a set of harrows, for each pair of horses, so that whether the weather answers for carting, ploughing, or harrowing, the whole horses and servants are always employed.
Siiigle-horse carts are, in general, preferred ; but when the land is deep, the roads bad, the ascent great, or the load heavy, two horses are frequently made use of.* A most intelligent farmer on the border observes, that when
* Some farmers think, that where six ploughs are kept, there ought, to be twelve carts ; though by having a cart for each horse, the expence of that article is increased, yet the waste of a cart that carries a ton, is greatly more than where only half that weight is carried. Two horses, however, must be occasionally used. The steady horse, in that case, should be put in the trams, and the spirited horse as leader, as he is apt to do more work than he should. Others are of opinion, that two carts for each pair of horses, are an unnecessary expence upon an extensive scale of farming; and, in particular, that at a distance from large towns twelve carts are quite sufficient for twenty horses, in all the operations of the farm. In winter, horses can be changed forenoon and afternoon* by being wrought in single carts, and the horses are the better occasion- ally of easy work. But it is proper that each horse should have a cart- saddle to fit his back, and that each man take care of his own harness. It is much the more correct plan, upon a great concern, that four or six men be entrusted with the delivery of all the grain. It is needless, therefore, to give each man the charge of two carts ; for though no re- quisite outlay on a farm ought to be withheld, yet no requisite expence ought to be avoided.
5
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 7
two horses are yoked one after the other, unless the driver is very attentive, they seldom draw together, sometimes one drawing the whole, and sometimes the other. He has only used single carts for twelve or fourteen moixths ; but, from the trial he has made, he is convinced, that two horses in single-horse carts, will, with equal ease to themselves, draw at least one-fourth more than in a double-horse cart when yoked one after the other. Another great advantage attends single-horse carts ; the carters cannot run races when going for lime and coals, by which the horses are often ren- dered lame, and sometimes destroyed outright. This is a practice that too much prevails, notwithstanding the frequent punishments inflicted, and examples made, for that offence. It has been observed, indeed, that nothing can be said in favour of double-horse carts, (in nine cases out often,) that may not be as justly urged in favour of waggons and ploughs with four horses. It is a singular contrast to see the farmers of Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, carrying from 15 to 20 cwL, and sometimes a great deal more, in a one-horse cart, whilst in other districts, from attachment to old habits, two strong horses are employed, to bring a load of dung, not much hea- vier, from the dung-hill in the same field, to the turnip drill, even where there is little or no declivity, and where the additional horse must do damage to the ground in drills.
In summer, more especially, single-horse carts are pre- ferred by intelligent farmers, as the roads are then good, and the horses will bring home more lime to the farm, or carry more produce to market, in two carts than one. By dividing the load also, both carts and harness will last much longer. What weighs much with many sensible men is, their observing that the people who drive their own horses, always yoke them in single-horse carts. Others contend, that though persons driving their own horses, with great cure, may adopt such a plan, that is no reason why the same sys-*
76 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
tern should be adopted by the farmer, who must trust hi* horses to the discretion of every common servant. They admit, that coal and lime, and grain lo the market, may be advantageously driven, on good and level roads, by single- horse carts ; but they affirm, that they cannot be depended on for leading home the crop, nor for carrying out the dung, as the wheels will sink in pulverised fallows, or tur- nip land, even if dry, and still more so after rain.
If, however, two horses are to be used, (though after a Full trial there is every reason to believe that single-horse carts would be found more effective, and less injurious to the horses), curricle-carts, or yoking horses a-breast, might be tried, more especially where the roads are broad, so as to quarter with case : In that way, both horses can employ their whole strength, and it is a likely mode of making a powerful and effective draught.*
In lime of harvest, the common box or cart is removed from the axle and wheels, and large frames are put thereon, ibr the purpose of bringing home the crops of hay or corn, from the fields, or for carrying hay or straw to market. Indeed, where the carriage of hay or straw is to a distance, two long carts arc sometimes kept, made uncommonly strong, and stayed with iron bars.
In regard to waggons, there are not above six in the whole kingdom of Scotland. In the words of an intelligent farmer, this cumbrous and expensive machine is but little esteemed, and hardly any where to be met with. Every
* Mr Wilson of Simprin states, that horses going a-breast, were tried in his neighbourhood twenty years ago, and did not answer ; the horses fotii'ht, or jammed upon one another. He also tried them in a roller, and it had the same effect. But this might have been owing to misma- nagement. The cart ought to have only a pole, as in a coach or curricla, which would obviate the difficulty.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 77
former is now thoroughly convinced, that the cart in com- mon use, answers every agricultural purpose infinitely bet- ter.
4. FANNERS, or the Winnowing Machine.* — This excel- lent instrument is more generally to be found in Scotland than even the threshing-mill. By using it, with the aid of riddles in some part of the operation, all dust, chaf£ and other refuse are blown away, and the grain separated into divisions according to its quality, by which it is rendered intrinsically more valuable, than if the good and the bad were mixed together ; in the same manner, as a fleece of wool is more valuable, when broken or sorted by the wool- stapler.f The threshing-mill has generally one set of fan-
» Mr George Culley thought, that those implements should not be called Fanners, but winnowing machines, because the fanners with sails, properly so called, are used in the midland counties, and in many parts of England, where these truly valuable machines, so universal in the northern parts of the kingdom, are scarcely known to many farmers in the south. It is a singular anecdote, worth preserving, as proving the diffi- culty in the intrqduction of new imprpvements, that, about the year 1 765, a friend of Mr Culley's sent a winnowing machine to Mr Bakewell, at that great man's request. Twoorthree years afterwards,Mr Culley hap- pened to accompany that friend to Dishley, where they observed them dressing barley with their own kind of fanners. On being asked, what had become of the winnowing machine, one of them pointed to the roof of the immense barn, where it was suspended as a useless implement. Even that wonderful persevering man, was not able to overcome the pre- judices of his servants of that period. Mr Cuiley states, that it was about the year 1752, that he first got a winnowing machine, all the way from Hawick to Denton, long before he came to Northumberland, from Mi- Rogers, ancestor to the person who still makes very good ones at Ha- wick, in Selkirkshire, and whose ancestors were the first that manufactu- red them in Britain.
f There is an excellent account of the fanning or winnowing process in Kerr's Berwickshire. It is said that the machine was invented by Dr
78 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANBRY.
ners attached to it, driven by a belt from the end of the axle of the threshing drum ; but where the machine is dri- ven by horses, the working of a second pair, for cleaning the grain completely, is rather found to be severe upon them : the second pair of fanners is therefore generally driven by hand. Some recommend a small water-wheel, totally unconnected with the threshing machinery, for dri- ving the second fanner, which, by affording a steady equa- ble motion, would separate completely the light grain from the heavy.* By some improvements in the late-erected ma- chinery, it is said, that hand-fanners are rendered unneces- sary, and that the cleaning of the grain is completed, at the same time that it is threshed, so that the grain may be mea- sured into the sacks. This would indeed be an essential improvement. At the same time, owing to the inequality of motion necessarily attendant on the operation of thresh- ing, the second fanner, for separating the light grain from the good, will not accomplish the purpose intended, in a perfect manner, if it goes at the same time with the mill. Perhaps it would be expedient, that the threshing and fan- ning processes should go at different times, when horses are employed, at least in threshing of wheat.
Papin, was introduced by the Dutch into the barn, and brought to Scot- land by Meikle, the father of the inventor of the threshing machine. Others contend, that the idea originated in China, though it has been greatly improved since its introduction into this country.
* Mr Cuthbertson finds, that the two pair of fanners attached to his water threshing-mill, perform their work so well, that oats or beans are completely finished for market ; wheat and barley, however, require an additional dressing by the hand-fanners. The water, however, cannot be exclusively employed for the winnowing process, unless when it is abun- dant
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 79
5. THE THRESHING-MILL. — But the great glory of the Scotch instruments of husbandry is '* the threshing-mill," by means of which, these important operations, the separa- tion of the grain from the straw, and in some measure the cleaning of it afterwards, have been carried to a degree of perfection and extent in Scotland, altogether unrivalled in any other country.* There is no doubt, that many attempts had been made, at various times, for constructing machines competent to the task of threshing ; but I am fully convin- ced, that had it not been for the superior ingenuity of An- drew Meikle, no threshing-mill would have been brought to any high degree of perfection in our time. To him may be justly attributed the merit of the feeding-rollers, and the drum; the plan of the flax-mill having been adopted in other cases. Every friend to merit, must rejoice to hear, that the inventor of so important a machine, was rendered comfortable in his old age, and enabled to provide lor his family after his death, by the voluntary donations of his grateful countrymen.f
* As a proof of the great number of threshing-mills and fanners erect- ted in Scotland, I am informed, that in the Carse of Cowrie district alone, which is a tract of about fourteen miles long and four miles broad, there are no less than 120 threshing-mills driven by horses, and ten by water_ In other parts of Scotland, threshing-mills are so general, that it is very difficult to find a man who will thresh with the flail. A millwright also has now become a separate trade or occupation from other brandies of mechanism, in places where that was not formerly the case.
t The history of the oripin of the threshing-mill is very ably explain- ed in the Farmer's Magazine, and in Brown's Treatise on Rural Affairs. It is certain that skutch mills had been previously invented, and mills of that description are capable of threshing oats, and barley. That, however, does not detract from the merits of Mr Meikle, whose mills arc capable of threshing all sorts of grain, and particularly wheat, in a superior man- ner.
80 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
It is not intended, in this place, to give any description of the nature of the machinery ; but it may be proper short- ly to lay before the reader, 1. An account of the different powers used in driving the machine ; 2. A short view of the advantages resulting from the invention ; and, 3. Some hints regarding the improvements of which it is susceptible.
Threshing-mills are driven, 1. By horses; 2. By oxen; 3. By wind; 4. By wind or horses; 5. By water; 6. By water or horses; or, 7. By steam. Some small machines of this sort are driven by manual labour, which have of late been improved, but in general it is to be observed, that unless machines are of a strong and powerful construc- tion, they are constantly going wrong, and require perpe- tual reparation.*
1 . Where a command of water cannot be obtained, which is certainly the least expensive power that can be employed, horses are commonly made use of; and when the farms are of a moderate size, and where the horses are rarely employ- ed in that labour, some farmers are of opinion, that the ex- ercise they receive is not prejudicial to their health. In- deed, as they are principally worked in bad weather, when other business out of doors could not be attempted, they consider the threshing by horses as attended with little or no expence ; but where the crop is large, and in particular
* Mr Neil Ballingal states, that the advantage of a mill, strong and well constructed, well managed, and with fanners, is of the greatest import- ance. But a slight mill, constantly breaking, and with no fanners, no farmer would accept of as a present. At the same time, it is remarked by Mr Stewart of Hillside, that in moderate-sized farms in his neighbourhood, where the principal crop is oats, u smaller kind of threshing-mill, without fanners, will suffice, as the farmers find time in the evenings of winter and spring, to dress the corn by hand-fanners.
INSTRUMENTS OP HUSBANDRY. 81
where a considerable proportion of it consists of wheat, and where the machine is heavy, the labour must be severe. This additional labour, however, where no other power can be applied, farmers consider to be indispensable ; and may not be so destructive to horses, if the work is not made op- pressive, merely for the sake of expedition.
Mr Blackie of Holydown, gives the following calculation of the number of horses required for the different crops. A four-horse mill he thinks is quite sufficient for oats or bar- ley ; but where there is much wheat, a six-horse power is required. A three-horse power does very well for potatoe- oats, when the corn is fed in by a careful hand ; the mill then threshes much cleaner than a flail : But when the corn is put in faster than the mill is ready for it, the horses are oppressed, and the work is not well done. Mr Shirreff is of opinion, that a threshing-mill, of the power of six horses, will thresh the produce of 400 Scotch acres, all under corn crops, say 3000 bolls, in the space of only thirty weeks in the year, or at the rate of 100 bolls per week.
2. It is said that working threshing-mills by horses, is a power so unsteady, and attended with so much destruction to them, and hence so expensive, that some farmers still prefer the flail, to the erection and keeping up of the ma- chinery and horses. Though such an idea is far from being general, yet it certainly would be desirable, to exempt the horses, regularly working on the farm, from so laborious a task, and oxen have been strongly recommended for that purpose.
A gentleman on the borders, who rents about L. 4-000 per annum, informs me, that before he had collected water sufficient to thresh his crop, (which may be done much oftener than people are commonly aware of), he was accus- tomed, for many years, to thresh his crop by oxen j and he
VOL. i. F
82 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
adds, that wherever there is a necessity for using animal power, he would recommend oxen, as they are more steady in the machine than horses. His oxen, when employed in the threshing-mill, were fed in the usual way : only from being so near the sheu, or court, they were unyoked in the middle of the day in winter, and got a few turnips, in lieu of the hay they were accustomed to get at mid-day, when employed in the field. A piece of wood was fixed to the beam, or what is commonly called the start of the mill, and the oxen were yoked to it by chains, in the same way as in the plough. For six or seven years, he never had a horse in the mill, and each ox was employed nearly three years, one out of three being annually selected for feeding, and a young one trained in its place. When not employed in the threshing-mill, the oxen ploughed or harrowed as usual, and sometimes were employed in carting dung, turnips, &c.
The advantages of using oxen in threshing-mills, are re- presented in the strongest point of view by Mr Wood, late of Mill- Rig in Linlithgowshire.
In a communication to a useful institution, the Salton Agricultural Society, he observes, that threshing-machines are so much connected with the farming business, that it cannot be carried on without them. They are in general drawn by horses, and are found to be very injurious to that valuable animal ; for which reason, he advertised some time ago, to have one made, to*be driven by oxen, so as to suit their natural step. This he happily effected. For two sea- sons he threshed with oxen, and found, upon trial, both the mill and oxen to answer particularly well. It was thus in his power to have his threshing carried on, without in- terrupting any work wherein his horses are engaged, be- eides exempting them from the severe labour of threshing about 100 acres of wheat annually, which proved destruc-
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
live to his horses, though they were very high fed.* The use of oxen, therefore, in this operation, may certainly be looked upon, in some degree, as an improvement in agricul- ture. It is but fair to add, that for the first four or five times, the oxen are very awkward in the mill, and great care is then necessary to teach them ; but after that, they go more steadily than horses. When once a mill also, is constructed for the slow motion of oxen, which must go with more velocity on account of the slower pace of the ox than of the horse, it is necessary to employ oxen constant- ly for the sake of the machinery.
Mr Andrew Gray makes the following observations on this interesting subject. Some persons are of opinion, that as oxen in general move very slow, hence much time and labour would be lost in working them. That, however, can be obviated, by altering the velocity of the machine. It is also doubted whether oxen are as well adapted as horses for walking in a circle. A farmer in the county of Moray, however, informs me, that he has used four oxen in a threshing-mill, at one of his farms, and that he found they did equally well as horses ,• by which his plough-horses were relieved, and the oxen he worked, were kept in good condition, by turnips and straw : and as it has been found
* It is said, that on the greatest part of farms, hands for threshing cannot be got, independent of the ploughmen ; the exemption of horses, therefore, is an object of less consequence. Labourers, however, maybe hired, and in bad weather, the horses will be refreshed by rest, and will not require to be so highly fed. Besides, on all large farms, there are spade- men and others, who may work at the threshing-mill ; and where there are water-mills, it is not unusual to have a distinct set of hands, who soon acquire more expertness, than ploughmen or others, who can only be occasionally employed. It is an invariable rule with all good farmers, never to separate the ploughman from his horses, when the weather will allow him to work with them.
84- INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
from long experience, that oxen, if properly trained, will work equally fair and pleasant with horses, either in the plough, the wain, or any other machine in which they move straight forwards,* it may therefore be presumed, that if taught, they will work equally fair when walking in the same circle, and though oxen in general move slower than horses, the threshing-machine can easily be so calculated., as to an- swer with their slower pace* It would therefore seem, that oxen are at least equal, if not superior to horses, for work- ing threshing-machines.
O O
These arc considerations which merit well the attention of every farmer in the kingdom, more especially as the price of horses is constantly increasing, and as it can hardly now be doubted, that for working in the threshing-mills, and other extra labour, a few oxen on a farm might be attend- ed with infinite advantage.
3. The next power is wind ; and if water cannot be got, it is contended, that a wind-mill is greatly superior to one wrought by horses. Wind-mills are now so nicely con- structed, that the sails contract and dilate, according as the wind increases or decreases ; 'so that now the motion is much more uniform than that of a horse-mill driven by the most careful driver. The next great advantage of the wind- mill is its great power, which permits more work to be done in the same time, and at less expence ; as the ordinary ser- Tants on the farm, if the wind is favourable, may thresh a
* Horses will carry as well a* draw ; hence some of the load may be put on their back, and the horse is the better for it, more especially go- ing up hill. Oxen, on the other hand, will draw, but cannot carry; tumbril carts, therefore, haying three wheels, are the best for them. If oxen are apt to be giddy in a threshing machine, they should be blind- folded, as horses sometimes are. Giddiness may be occasioned by the gmallness of the diameter of the course.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 85
sufficient quantity, after having finished their daily labour at either cart or plough ; besides, the expence of tear and wear of horses employed at the threshing-mill is very great, as no work upon the farm is half so expensive. * Mr Ren- nie of Oxwell Mains considers, that a wind threshing-mill, equal to the power of eight horses, will annually save, when, compared to horses, besides the saving that would be made by the horses, L. 40 per annum, deducting the sinking of L. 200 additional expence, in the erection of the machine ; and Mr Wilson of Simprin in Berwickshire is of opinion, that wherever a great quantity of wheat is grown, the re- sistance is so great, and to overcome it is so destructive to horses, that a threshing-mill ought to be driven either by wind or water.
Others object to wind machines, on account of the ex- pence of the construction, the certainty of their not going in calm weather, and the danger attending them when the wind blows hard. Mr Brodie of Garwald, in particular, observes, that in hilly situations, the wind is apt to rise in such sudden squalls, as frequently to make that power in- convenient, and not unaccompanied by danger.
Mr Neil of Kelso informs me, that the expence of a good wind threshing-mill will be about L. 550, and that when a horse power is annexed to it, the additional expence, ac- cording to the present price of timber, will be about L.120 more, or L. 670 in all.
4. Aware of these objections to the power of wind alone,. Mr Rennie of Phantassie, Mr Brown of Markle, and other respectable farmers, have erected threshing-machines, SQ constructed, as to be worked either by wind or by horses^ as may be found necessary. They consider the power of wind,
» Communication from Mr Rennie of Kinblethmont,
86 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
to be so uncertain, that without the addition of horses, a great inconvenience would often be sustained. Mr Hume of East Barns has a machine of the same description, but owing to the vicinity of the sea, he has hardly ever had occasion for the horse power. He considers a threshing- machine of great advantage, even with horses ; but when wind or water can be obtained, it is worth, he states, on a farm of about 250 Scotch, or 316 English acres of arable land, from L. 100 to L. 200 per annum.
5. Water is by far the cheapest and the best power to be applied to threshing-mills. From the equality and the gen- tleness of the motion, the machine will last twice as long as one drawn by horses ; and as water-mills generally do much more work when in motion, they do not require to be so frequently used. It is calculated, that in threshing a crop of any extent, a pair of horses may be saved upon the farm, by the use of a water-mill, which cannot be calculated at less than L. 100 per annum.
Mr Stewart of Hillside has a threshing-mill driven by water, collected from the springs in the upper part of his farm, and gathered in a dam. It has seldom been stopt for want of water, and then only in extreme frosts, when the ploughmen thresh, having little other work to do. Mr Stewart adds, that the barley is cleared of awns, by putting it through the mill with a grater upon it, which is done at the rate of three bushels in the minute. This seems to be a useful appendage to the threshing-mill.
6. Mr Hunter of Tynefield, and many other farmers in the improved districts of Scotland, have threshing-mills wrought by water, or by horses, when the water is scarce. About half Mr Hunter's crop is threshed by the water, which saves about 10 per cent, on the expence, whereas, by the labour of horses only, about 5 per cent, is gained. I con- sider this to be a very useful suggestion. There are many
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 87
situations, where, by collecting springs, and forming dams, half the labour of threshing might be done by water, with- out much additional expcnce of machinery.
7. The last power that has been lately applied for the purpose of impelling threshing-machines is steam, and there is one of these machines in East Lothian. It is said, that on some new plan, steam-engines have been invented at Hull, which would cost about L.200, which would furnish power sufficient to drive a threshing-machine.* But there has not hitherto been sufficient experience, to determine the comparative advantages and disadvantages of the plan. It is said that 12 cwt. of coals are required to thresh 50 Ber- wickshire bolls, or 300 bushels of wheat. It is probable, however, that the alternation of heating and cooling the steam apparatus, may occasion much loss and expence in repairing the furnace and boiler ; and there is little chance, in districts merely rural, of being readily able to procure work-people, who are sufficiently conversant in steam-en- gines, for keeping the valves, leathers, and other parts of such nice machinery in order. Where coal can be had at a moderate expence, some would reckon steam superior even to water ; but as fire is always a dangerous enemy to straw, and farm-servants often careless, it may sometimes be attended with risk. It is a great advantage attending the use of steam or water, or even wind, that an apparatus, for cutting straw, and bruising oats, may be attached to them.
In regard to the expence of a threshing-mill, to go by steam, the following is the cost of one, erected by a re- spectable farmer on the border, (Mr Thompson of Chili, lingham Barns), communicated to me by Mr Bailey, as it is desirable that those, who propose having threshing-
Communication from Mr Brown of Cononsyth,
88 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
mills, should be able to compare the expence attending the different sorts.
Expence of the engine and house, L.325 0 0
The threshing part, 100 0 0
Total, L.425 0 0
The drum and rollers are six feet long each. It has two rakes, and two winnowing machines : The quantity of coals sufficient to keep the engine going six hours, is from 20 to 24 bushels ; the work performed is from 1000 to 1200 sheaves per hour.
It requires one man to attend the engine, in addition to those usually employed, where water or wind is the power. The expence of coals will vary according to circumstances ; in this instance, 24 bushels cost about 10s.
This engine was calculated to be equal to a five-horse power, but will do more business than six horses, which, requiring a driver, will balance the man attending the en- gine, and of course the difference of daily expence, will be between the value of 24 bushels of coals, and the labour of six horses.
Mr Thompson's machine was made by a steam-engine maker at Newcastle, and any steam-engine wright can make them There is little difficulty in managing them, no more than for a colliery, and Mr Bailey thinks, much less than those driven by wind. Steam also is a much steadier, and a more certain power than wind or horses. The an- nual expence of repairs, it is supposed, will be nearly the same, at any rate will not much exceed that of a wind ma- chine. I am informed, however, that a greater quantity of oil and grease is required for a steam-machine, than any other.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 89
In regard to horse machines, Mr Brown of Markle cal- culates, that a six-horse machine will, in two days per week, thresh the produce of 600 Scotch or 762 English acres, whatever the nature of the grain may be ; but if the crops are either oats or barley, or the wheat straw short, the produce of 700 Scotch, or 890 English acres, may be threshed, and dressed for market, by such a machine.
It is observed, that where threshing-machines are wrought by horses, and only the same number of horses kept as before the erection of the mill, it will be necessary to give the work-hordes hay instead of straw; as the mill generally occasions additional labour to the horses, perhaps for five months in winter, to the amount of from, one-sixth to one- eighth more.
Threshing-mills, having the drum or cylinder driven by a strap, were constructed by a Mr Cotterel on Leith Walk, about the year 1788, or 1790; but in a few years, they dis- appeared, as will others of the same construction, a strap being found inefficient to drive the nave of a threshing- mill.
On the whole, the remarks made by Mr Kerr, on these various powers, seem to be just. The greatest objection to horse machines, he observes, is the severity of labour which they require, besides often necessarily occupying the time of the farm-horses, when much wanted for other purposes. The capital defect of the threshing-mills which are driven by wind, is the extreme uncertainty of that power. During the long-continued frosts of winter, when there is hardly any wind, they are often altogether useless for weeks, when straw for litter and fodder cannot be dis- pensed with ; and the same thing sometimes happens du- ring harvest, when straw is much wanted for thatch, *
* Wind-mills also, are sometimes apt to have their arms broken by
90 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
Water-mills, where that power can be had, are certainly the best in every respect; facing more economical and steadier in their operation, than when driven either by horses or wind. But water is very apt to fail in autumn, and during long frosts, unless where care is taken, to have the water-wheel under the cover of a house. On these accounts, both wind and water machines, except when the latter have an ample and regular supply of the moving power, ought to be provided with horse-wheels.
Advantages of Threshing- Milk. — It is impossible to form, an adequate idea, of the advantages which have been deri- ved from this important invention, without considering the manner in which threshing had been previously perform- ed. There were two methods adopted for that purpose. The first was by a person who contracted to thresh the grain, giving twenty-four parts to the farmer, and reser- ving one twenty-fifth part to himself: the second method was, to hire a man to thresh the grain, at Is. 3d. per boll. Both these modes evidently furnished an inducement to thresh the grain in a slovenly, rather than in a perfect manner ; for the more labour that was bestowed on the threshing, the less was the profit derived from it. The mischief was, that by these methods, every part of the business was a distinct process. In the first place, as many
high winds, more especially when entrusted to the management of per- sons not intimately conversant with their nature, and the mode of work- ing them. This has given rise to so much trouble, disappointment, and expence, that some farmers in Berwickshire are tired of wind-mills, and propose returning to horse-wheels in their stead. As wind-mills are so common both in England and Holland, this must be owing to some de- lect in the construction, to mismanagement, or to higher winds being more prevalent in Scotland than in those countries.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 91
hands were collected to bring in the stack, and to build it into one end of the barn, as would, with the advantage of a mill, bring in, thresh, and clean the one half of it, in, the same time ; next, the tasker, (or thresher who worked by tasked work), had to take it from the heap, (as it is called), to lay it on the floor, to shake it well, and then to thresh it; and when each floor is threshed, he must put the straw out of his way ; twice every day at least, he had to gather what corn he had threshed from every corner of the barn, and to separate it distinctly from the straw ; wo- men had to attend twice a-day to shake the straw, and men to carry it away ; and, last of all, hands were collected to clean and prepare it for market, after lying perhaps fourteen days on a cold clay floor. Instead of all this, with the mill, and at most nine hands, often with only six or seven, and from four to six horses, the farmer can bring in, thresh, and partly clean, on an average, twenty-four bolls in four hours, at the same time, shaking and dispo- sing of the straw ; and in the course of a few hours, the grain may be ready for the market, the door locked, and the key in his possession. What a difference, instead of being a sort of slave to taskers, for at least nine months in the year ! A baker also, will, in general, give 2s. per boll more for wheat threshed by a mil), than by the flail.*
The specific advantages resulting from this invention may be thus stated: 1. The threshing and shaking are so much better performed than they were by the flail, and by the hand, as to justify the opinion, that there is an advantage derived, equal to one boll in twenty, over the old-fashioned methods, f The quantity of grain left in
* Communication from Mr Richard Somner of Gilchriston. f Communication from Mr George Farme, Braiclwood, near Dalkeith, and Mr Brown of Cononsyth,
92 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
the straw by the flail, was formerly so great, that a re- spectable farmer in the Carse of Gowrie calculates, that, to his certain knowledge, it was equal to the expence of keeping all the work-horses on his farm,* and the loss was so insufferable, that the farmer was afraid to go from home, for the eight months in the year during which the threshing lasted. f It is not only of importance, its being «ione in a much more perfect manner, but also, that it can be executed much more expeditiously,:}: in so much, that advantage may be taken of any sudden de- mand ; a scarce market may be supplied ; a stack of from 30 to 40 bolls may with ease be threshed in a day, and sent to market, or to the miller; and all this may be done, during weather when the other farming operations must be at a stand. 3. It has been well observed by Mr Brown of Markle, that if in the large farms of East Lothian, hand labour were to be used for separating corn frorn
* There is now no risk from foul threshing, as every farmer can distin- guish, in a few minutes, whether the work is properly done or not ; but by the flail, he was almost always at the mercy of the thresher, who grew so weary of so tedious an employment, that it is not to be wondered at he should execute it in a slovenly manner. Besides, the labour was an unwholesome employment, from the dust it was apt to raise, and those who worked at it seldom lived long. In short, numbers of the farm servants were, in former times, actually destroyed, by working in the barns.
f A tasker (thresher) being once severely threatened for foul thresh- ing, very calmly answered, " I'm sure ye'l nae find hail sheaves among the strae," — a poor consolation to the unfortunate farmer, whose inte- rests were thus so deeply affected.
I Once putting it through the hand-fanners, completes it either for the mill, or the merchant, and a stack can be threshed out, cleaned, sacked, delivered, and might almost be ground, and baked into bread, in one and the same day.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 93
the straw, a farmer's whole attention would be taken up by barn-work, otherwise the work would be imperfectly executed ; whilst much pilfering would go on, unless he was constantly on the watch.* At a threshing-machine, any thing of that kind can rarely happen, so many people being employed together when the machine is at work* constantly under the eye of the master, or of some con- fidential servant; and when the work is finished, every door is instantly locked. 4. One important advantage attending the threshing-machine, worked by any power, is the superior value of the grain; as the speedy way in which the work is executed, prevents that waste and damp, which was produced from the long continuance of the corn among the chaflj thereby rendering it not so fit for meeting the market, and of inferior quality to the consumer.f Hence, as Mr John Shirreff well observes, the corn, instead of lying during one, two, or even three weeks, amidst the chaff and other rubbish, in the corner of a barn, till it becomes quite raw to the touch, and musty to the smell, or, if the floor is damp, sometimes in part springs, grain, when threshed by the machine, is instant- aneously separated from both straw and chaff, as well as every other extraneous substance, and can be immediate-
* The doors of the barns formerly were almost constantly open.
f Communication by Mr James Cuthbertson. Mr Peter Jack of Moncur observes, that when grain was threshed by the flail, it lay for ten or twelve days on the floor. The first part of the grain lying on the floor so long, became damp and swelled, that though put to a proper granary, yet it soon became musty, from the damp that it carried from the cold floor, and on that account never had the fine flavour in flour, that meal of all kinds now has, never being suffered to lie on the barn floor. North country oats and meal, often lose a market in the south, on account of the musty taste it is so apt to imbibe from damp floors.
9* INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
ly measured up into bags, to be disposed of as may best suit the owner's interest. So great is the difference be- tween grain threshed by the fiail and the machine, that any person acquainted with the article, may go through a corn-market, blindfolded, and note every bag. This I am assured by several intelligent farmers cannot be questioned. 5. Another great advantage is, that the farmer can thresh his seed-wheat when in a soft state, recently cut and taken off the field, and without any injury whatever,* which, be- fore the invention of mills, it was hardly possible to get ex- ecuted, in the harvest time, without the greatest difficulty, and at a heavy loss. He is thus also enabled to provide seed-corn in the spring, which formerly was not always an easy operation. When threshing for seed was done in a hurry, it may easily be supposed, in how slovenly a manner the operation would be performed. In the busiest time of harvest also, straw can be got for covering stacks, which formerly could hardly be obtained. 6. It is found that strong wheat-straw, is more useful for cattle, when thresh- ed in a mill, it is so much more softened than by the flail.f 7. If a stack of corn is brought from the field into the yard too soon, and is Jjjcated, it is threshed in one day, goes to
* On the same system corn might be threshed in hazardous seasons, as soon as reaped, and either immediately kiln-dried, or frequently dress- ed by fanners, attached to a threshing-mill ; and I am informed that this has frequently been done by active farmers. An ingenious mechanic has suggested a plan of drying corn by means of a metal cylinder inclosed in a case of brick work, which would occupy but a very small space, and might be put up at a small expence. The cylinder, he proposed, should be put in motion by a power from the threshing-mill. The grain was to be moved through it on a similar principle to the working of a screw. The principal heat to be applied to the end at which the damp grain entered. From two to three bolls per hour might thus be dried.
t Communication from Mr Peter Jack of Moncur.
5
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 95
the kiln and suffers no loss; but before the invention of mills, when threshed by the flail, it was so soured, that it was almost unsaleable, and a loss of perhaps 20 per cent. was thereby sustained. 8. It is observed by Mr Kerr, that smut balls are not so apt to be crushed by the threshing- mill as by the flail, and that the grain is consequently less apt to be blackened.* 9. Mr John Shirreff remarks, that by the threshing-mill, the separation of the grain from the straw is not only more complete, than by any other known means, but the separation of the straw from the grain and the chaffi by the rake, and of the chaff and small seeds from, the grain by the fanners and skreens, all driven by the same machinery, are advantages not inferior, perhaps, to the se- paration of the grain from the straw in the first instance. Taking all these circumstances into consideration, and that prior to the invention of threshing-mills, drudgery, it may be said, stared the farmer in the face ; and that, besides heavy losses, it was the source of endless trouble and vexa- tion to every occupier of land, it is not to be wondered at, that the threshing-mill should be considered the most use- ful and profitable instrument belonging to a farm, and that its advantages should be accounted INCALCULABLE.
Some estimates, however, have been made of the specific advantages to be derived from this invention, which one farmer calculates at the rate of 5 s. per acref on lands un- der crops of grain, whilst others state it 5s. per acre with horse-mills, but at full 10 s. per acre upon the whole lands under crop, when the machine is driven by water, by wind, or by oxen4 Mr Dudgeon, Primrose Hill, from general observation, without entering into minute calculations, is of
* Berwickshire Report, p. 231.
f Communication from Mr Charles Alexander of Easter Haprcw.
t Communication from Mr Wood of Milrig.
96 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
opinion, that the aggregate advantage derived from a well- constructed threshing-mill, wrought by water, and under proper management, (when compared with the old mode of threshing), will be about 8 per cent, upon the corn thresh- ed, including labour alone, but without making any allow- ance for money sunk in erecting the mill, or repairing the machinery. It is calculated by an intelligent fanner, that a threshing-mill saves, on an average, the expence of three men for nine months, which, on a farm producing, 1000 bolls, is equal to about L. 70, or 1 s. 3 d. per boll. Mr Dudgeon, Prora, has made a comparative estimate of the expence of threshing wheat by the mill and the flail ; from which it appears, that the saving of charges in threshing alone, independent of other advantages, though the work be performed by horses, and not by any cheaper power, is equal to 4<7 s. per 50 bolls, or lid. per boll, increasing with the prices of grain. Mr Robert Kerr gives the following estimate of the expence of threshing and dressing 50 bolls of wheat :
Three pair of horses, at 6 s. per pair, - L.O 18 0 Four men, at 2 s. 6 d. each, 010 0
Four women, at 1 s. each, - 0 4 0
L.I 12 0
Incidents, as oil, &c. - - - - 003^
L.1 12 3£ Which is at the rate of 7| d. per boll.
In the wind or water-machine, the expence of the horses is saved, by which the cost per boll is reduced to less than 3|d. By means of the steam power, the cost is restored to nearly the same with horses.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 97
As to threshing by the flail, it was so irksome a task, that as labourers became scarce, the expence would have so much increased, as greatly to have diminished the profit of the farmer, and consequently the value of land.*
Mr Brown, Markle, in his valuable Treatise on Rural Affairs, has drawn up the following estimate of the profit that might be derived by the public, from the universal adoption of threshing-mills. He calculates,
1. The number of acres producing graim in
Great Britain, at 8 millions.
2. The average produce in quarters at 3
quarters per acre, at 24 millions.
3. The increased quantity of grain produced • by threshing, instead of using the flail, at
one-twentieth part of the produce, or in
quarters at 1,200,000
4. The value of that increased quantity at
40 s. per quarter, - L.2,400,000
5. The saving in the expence of labour, at
1 s. per quarter, 1,200,000
6. The total possible profit per annum to be
obtained, at 3,600,000
7. The actual profit, on the supposition that only one-half of the grain produced, were
threshed per annum at 1,800,000
Is it then to be wondered at, that he should pronounce the threshing-mill to be the most valuable implement in the farmer's possession ; contending, that it adds more to the produce of the country than any invention hitherto de-
* Brown's Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i, p. 31$. VOL. I. «•
98 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
vised ; and that it ought to be accounted the greatest im- provement that has been introduced into Great Britain du- ring the present age ?
It is to be lamented, however, that the process of thresh- ing by the mill cannot be carried on to the same advantage, unless where the ears are regularly exposed to the stroke of the beaters ; reaping by the sickle, therefore., is much to be preferred ; at the same time, if the grain is passed twice through the mill, it will be threshed effectually, in what- ever mode it may be reaped, though at an additional ex- pence.
Improvements in the Threshing-milL — It is probable that several improvements will still be made on this machine.* Amongst these, diminishing the size of the drum is cer- tainly amongst the most important. The drum should not exceed from two feet eight inches to three feet, or three feet and a quarter in diameter. Mr Sked, mill-wright at Dunbar, has made a machine of six-horse power, with a drum of only three feet and a half long, and three feet and a quarter diameter. This machine, which has a large outer
* Mr Robert Kerr states, that Mr Dun, a very ingenious mill-wright, at Coldstream, in Berwickshire, has made many useful improvements on threshing-mills, in particular on those which go by wind ; more espe- cially by causing the machinery to regulate the sails in proportion to the wind and work, in a most effective manner, with no trouble whatever to the people who feed the mill. He has likewise adapted a series of buckets, resembling the chain-pump, which continually return all ill- threshed grain, particularly ill-dressed barley, to the threshing stage ; and has, besides, added an ingeniously-devised shaker, beyond the rake, for clearing all the loose grain from among the straw. On the whole, the machines erected by Mr Dun have been carried to very great perfection ; always supposing, however, that they possess sufficient moving power of water or wind ; for they are rather too much loaded to be driven with any tolerable ease by horses.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 99
wheel, threshes with uncommon ease, and very clean, and with so small a drum it can thresh from 10 to 12 bolls of wheat in an hour, whilst the horses are so cool, that they can be watered with safety after working five hours. That able mechanic, Mr Andrew Gray, is decidedly of opinion, that a small drum, with few beaters, is preferable to the larger one with a great number, the small drum making better work, not being so severe on the cattle, . and less straining to the machinery. Although it is obvious that a drum, three feet diameter, having four beaters, must take two revolutions, for one of the drum six feet diameter, with eight beaters, it is evident, that the circumference of the one, will move nearly at the same rate as the other, because one turn of the large drum, is equal to two turns of the small one, they will give therefore an equal number of strokes in the same time ; but it is found by experience, that the small drum threshes much cleaner, or makes bet- ter work, than the larger one. The small drum is therefore to be preferred ; being easier driven, it must be less severe on the cattle, and by its striking the corn at a more acute angle, of course strips off the grain much cleaner from tne straw.*
Another improvement is, instead of two fluted rollers, to have one of them plain, but chipt cross-wise, about half an inch deep in various places. This prevents the straw from
* Mr Wood of Milrig remarks, that he has always found the moderate- sized threshing-mill, if all the parts are made substantially, by far the most useful, and less destructive to the animals which drive it, and suffi- ciently expeditious for the purpose of any farm ; and by employing a cer. tain number of day-labourers, which a farm of proper size has always at command, and by employing oxen for threshing ; the horses, and the men who work them, are never taken from other agricultural purposes, very necessary perhaps to bo carrying on at the same time.
100 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
rolling round the fluted roller; in which case the straw must be immediately cut, otherwise much mischief may be done. This is supposed to be a Scotch invention, for it was only introduced into Northumberland in the year 1807. When chipped^ the straw adheres to the roller, without rolling or lapping round it, which it is apt to do, when the roller is fluted, if the straw is damp. On this subject, how- ever, there is a great diversity of opinion. One respect- able correspondent affirms, that a plain roller, instead of being an improvement, is, on the contrary, detrimental to the work; fluted rollers being, in his opinion, necessary to retain the corn for a length of time sufficient to thresh it. Another intelligent farmer, on the other hand, considers the plain roller, chipt cross-wise, a great improvement. He adds, that damp straw is threshed with much inconve- nience by fluted rollers. They are not only troublesome, but dangerous. Indeed, he had a man who lost his life by being entangled in the rollers, whilst attempting to cut the rolled or lapped straw from the roller. A chipped roller also, is well calculated, not only for threshing oats in a damp day, or the wet bottom of a stack, but also for thresh- ing rank pease, a point of considerable importance. Mr Dudgeon of Prora uses three hands to feed the machine, if the pease or beans pass through to any degree of thickness between the rollers, and they receive only that degree of threshing which is necessary for separating the corn from the straw.
It is well known, that accidents have often happened from the difficulty of informing the driver of the horses, that the machine should be stopt. Mr Erskine of Marr has obviated every difficulty of that sort, by hanging a bell, the string of which is within the reach of the feeder of the mill, and by teaching the horses to stop immediately when the bell rings. The horses are also taught to proceed
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 101
again, when the bell rings a second time. The same plan was carried into effect by Mr Dudgeon of Prora, in 1804. Mr Dudgeon observes, that it is not only proper to have a handle near the feeder, to warn the rest of the servants, and the horses, when any occurrence renders it necessary to stop them, but to have one in the opposite, or straw-end of the barn, to warn the feeder, when any accident happens out of his sight : he possesses the most powerful means of stopping the machinery, by casting in whole sheaves be- tween the rollers, and circumstances have often occurred to require that precaution.
When horses are yoked in threshing-mills, they ought to have goggles, as they are so apt to look back. All horses should have breechings to enable them to stop the machine, and many have been killed, and much mischief done, owing to the want of so essential an article. The lever, by which the mill is wrought, ought always to be placed above the horse's back.
It is a most essential improvement to make the horses work equally. To obtain that object, a plan has lately been invented by Mr Walter Samuel, a smith near Edin- burgh, the apparatus of which is simple and cheap, not ex- ceeding 20 s. per horse, by means of which, it is contended, that not only the horses are comparatively greatly eased in the most severe labour in which these useful animals are employed, but that a great saving results in the wear and tear of the machine, from the regularity and uniformity of the movements.*
* An eminent breeder of horses near Howden, in Yorkshire, who sold at one fair, ten horses for 1000 guineas, informed me, that he found the threshing-mill an excellent mode of breaking horses, accustoming them to noise and labour. Fine horses, however, could hardly be ventured in such a machine, without the improvements above detailed.
102 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
Mr Scott at Ormiston has constructed an improvement, by which that resistance, which is so great and oppressive to the horses, when wheat, or corn of strong growth is threshed, can be easily removed or lessened, by the foot of the person who feeds the machine, pressing upon a bar or treddle, which has the instant effect of raising the upper roller in such a degree, as to allow the bottom of the sheaf to escape with mure ease, and thereby lessening the draught of the horses. This plan has been put in practice by Mr Park of Windymains, and may answer, when the person who feeds the machine is careful and attentive. The ex- pence is only about fifteen shillings.*
Mr George Mitchell, at Bishop Mill, near Elgin, in Moray, has discovered a mode for dressing barley in a su- pi nor manner, by means of cheap machinery annexed to the threshing-mill, an account of which will be given in the Appendix.
Some farmers think it an improvement, to yoke their horses in pairs, in the same manner as they do the plough ; but this is attended with a loss of the power applied, the one horse being compelled to travel over more ground than the other.
Great diversity of opinion is entertained, regarding the kind of threshing-mill that is easiest wrought, some con- tending for two movements, some for three, and others for four. Mr Rennie of Phantassie recommends a mode of trial, which he thinks would set that matter to rest, that of having three or four models of different movements, but of equal power, to be constructed by an able mechanic, and these to be wrought by means of weights, which he
* For a plate and description of this improvement, see the Farmer'* Magazine, No. XLVJI.
INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 103
thinks would at once ascertain which of them had the easiest draught ; at the same time, it would be difficult to say, with any degree of correctness, which ought to be pre- ferred. If, instead of models, real machines were to be made use of, it would be necessary, in order to make the comparison complete, that the machines should be all new, and that the same horses, the same sort of grain, if possi- ble from the same field, and the same driver and feeder, should be employed to the machines driven by the different movements. The great object, however, is, clean thresh- ing, without which, facility in movement is no advantage.
As to the cost of erecting a threshing-mill, the experice, on an average, may be calculated at L. 200 for each ma- chine, including the horse-shed, the fanners, and the loft connected with the framing of the machinery, but exclusive of the barn, the barn lofting, &c. This expence, owing to the higher price of wood, is not likely to be diminished. Mr John Shirreff at the same time remarks, that that must in some degree be counterbalanced, by the present more general introduction and employment of cast-metal seg- ments and pinions, in the construction of which much la- bour is saved, and consequently wages to the operative mill-wright.
4. Many unsuccessful attempts have been made, to con- struct a threshing-mill at a low price, so as to answer the purposes of small farmers, and that object has at last been accomplished. Mr William Johnston, an ingenious me- chanic, at Langholme, in Dumfries-shire, has contrived a machine on Meikle's principles, which may be purchased for so low a sum as even L.8, and may be driven by two men, though a small horse, water, or wind, would be a better power to apply. An account of this machine, and an en- graving of it extracted from the Farmer's Magazine, will be found in the Appendix, No. XX. There is no doubt of
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its being perfectly adequate to threshing the crops of small farmers; and it is more likely to be adopted in foreign countries than the larger machines.
Upon the whole, after the experienced advantage of powerful threshing-mills on large farms, they have now be- come, not only most useful, but almost indispensably neces- sary ; and farmers who have been accustomed to the dis- patch, security, and economy, which they contribute to the management of extensive concerns, would find themselves reduced to most unpleasant inconvenience, should any cir- cumstances oblige them to have again recourse to the flail.
6. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. — The other implements used in Scotland are not numerous, consisting principally of bean and turnip drills, (drill-machines for corn are not frequent), stone, wood, or cast-metal rollers,* and scrapers, or shovel-ploughs, none of which are cither expensive or complicated. A horse-rake for gathering corn stubbles af- ter the scythe, has lately been introduced into some parts of Scotland, and has given satisfaction.
* One of my correspondents has tried a roller made of Aberdeenshire granite, with which he is much pleased. Every person, he observes, knows how imperfectly the large wooden roller acts in the pulverizing process, and in many districts it has generally given place to the smaller metal roller. But the granite roller is greatly superior; it is cheaper; it •will last for years ; and is so weighty, that it may be made of as small a diameter as is necessary. It is said by those who have tried rollers, that they should not be less than twelve inches in diameter, nor more than thirty, because, if too small, they are apt to push the hard clods before them, and if too large, to force the clods into the soil, or to rest upon them instead of breaking them. Some recommend hollow cast-iron roll- ers ; but in that case, it would be advisable to have a machine for con- veying them from one field to another, to prevent their breaking. It might be set on low wheels, and an inclined plane of stout plank used for drawing it by a horse, or two, if necessary.
OF LIVE STOCK. 10*
ON the whole, it may be safely asserted, that there is no country in Europe, where farming is at all understood, where the implements of husbandry are so few, so simply so cheap,* or so effective, as those in Scotland — a circum- stance of infinite moment to the industrious husbandman.
SECT. VIII.— Of Live Stock.
IT is a common remark, that the farmers of Scotland, in general, seldom think of bringing their sheep, their cattle, or their hogs, to that extraordinary degree of fatness, which is the pride of the English breeders and graziers ; for which, indeed, the Scottish graziers have but little in- ducement, (except on the borders, where they are within reach of the Morpeth market), as, owing to the difference of taste between the two countries, the English mode of feeding stock would not pay in Scotland.f Without discussing the
• * The threshing-mill, though it costs a considerable sum, yet is the cheapest of any, considering the work it performs.
f It is questionable whether this great fatness is useful to the public. Some families have given up butchers who pride themselves on selling very fat meat, finding that it made no way in feeding their family, so much of it being rejected. The great object is, to ascertain the net profitabl* weight, produced by the different breeds, at the smallest ex- pence.
106 OP LIVE STOCK.
propriety of fattening animals to such a pitch, or the re- finements of modern breeding, it may be sufficient to ob- serve, that the breeds of live stock in Scotland are, on the whole, well calculated for the soil and climate of that coun- try ; and that many of them are distinguished by most va- luable properties, which are not to be surpassed, and in- deed are rarely equalled, by those of any other country.
The observations on this subject shall be confined to the four principal sorts of live stock; 1. Cattle; 2. Sheep; 3. Horses j and, 4. Hogs.
1. CATTLE. — In the General Report of Scotland, a par- ticular account will be given of the various breeds of cattle in that part of the kingdom. It may be observed in gene- ral, on the authority of a most respectable correspondent, (Mr Trevelyan of Netherwitton, near Morpeth), that the farmers of Scotland, are too apt to overlook and undervalue their own breeds of cattle. In regard both to beauty of form, and quickness of feeding, they are equal to any, and would improve still more, were the same care taken of the calves as in the southern districts. Even as matters are conducted, for delicacy of eating, and excellence of form, nothing can surpass the small breeds in the northern parts of the island, the Kyloes, or the cattle of the Isle of Sky, and other islands in the Hebrides, and the west country Highlanders, or cattle of Argyll. It is maintained, in- deed, by a gentleman, eminent for his skill in breeding, that a mixture of the Kyloe blood, in a small proportion, and done with judgment, in a proper manner, and at a proper time, would do good, even to the best short-horned stock. He adds, that there is not any other breed, but the Kyloe, that would admit even of a small mixture with the short-horned, without injury to the breed.
Of a larger description than the Kyloe, and from their
or LIVE STOCK. 107
form admirably calculated for fattening, is the Galloway breed, and next the cattle of Fife, Angus, and Buchan, which are nearly the same, differing only in size.
In regard to the dairy, the cows bred in several districts of Ayrshire, Cuningham in particular, which have since spread into the counties of Renfrew and Lanark, and other places, are justly celebrated.
In discussing the subject of cattle, it is proposed to make some observations, 1. On the feeding of cattle, and the profit attending that practice, more especially when com- pared with sheep ; 2. On dairy cows, and their manage- ment ; and, 3. On the working of oxen ; concluding with some additional particulars, which it is necessary to explain in regard to this branch of the enquiry.
Feeding Cattle.— As the farmers in the more improved districts of Scotland, are not partial to old turf, and rarely have any extent, either of permanent pasture or of mea- dow land, it is usual for them, instead of breeding stock, to purchase cattle or sheep from the breeding districts, and to fatten them for the market. This is a system which must be considered as highly beneficial to the country in general, and is peculiarly advantageous to the arable farm- er, who is thus enabled, to keep a greater extent of his farm under the plough. The expence, and the risk of breeding great numbers of animals, are thus avoided. The attention of the farmer is not distracted by a diversity of objects. He can alter his system, from cattle to sheep, or from sheep to cattle, as is likely to